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INTRODUCTION
difference. This temperature difference is thought of as a driving force that causes heat to
flow. Heat transfer occurs by three basic mechanisms or modes: conduction, convection,
and radiation.
Conduction
Conduction heat transfer is defined as heat transfer in solids and fluids without bulk
motion. Heat conduction generally takes place in solids, through it may occur in fluids
without bulk motion or with rigid body motion. In fluids, conduction is due to the
collusions of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to the
electrons.
T1 T2
concrete wall
heat (q)
cold hot
It is observed that the rate of heat conduction through a wall (qx) with constant
thickness is proportional to the temperature difference (T2 - T1) between the surfaces and
the area normal to the heat flow direction (A) and is inversely proportional to the thickness
T2 − T1
q x = −k ⋅ A ⋅ (1.1)
L
Convection
Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that
is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The
faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure
conduction. The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between
Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface
by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. In contrast, convection is called
natural or free convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy force that is induced
by density difference due to the variation of temperature in the fluid. Heat transfer from a
q = h c ⋅ A ⋅ ( Tw − T∞ ) (1.2)
where h c is convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
A is heat transfer area (m2)
Tw is surface temperatures of the wall (°C)
T∞ is the bulk fluid temperature (°C)
Radiation
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves as a result
conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is the fastest (at
the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is exactly how the energy
The maximum rate of radiation which can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
Where σ = 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2.K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and ε is the emissivity of
the surface. An idealized surface, which emits radiation at a maximum rate has ε = 1, is
known as a blackbody. The radiation emitted by actual surfaces is less than that emitted by
the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface which is absorbed by the surface.
Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0 ≤ α ≤ 1. A blackbody absorbs the entire
radiation incident on it. That is, a black is a perfect absorber (α = 1) as well as a perfect
emitter. In practice, α and ε are assumed to independent from temperature and wavelength
of the radiation. The average absorptivity of a surface is taken to be equal to its average
Where qinc is the rate at which radiation is incident on the surface. For nontransparent
qinc
qref = (1 - α)qinc
surface
qabs = α qinc
The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the
radiation absorbed is the net radiation heat transfer. If the rate of radiation absorption is
greater than the rate of radiation emission, the surface is said to be gaining energy by
dT
slope =
Thot dX
q
Tcold Tcold
Thot
0 L L
Relative to the heat flow direction, the slope of the temperature line is negative as the
temperature decrease with the heat flow direction.
Therefore, the relation can be written as:
∂T
q x = −k ⋅ A ⋅ (2.1)
∂x
qy+d
qz
qx
qx+d
qz+d
qy
∂T ∂T ∂T
q x = −k ⋅ dy ⋅ dz ⋅ , q y = −k ⋅ dx ⋅ dz ⋅ , q z = −k ⋅ dy ⋅ dx ⋅ (2.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ qx ∂ qy ∂ qz
q x + dx = q x + ⋅ dx , q y + dy = q y + ⋅ dy , q z + dz = q z + ⋅ dz (2 .3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Note that the thermal conductivity (k) represented how well a material conducts heat, and
the heat capacity ( ρ ⋅ C) represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume. The
larger the diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium. A small value of
thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly abs0rbed by the material and a small amount
of heat will be conducted further.
x ∂2 T
=0 (2.8)
∂ x2
L
Figure 2.3 Steady-state temperature
distribution within a plane wall.
T = C1 ⋅ x + C2 (2.10)
and we know at x = 0, T = T1, and at x = L, T = T2, therefore:
at x = 0
T1 = C2
at x = L
T2 = C1 ⋅ L + T1
then we have
x
Tx = ( T2 − T1 ) ⋅ + T1 (2.11)
L
by differentiating equation 2.11 and applying to a Fourier’s law of heat conduction, the
heat transfer rate through the wall is then obtained from:
T2 − T1
q x = −k ⋅ A ⋅ (2.12)
L
Rk
T1 T2
T0 T1
T2
T3
∆ x1 ∆ x2 ∆ x3
As the system is steady-state and no internal heat generated, the heat flows enter and exit
each layer are equal. Therefore:
q1 = q 2 = q 3 = q x (2.16)
Then, by combining equations 2.13 to 2.14:
T0 − T3 T0 − T3
qx = = (2.17)
R k −1 + R k − 2 + R k − 3 Σ Rn
2.2.3 Composite wall (material in parallel)
Rk-2a
T0 Rk-1 Rk-3
2a T3
T1 T2
1 3
2b
Rk-2b
T0 − T1 T1 − T2 T1 − T2 T2 − T3
= + = (2.19)
R k −1 Rk − 2a R k − 2b Rk − 3
T 0 − T3
= (2.22)
∆x 1 ∆x 2 ∆x 3
+ +
( k ⋅ A) 1 ( k ⋅ A) 2 a + ( k ⋅ A) 2b ( k ⋅ A) 3
2.2.4 Plane wall with internal heat generated
q ′′′ d 2T
− = (2.23)
k d x2
x2
T = −q ′′′ + C1 ⋅ x + C2 (2.25)
2 ⋅k
at x = -L
L2
Tw = −q ′′′ − C1 ⋅ L + C2 (2.27)
2 ⋅k
C1 = 0 (2.27)
As C1 and C2 are already known, the solution of equation 2.23 is:
L2 x 2
Tx = Tw + q ′′′ 1− (2.28)
2 ⋅k L2
T∞ -1
T1
T2 T∞ - 2
Rc-1 Rk Rc-2
T∞ - 1 T1 T2 T∞ - 2
The heat transfer rate through the wall in term of fluid temperatures is:
T∞ −1 − T∞ −2
q= (2.31)
1 ∆x 1
+ +
h c −1 ⋅ A k ⋅ A h c −2 ⋅ A
T∞ −1 − T∞ −2
= (2.32)
R c −1 + R k + R c −2
It is convenient to express the heat transfer in term of a single value that accounts for both
conduction and convection resistances, thus:
q = U ⋅ A ⋅ ( T∞ −1 − T∞ −2 ) (2.32)
where U is defined as an over heat transfer coefficient and:
1 1
U= = (2.33)
1 ∆x 1
+ + A(R c −1 + R k + R c −2 )
h c −1 k h c −2
Then
1
U⋅ A = (2.34)
Σ R c + Σ Rk
r⋅dθ qz
qθ+dθ qr+dr
qr
dz
qz+dz
dr
qθ
Similar to the case for Cartesian Coordinates, energy equation can be obtained as:
∂ qr ∂ qθ
q r + q θ + q z + q ′′′(r ⋅ d θ) dr ⋅ dz = q r + dr + q θ + dθ + q z
∂r ∂θ
(2.35)
∂ qz ∂T
+ dz + C ⋅ ρ (r ⋅ d θ) dr ⋅ dz
∂z ∂t
T
L
R2
R1
T1
T2
r
Assuming that, the system is steady-state, there is no internal heat generation, temperature
varies only with r. Thus equation 2.36 is simplified to:
∂2 T 1 ∂T 1 d dT
+ = r ⋅ =0 (2.37)
∂ r2 r ∂r r d r d r
d dT
r =0 (2.38)
dr d r
By integrating again:
T = C1 ln ( r ) + C2 (2.40)
The boundary condition are: at r = R1, T = T1 and at r = R2, T = T2.
at R1
T1 = C1 ln (R1 ) + C2 (2.41)
at R2
T2 = C1 ln (R 2 ) + C2 (2.42)
then we can solve for C1 and C2, thus:
T − T1 ln ( r / R1 )
= (2.43)
T2 − T1 ln (R1 / R 2 )
equation 2.41 can be used to calculate temperature at r when R1 < r < R2. The heat transfer
through the pipe wall can be obtained by applying Fourier’s law of heat conduction, thus:
∂T
q r = −k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r ⋅ L) (2.44)
∂r
2 ⋅ π ⋅k ⋅L
= ( T1 − T2 ) (2.46)
ln (R 2 / R1 )
T1 − T2
= (2.47)
Rk
R3 pipe
R2
insulation
R1
T∞1
T1
T3
T2
T∞2
T∞1 T1 T2 T3 T∞2
1
Rc −2 =
hc − 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R2 ⋅ L
ln (R 2 / R1 )
R k −1 =
2 ⋅ π ⋅ k1 ⋅ L
ln (R 3 / R 2 )
Rk − 2 =
2 ⋅ π ⋅ k2 ⋅ L
Based on the inner surface area, the heat transfer rate may be obtained as:
q r = U1 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R 1 ⋅ L)( T∞ −1 − T∞ −2 ) (2.50)
The overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inner surface area is:
1
U1 = (2.51)
1 R1 ln (R 2 / R1 ) R1 ln (R 3 / R 2 ) R1
+ + +
h c −1 k1 k2 R3 ⋅ hc − 2
Based on the outer surface area, the heat transfer rate may be obtained as:
q r = U2 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R 3 ⋅ L)( T∞ −1 − T∞ −2 ) (2.52)
The overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outer surface area is:
1
U2 = (2.53)
R3 R 3 ln (R 2 / R1 ) R 3 ln (R 3 / R 2 ) 1
+ + +
R1 ⋅ h c − 1 k1 k2 hc − 2
2 ⋅ π ⋅ ( 200 − 20 )
q/L= (2.55)
ln ( R 3 / 0 . 0167 ) 1
+
0 . 035 1.7 ⋅ R 3
The table below shows calculated heat loss when the insulation thickness (R3 - R2)
increases from 0 to 2.5 cm.
R2 - R1
Rcri – R1
Figure 2.12 Heat loss from an insulated pipe as a function of insulation thickness.
from the graph, it can be seen that when the insulation thickness is greater than the critical
value, the heat loss reduce when the thickness increases. The critical radius is obtained as
the heat loss is at maximum value, thus:
by differentiating equation 2.54:
d ( q / L) 2 ⋅ π( T2 − T∞ −2 )(1 / k R 3 − 1 / h c −2 R 23
=0=− 2
(2.56)
d R3 ln (R 3 / R 2 )
1
+
k2 h c −2 ⋅ R 3
Tw
R 2 q ′′′ r 2
T − Tw = 1− (2.61)
4 ⋅k R2
Example 2.1
Walls of a cold-storage room are constructed of 10 cm thick brick on the outside and 1 cm
thick plywood on the inside. Sandwiched between the brick and the plywood is glass fiber
insulation that is 7 cm thick. The inside surface temperature is to be maintained at -5°C and
the outside surface temperature is 32°C. In order to estimate the cooling capacity of a
refrigeration system, the heat flow through the wall per square meter must be determined.
32°C
-5°C
brick
plywood
1 cm 7 cm 10 cm
Example 2.2
A wall as shown in the figure is a typical wall construction for a convention house.
Determine the heat flow of 1 section if the wall is 2 m long.
10 cm 8 cm 25°C
40 cm
brick
plaster board
(1.5 cm thick)
air space
Example 2.3
A steel pipe with 5 cm OD and 4 cm ID carries hot steam at temperature of 120°C. The
pipe is insulated with 3 cm thick of glass wool. The convective heat transfer coefficient
between the steam and the pipe is 300 W/m2.K and 60 W/m2.K for the insulation and the
air. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for this system and the heat transfer
coefficient for this system and the heat loss for 1 meter if the air temp is 30°C.
R1 = 2 cm
R2 = 2.5 cm
R2 R3 = 5.5 cm
R1
T∝-2 = 30°C
h∝-2 = 60 W/m2.K
R3
T∝-1 = 120°C
h∝-1 = 300 /m2.K
Example 2.4
There is a 1 kW heating element with diameter of 10 mm and 1 m long. The heater is used
in an electric kettle. Assuming that the heater outer surface temperature is 10°C above
water temperature (because the convective resistance between the surface and the water is
very low due to an extremely high convective heat transfer coefficient for boiling).
Determine the maximum of the heater.
silica
10 cm
CHAPTER III
HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACE
One example of an extended surface is a spoon placed in a cup of hot coffee. The handle
extended beyond the hot coffee. Heat is conducted along the spoon handle, causing the
handle to become warmer than the surrounding air. The heat conducted to the handle is
then transfer to the air by convection.
The purpose of adding an extended surface is to help dissipate heat. Fins are
usually added to a heat transfer device to increase the rate of heat removal. This is because
of the increase of the heat transfer area.
dz
qz qz+dz
x-section area = A
dqc
dq c = dq z − dq z + dz (3.1)
dq z
dq c = dq z − dq z + dz (3.2)
dz
dq z
dq c = dz (3.3)
dz
dq z d dT
= −k ⋅ A ⋅ (3.5)
dz dz dz
For convection:
dq c = h c ⋅ d As ( T − T∞ ) (3.6)
By substituting equations 3.5and 3.6 into equation 3.3 then:
d dT
h c ⋅ d As ( T − T∞ ) = −k ⋅ A ⋅ dz (3.7)
dz dz
Then divide by k ⋅ dz :
dAdT d2 T h c d As
+A = ( T − T∞ ) (3.8)
dz dz d Z2 k dz
d2 T 1 dAdT h c 1 d As
+ − ( T − T∞ ) = 0 (3.9)
2
dZ A dz dz k A dz
If we define
θ = T − T∞ (3.10)
Then
dT dθ
= (3.11)
dZ dz
and
d2 T d2θ
= (3.12)
d Z2 d z2
• There is no heat convection out at the fin tip. The fin tip is insulated or the area is
very small compared with the total surface area.
Tw
dδ
dz
Then we define
hc ⋅ P
m= (3.17)
k⋅A
from equation 3.19, at root cosh (0) = 1 and sinh (0) = 0, thus
C1 = θ w (3.21)
then
θ = θ w cosh ( m ⋅ z) + C2 sinh ( m ⋅ z) (3.22)
by differentiating
dθ
= θ w m ⋅ sinh ( m ⋅ z) + C2 m ⋅ cosh ( m ⋅ z) (3.23)
dz
cosh [m ⋅ L ( 1 − z / L ) ]
= (3.27)
cosh ( m ⋅ L )
Equation 3.27 can be used to determine temperature (Tz) at distance z from the root. In
order to fine the heat rejected out from the fin, Fourier’s law of heat conduction may be
applied. We also know that, the heat conducted through the root is equal to the heat
rejected out by convection, thus:
dT
qz = − k ⋅ A⋅ (3.28)
dz z=0
dθ
= − k ⋅ A⋅ (3.29)
dz z =0
k ⋅ A⋅ θw
=− × [m ⋅ cosh (m ⋅ L) sinh (m ⋅ z) − .....
cosh (m ⋅ L) (3.30)
m sinh (m ⋅ L) cosh (m ⋅ z) ]z =0
thus
k ⋅ A ⋅ h c ⋅ P ⋅ ( Tw − T∞ ) tanh ( m ⋅ L)
ηfin = (3.33)
h c ⋅ (P ⋅ L)( Tw − T∞ )
tanh ( m ⋅ L)
ηfin = (3.34)
m ⋅L
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3 a.) Dimensionless graph of heat flow as a function of length for a uniform fin.
b) Efficiency of a fin.
It can be seen that the heat rejected through the fin cannot be substantially increased past
m × L = 3 . Practically a fin length of over L = 3 / m will not improve the performance
thus
k ⋅P
ε fin = × tanh ( m ⋅ L) (3.36)
hc ⋅ A
It can be seen that, fin will increase heat transfer rate when ε fin > 1 and the effectiveness
increase when k is high and h c is low. Thus, install fin may not increase the heat transfer
rate if the value of h c is large and the material k is low.
Figure 3.4 Effectiveness of a fin.
15 cm
Example 3.2
Hot steam flows through a tube whose outer diameter is 3 cm and whose wall are
maintained at 120°C. Circular aluminum fins of outer diameter of 6 cm and constant
thickness of 2 mm are attached to the tube. The space between the fin is 3 mm and thus
there are 200 fins/meter. The surrounding air temperature is 25°C and the convective heat
transfer coefficient is 60 W/m2.K. Determine the increase in heat transfer rate per meter as
a result of adding these fins.
CHAPTER IV
• Heat flow line and isothermal line are perpendicular to each other.
Figure 4.2 A chimney quarter cross-section. Figure 4.3 A heat flow lane from figure 4.2
For each heat flow lane:
k ⋅ ∆x ⋅ L
qL = ( T1 a − Tab ) (4.1)
∆y
k ⋅ ∆x ⋅ L
= ( Tab − Tac ) (4.2)
∆y
k ⋅ ∆x ⋅ L
qL = ( T1 − T2 ) (4.3)
n ⋅ ∆y
k ⋅L
qL = ( T1 − T2 ) (4.4)
n
If m is a total number of the heat flow lane, then the total heat flow is:
q = m ⋅ qL (4.5)
m ⋅L
=k ( T1 − T2 ) (4.6)
n
= k ⋅ S ⋅ ( T1 − T2 ) (4.7)
m ⋅L
where S = is defined as the conduction shape factor.
n
Table 5.1 Shape factors for a number of conduction heat-transfer system.
Example 4.1
A heat-treating furnace has outside dimensions of 15 mm ×150 mm×200 mm. The walls
are 6 mm thick and made of fireclay brick. For an inside wall temperature of 550°C and an
outside wall temperature of 30°C, determine the heat lost through the walls, by using shape
factor method.
Example 4.2
It is proposed to cool a certain volume of air by piping it underground. The cooled air
would then supplement the air-condition system of a dwelling and reduce costs. Determine
the conduction shape factor for the underground portion of the configuration if the pipe is 4
nominal , schedule 40.
CHAPTER V
generation. Temperature will therefore vary with location within the system and with time.
Temperature and heat transfer variation of the system are dependent on its internal
If we have a slab with initial temperature of Ti and it is left in fluid stream at T∝.
Heat is transferred by convection at the surface. As the surface temperature decreases, heat
is transfer from the center of the slab to the surface, then to the fluid. Now, if the system
itself is copper or the volume is small, the temperature response within the slab is
considerably different from that if it is glass or the volume is large. The response has to do
with what is called the internal resistance of the material. Further, if the convection
coefficient is very high, then the surface temperature almost becomes identical to the fluid
difference exists between the surface and the fluid. The value of the convection coefficient
Thus, the temperature variation within the system is dependent on the internal and
surface resistances. The larger internal resistance or the smaller surface resistance, the
larger temperature variation within the system, and vice versa. A Biot number is defined
as:
h ⋅ ∆T
Bi = (5.2)
( k / Lc ) ⋅ ∆T
Figure 5.1 Relationship between the Biot number and the temperature profile.
For this case Bi ≤ 0 . 1 and the temperature profile within the body is quite uniform.
fluid
T = T(t)
h∝, T∞
The rate of change in internal energy of the body is equal to the rate of heat taken away
dT
ρ⋅∀⋅c ⋅ = − h c ⋅ As ⋅ ( Tt − T ∞ ) (5.3)
dt
Tt − T∞
θ= (5.4)
Ti − T∞
and then:
dT dθ
= ( Ti − T∞ ) (5.5)
dt dt
ρ ⋅ ∀ ⋅ c dθ
− ⋅ =θ (5.7)
h c ⋅ As dt
0 t
dθ h c ⋅ As
− ∫
1 θ
=
ρ⋅∀⋅c
∫ dt
0
(5.8)
finally we have:
Tt − T∞ h c ⋅ As
= exp − ⋅ t (5.9)
Ti − T∞ ρ ⋅ ∀ ⋅ c
Tt − T∞
= exp [− Bi ⋅ Fo ] (5.10)
Ti − T∞
hc ⋅ ∀
Bi = (5.11)
k ⋅ As
α ⋅ t ⋅ A2s
Fo = (5.12)
∀2
dT
q = ρ⋅∀⋅c ⋅ (5.13)
dt
dT
and can be obtained by integrating equation 5.9, thus:
dt
q t = h c ⋅ As ⋅ ( T∞ − Ti ) exp [− Bi ⋅ Fo ] (5.14)
Q = ρ ⋅ ∀ ⋅ C ⋅ ( Ti − Tt ) (5.15)
5.3 System with finite internal and external resistances
For this case, the problem is to complicate to solve therectically, it must be solved based on
Figure 5.5 Change in internal-energy ratio as a function of dimesionless time for a semi-inite plate.
Figure 5.6 Dimesionless temperature history at the centerline of an inifinite cylinde.
Figure 5.11 Change in internal-energy ratio as a function of dimensionless time for a sphere.
5.4 System witth negligible surface resistance
In this category of problems we will deal with system where the film resistance is
negligible. We therefore simply assign a temperature at the surface of the object that in
essence will equal the surrounding temperature (T∞). Similar to the previous, this kind of
Figure 5.12 Central dimensionless temperature variation witth dimensionless time for an infinite plate, an
infinite square rod, an infinite cylinder, a cube, a finite cylinder, and a sphere.
Figure 5.13 Cumulative (Q) and instantaneous (q) heat transfer rates in various solids for tthhe case of
negligible surface resistance.
Example 5.1
A 5 cm, 60 cm long aluminum cylinder initially at 50°C is submerged in an ice-water bath
at 2°C. The unit surface conductance between the metal and thebath is 550 W/m2.K.
Determine the temperature of the aluminum after 1 minute. Also calculate the cumulative
heat transfer for 1 minute.
Example 5.2
Orange are usually refrigerated as a preservative measure. However, some people prefer to
eat oranges that are a little cooler than room temperature but not as cold as the refrigerator
makes them. Determine the time it takes for an orange removed from a refrigerator to reach
20°C.
Refrigerated temperature = 4°C
Ambient room temperature = 23°C
Surface heat transfer coefficient = 6 W/m2.K
Thermal conductivity of the orange 0.431 W/m.K
Density of orange = 998 kg/m3
Specific heat of orange = 2000 J/kg.K
Orange diameter = 105 mm
Example 5.3
A concrete wall is 15 cm thick. The outside wall surface is heated to a temperature of
200°C by fire. If the initial temperature of the wall is 25°C, how long will it take for the
inside wall surface to reach 100°C ? What would the time required become if the wall were
made of common brick instead ?