Anatomy and Physiology

BRAIN

It is the center of the human nervous system which comprises variety of functions in
the body. It is divided into regions that control specific functions.

The hypothalamus is the

part of the brain that is located under the 3 rd

ventricle and directly above the pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland is connected to the
hypothalamus through the infundibulum or
pituitary stalk .Within the hypothalamus are
specialized neurons called neurosecretory cells
that produce stimulating and inhibiting hormones.
The primary action of these cells is to modify the
action of the pituitary gland.

Pituitary Gland

Also known as hypophysis which measures 1 to 1.5 cm in diameter and lies in

the hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. t lies in the
pituitary fossa of the sella turcica and is covered by a portion of dura mater called
pituitary diaphragm. It attaches to the hypothalamus by a stalk, called
infundibulum. It has two anatomically and functionally separate lobes.-
adenohypophysis, or anterior pituitary gland, and the neurohypophysis or posterior
pituitary. By weight, it is only 0.5 g. The anterior pituitary (anterior lobe) , which is
also called the adenohypophysis, which accounts for about 75% of the total weight
of the gland.

The adenohypophysis, anterior portion of the pituitary gland , is divided into two
parts – the pars anterior and the pars intermedia. The pars anterior forms the major
portion of the adenohypophysis and is divided from the tiny pars intermedia by a
narrow cleft and some connective tissue. synthesizes and secretes hormones that
regulate a wide range of bodily activities , from growth to reproduction. Release of
anterior pituitary hormones is stimulated by releasing hormones and suppressed by
inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus. Among the examples of hormones that
are secreted by this are ACTH, GH,PRL, TSH, LH, FSH. There are five types of
anterior pituitary cells –somatotrophs, gonadotrophs, lactotrophs and corticotrophs.
The corticotrophs secrete ACTH or corticotrophin , which stimulates the adrenal
cortex to secrete glucocorticoids such as cortisol.

Neurohypophysis or posterior pituitary gland serves as a storage and release site of

two hormones: ADH and oxtocin.

ACTH which is secreted by the corticotrophs which is one of the anterior pituitary
cells . It promotes and maintains normal growth and development of the cortex of
the adrenal gland. ACTH also stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete some of its
hormones.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone, as its name implies, stimulates the adrenal cortex.

More specifically, it stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids such as cortisol, and has
little control over secretion of aldosterone, the other major steroid hormone from
the adrenal cortex.

ACTH is secreted from the anterior pituitary in response to

corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus.
corticotropin-releasing hormone is secreted in response to
many types of stress, which makes sense in view of the
"stress management" functions of glucocorticoids.
Corticotropin-releasing hormone itself is inhibited by
glucocorticoids, making it part of a classical negative
feedback loop.

Additional information on the role of ACTH in regulation of

adrenal steroid secretion is presented in the sections on
theadrenal gland and glucocorticoids.

Within the pituitary gland, ACTH is produced in a process that also generates
several other hormones. A large precursor protein named proopiomelanocortin
(POMC, "Big Mama") is synthesized and proteolytically chopped into several
fragments as depicted below. Not all of the cleavages occur in all species and some
occur only in the intermediate lobe of the pituitary.
ADRENAL GLAND

The two adrenal glands are located one above each kidney . Having flattened
pyramidal shape. In an adult, each adrenal gland is 3-5 cm in height , 2-3cm in
width and a less than 1am thick, with a mass of 3. 5- 5g , only half its size at birth.
These glands are divided into two portions , each producing its own hormones. The
outer portion, cortex has high lipid content and functions to produce steroid
hormones. It comprises 80-90% of the gland and a small, centrally located adrenal
medulla.It functions to produce three catecholamine hormones- norepinephrine,
epinephrine, and a small amount of dopamine.

The adrenal cortex can be roughly divided into three layers, each producing
different hormones. The outermost layer is the Zona Glomerulosa and it produces
the Mineralocorticoid aldosterone. The middle layer is the Zona fasciculata and it
produces glucocorticoids , particularly cortisol. The innermost layer is the Zona
reticularis and it produces small amount of androgen.

CORTISOL

ACTH from the anterior pituitary gland is responsible from the stimulation of
the release and synthesis of glucocorticoids by the zona fasciculate. 9O% of the
cortisol released in the blood circulates attached to CBG or albumin . the secretion
of cortisol is diurnal and is associated with the person’s sleep-wake cycle. A peak
level is usually seen between 6am to 8am and low levels between 6pm and 12 am.

Cortisol stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver resulting

to increase plasma glucose . The stimulation of gluconeogenesis in the liver occurs
in the fasting state. Since many amino acids are being used fro gluconeogenesis in
the liver, muscle uptake of amino acid is inhibited. In addition, protein synthesis in
the muscle is inhibited and protein catabolism increases, usually causing a loss of
muscle tissue.

It can also lower calcium levels by inhibiting intestinal absorption of calcium .

It will also stimulate lipolysis in adipose tissues resulting to increase in plasma
glycerol and fatty acids. Cortisol in high concentrations causes both anti-
inflammatory and immunosuppressive actions.