The HK Polytechnic University Reactive Power & Voltage Control

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1 Real and Reactive Power
Consider an electric power system modelled as a passive linear system excited
by a sinusoidal voltage of at a √
constant magnitude sinusoid and a constant frequency.
Let the voltage be: v(t) = 2V sin(ωt) I
√
Then the current is: i(t) = 2I sin(ωt + φ)
and the power is: p(t) = v(t) · i(t) V Z
1
= 2V I sin(ωt) sin(ωt + φ)
I
= V I cos(φ) − V I cos(2ωt + φ)
| {z } | {z } /
O V
constant twice the voltage frequency
with an average of zero

= V I cos φ[1 − cos(2ωt)] + V I sin φ sin(2ωt)

| {z } | {z }
instantaneous instantaneous
real power reactive power

= P [1 − cos(2ωt)] + Q sin(2ωt)
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
The average value of p(t) is P , which is the real power that is transferred from the
source to the load and is equal to the rate of useful work with units of watt (W).
P depends strongly on the power factor, cos φ.
ie. Real power, P = mean power absorbed by the resistive component of the load
=VI cos φ in terms of rms values, V & I

where cos φ is defined as the power factor and φ is called as the power factor angle.
2 Reactive power, Q = peak value of the instantaneous power absorbed by the reactive
component of the load in unit of VAr (volt-ampere reactive)
=VI sin φ in terms of rms values, V & I

i.e. reactive power – the interchange of energy between the source and the reactive
(inductive and/or capacitive) load at twice the supply frequency in unit of
volt-ampere reactive (VAr).

The product term IV is called the apparent power in unit of volt-ampere (VA) and is

✫ ✪
usually given the symbol S .

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1.1 Reactive Power

• The average value of reactive power is zero.

• The reactive power oscillates :-
– In the positive half cycle, power flows from the generator to the load.
– In the negative half cycle, power flows from the load to the generator.

• Reactive power is capable of no work, but at any instant t, p(t) represents truly
3
consumed power. Reactive power must be present by virtue of the capacitance
and inductance in the system.
• Transfer of reactive power in a power system results in voltage drop anmd
losses in generation and transmission equipment.
• Reactive power is measured in reactive Volt-Ampere (VAr).
• All a.c. inductive devices such as magnets, transformers, induction motors, etc.
absorbs reactive power – required to produce the magnetic field in the circuit.

✫ ✪
✬ ✩

2 Var Flows
If there is a deficiency of Q at a point, this has to be supplied from the connecting
line and the voltage at that point fall.
Var flow

4 deficiency of Q Surplus of Q
(Q sink) (Q source)
Conversely if there is a surplus of reactive power generated, then the voltage will
rise.

This is a convenient way of expressing the effect of the power factor of the
transferred current. The ability to think in terms of var flows instead of exclusively
with power factors and phasor diagrams will make the study of power networks
much easier.

✫ ✪

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3 Power Transmission
Consider a synchronous generator with an e.m.f. (E ) feeding into a power system
represented by a voltage source (V ). The power transferred is:
 
S=VI =V ∗ Ee−jδ −V
A
I✲ B
Ze−jθ Z/θ
EV 2 ✻ ✲ ✻
V /0o
Or P= Z cos(θ − δ) − VZ cos θ E/δ S
2
EV
5 Q= Z sin(θ − δ) − VZ sin θ
The power output to V is a maximum when cos(θ − δ) = 1, i.e. θ = δ .
P
Let Z = R + jX and φ be the power factor. /
O

P
And P = V I cos φ ⇒ I cos φ = V
Q S = VI
Q = V I sin φ ⇒ I sin φ = V
Q

E 2 = (V + ∆V )2 + δV 2
= (V + IR cos φ + IX sin φ)2 + (IX cos φ − IR sin φ)2
✫ ✪
✬ ✩

= (V + RP
V
+ XQ
V
)2 + ( XP − RQ 2
)
| {z } |V {z V
}
∆V =∆Vp δV =∆Vq

If δV ≪ V + ∆V , E ≈ V + ∆V
RP +XQ
i.e. Voltage drop, E − V ≈ ∆V = V
XQ
6 If R ≪ X , ∆V ≈ V
δV XP −RQ
If δ is small and R ≪ X , sin δ = E = EV
XP
δ ≈ sin δ ≈ EV

In major high voltage and EHV lines, X = 5 to 7 times of R

This means, when R ≪ X , voltage drop ∆V depends mainly on Q and
transimission angle δ depends mainly on P .

✫ ✪

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4 Methods of Voltage Control
1. Injection of Reactive Power
(a) Shunt capacitors and Reactors
(b) Series capacitors
(c) Synchronous compensators
2. Voltage Transformation

7 (a) Tap-changing transformers

(b) Booster transformers
3. Excitation Control of Generators

5 Shunt Capacitors and Reactors

• Shunt capacitors are used across the inductive load to supply part of the
reactive vars required by the load so that the reactive vars transmitted over the
line are reduced, thereby the power factor is improved and the voltage across

✫ ✪
the load is maintained within certain desirable limits.

✬ ✩
• Similarly, the shunt reactors are used across capacitive loads and lightly loaded
lines to absorb some of the leading vars to control the voltage across the load to
within certain desirable limits. They also reduced transient overvoltages due to
switching and lightning surges.
• A serious disadvantage with the shunt capacitors is that the vars produced by
a shunt capacitor fall as the voltage falls; thus their effectiveness falls when
needed most. Also, at no load or light load, the receiving-end voltage may
8 considerably exceed the sending-end voltage due to the charging current.
This phenomenon is due to the voltage raise caused by the capacitance
current and is called the Ferranti effect.
• Shunt reactors are subjected to overvoltages like power transformers. For this
reason their use is mainly for voltages of the order of 11kV.
QX X V
• Before compensation : ∆V = V P
′ (Q−Qc )X Q
After compensation: ∆V = V Xc
∆V ′ = QVc X
✫ ✪
Voltage raised by Xc = ∆V −

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6 Series capacitors
• Series capacitors are connected in series with the line to reduce the inductive
reactive between the load and supply point. Vs X Xc Vr
• The voltage drop, ∆V , is approximately: I

IX IXc
∆V = IR cos φ + I(X − Xc ) sin φ
Xc can be chosen such that: Vs (without IXc
9 capacitor)
Vs (with
I(X − Xc ) sin φ = −IR cos φ capacitor)
to reduce the voltage drop to zero. I(X-Xc)

The ratio X
/
O Vr
X
c
× 100% is referred to I
as the percentage compensation. Vc

• If I is the full load current and Xc is the capacitive reactance of the series
capacitor, the voltage drop across the capacitor is IXc and the VAr rating is
I 2 Xc . The voltage boost produced by the series capacitor:

✫ ✪
∆V = IXc sin φ

✬ ✩
• Drawbacks:
a) High overvoltage is produced across the capacitor terminals under heavy
load or sustained fault conditions. Voltage drop across the capacitor:
Vf c = If Xc
where If is the fault current which is of the order of 20 times the full load
current under certain circuit condition. To overcome this, a spark gap with a
high speed contactor is used to protect the capacitor.
10
b) Series capacitors can excite low-frequency oscillations, a phenomenon
which may damage turbine-generator shafts.
Consider the transmission line natural frequency:
1 Xc
fss = 2π
√
LC
where X
: compensation percentage (25-70%)
pX Xc : capacitor reactance per phase
= X
c
· fs
X : line impedance at power frequency fs
Xc
⇒ < 1 ⇒ fss < fs : subsynchronous resonance
✫ ✪
X

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7 Comparison between Series & Shunt Capacitors
Shunt Series

a) The voltage boost due to a shunt The change in voltage between the
capacitor is evenly distributed over two ends of the series capacitor
the transmission line. where it is connected is sudden.
b) X V X Qc V
I
load
11 Ic pf=cosO
/
Q’c Vc

Voltage boost VB’ caused by Ic : Voltage boost VB caused by cap:

Q′c Qc
VB’ = Ic X = X VB = Vc sin φ = sin φ
V I
Q′c Qc
where Ic = where Vc =
V I

For typical load with pf 0.8 lagging, i.e. sin φ = 0.6 and
assume the voltage drop across the line is 10%, i.e. IX
✫ ✪
V = 0.1

✬ ✩
For the same voltage boost with the shunt and series capacitors:
Q′c X Qc sin φ Q′c sin φ 0.6
VB’ = VB ⇒ V = I ⇒ Qc = IX/V = 0.1 =6
i.e. For the same voltage boost the reactive power capacity of a shunt
capacitor is greater than that of a series capacitor.
c) The shunt capacitor improves the The series capacitors has little effect
power factor of the load. on the power factor.

12 d) VAr produced is independent of Automatic change in VAr with the

2
load variations, Qc = V
Xc
. change of load current, Qc = I 2 Xc .
e) Though shunt capacitors are used For long transmission lines where the
in high voltage lines, they are total reactance is high, series capac-
mainly used for p.f. correction at the itors are effective for improvement of
load terminals of low voltage. system stability.
d) Shunt capacitors will cause over- Series capacitors may cause sub-
voltage under light load conditions. synchronous resonance.
✫ ✪

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Example 1
A 3-phase transmission : VLL = 230 kV X = 0.47 Ω/km
l = 500 km Irated = 0.9 kA
Determine : (i) % compensation for Srated = Prated and
(ii) MVAr of the compensator.
EV XQ
Recall : Real power transfer, P = X sin δ & voltage drop, ∆V = V
13
Prated = Maximum real power transfer at rated voltage, Vb
Vb2 230 X
= X−XC where E = V = Vb = √
3
& δ = θ = tan−1 R = 90o
Srated = Apparent power transfer at rated voltage and current = Vb · Irated
V2
So, if Srated = Prated ⇒ Vb · Irated = X−XC √
230/ 3
⇒ XC = 0.47 × 500 − 0.9
= 87.45 Ω
Therefore, (i) % compensation = XXC = 87.45
235
× 100 % = 37.2 %

✫ ✪
2
(ii) QC = 3 · Irated · XC = 3(0.92 )(87.45) = 212.4 MVAr
✬ ✩
Example 2
An infinite busbar supply of 400kV is connected to a load busbar supplying
1000 MW, 400 MVAr via a transmission line with impedance 7 + j70 Ω.
(i) Determine the voltage drop at the load busbar.
(ii) Determine the var injection required to keep the voltage drop to 10%.

(i) Recall the voltage drop equation: 400 kV Vr

14 ∆V = RP +XQ
= Vs − Vr 7 + j70 Ω
Vr ❄
Supply
7(1000)+70(400) 1000 MW
⇒ Vr = 400 − Vr 400 MVAr
⇒ Vr = 270.71 kV or 129.29 kV (rejected)
⇒ ∆V = 400 − 270.71 = 129.29 kV = 32.32 %
(ii) 10% voltage drop ⇒ Vr = 360 kV & ∆V = 40 kV
Let QC be the injected vars needed for 10% voltage drop
7(1000)+70(400−QC )

✫ ✪
i.e. ∆V = 360
= 40 ⇒ QC = 294.3 MVAr

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8 Tap Changing Transformers
• The tap changing transformers do not control the voltage by regulating the
reactive vars flow but by changing the transformation ratio, the voltage in the
secondary circuit is varied and voltage control is obtained.

• This method is the most popular as it can be used

for controlling voltages at all levels.
15
• There are 2 types of tap changing transformers:
a) Off-load tap changing transformers. V1 V2

b) On-load (under-load) tap changing transformers.

• The off-load tap changing transformer requires the

disconnection of the transformer when the tap
setting is to be changed. The modern practice is Off-load tap
changing transformer
to use on-load tap changing transformer.

✫ ✪
✬ ✩
• On-load tap changing transformer
V1
– In the position shown on the figure the voltage is
a maximum and since the currents divide equally
Winding
and flow in opposition through the coil between
Q1 and Q2, the resultant flux is zero and hence
Q1 Q2
minimum impedance.
S1 S2
– To reduce the voltage, the following operations
16
are required in sequence:
1. open Q1
Winding
2. move selector switch S1 to the next contact
3. close Q1
4. open Q2
On-load tap
5. move selector switch S2 to the next contact changing transformer
(primary winding)
6. close Q2
• The voltage change between taps is often 1.25% of the nominal voltage.
✫ ✪

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9 Tap Changing Transformer Coordination
Consider the operation of a transmission system with 2 tap changing transformers.
tap ratio
ts and tr are fractions of the nominal transformation ratios, i.e. nominal ratio . The
product ts tr will be made unity to ensure that the overall voltage level remains in the
same order and that the minimum range of the taps on both transformers is used.
1:ts tr:1
R+jX
17 Vs = ts V1
Vr = tr V2 V1 Vs Vr V2

RP + XQ
∆V = Vs − Vr =
Vr
RP + XQ
ts V1 − tr V2 =
tr V2
 
RP + XQ V2
⇒ t2s 1 − = as ts tr = 1
V1 V2 V1
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
9.1 Equivalent Circuits

1. Single transformer
t:1 R+jX P+jQ
R+jX t2

Vs Vr ⇒ Vs Vr
t

Vs RP + XQ
18 i.e. − Vr =
t t2 Vr
2. Two transformer
1:ts tr:1 R+jX P+jQ
R+jX tr 2

V1 V2 ⇒ ts
V1 V2
tr

ts V1 RP + XQ
i.e. − V2 =
tr t2r V2
✫ ✪

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Example 3
With ts tr = 1, find tap settings required to maintain the voltage of the load busbar
at 33kV.
V1 1:ts tr:1 V2
j80 ohm
150MW
pf 0.9 lagging
33kV 230kV 33kV
 
X pu Q pu V2
19 t2s 1 − = pu where
Sb
Xpu = X 230 2,
1
V1pu = V1 33
V1pu V2pu V1pu
" # Qpu = Q S1b 1
V2pu = V2 33
Sb 1 1
(X 230 2 )(Q S ) V2 33
⇒ t2s 1−
1 1
b
= 1
(V1 33 )(V2 33 ) V1 33
 
80
⇒ t2s 1 − ( )(72.65) = 1
2302
⇒ ts = 1.06 pu
✫ ✪
✬ ✩

10 Boost Transformer
Line Booster
• Boost transformer performs one function
only: bucking or boosting the voltage.
transformer
Regulating

• It can be installed at a substation as an

additional equipment if voltage regulation
20 is further found to be necessary or it can
be installed as a separate piece of equipment at
any intermediate point in the line on economical or technical grounds.

• The rating of the booster is the product of the current and the injected voltage
and is hence only about 10% of that of a main transformer.

• The booster transformers are normally used in distribution feeders where the
cost of tap changing transformer is very high.

✫ ✪

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11 Voltage Regulation
Vs jX Vr
QX
∆V = Vs − Vr = Vr
X
Vr = Vs − Vr
Q Variable
reactive
X load, Q
≈ Vs − Vs Q if Vs ≈ Vr
i.e. the voltage verse reactive load
21 characteristic can be approximated Vr
System load line
as a linear function.
Slope = - X
Vs
Vs
⇒ Voltage at the receiving end can be V
regulated by an active compensator
Compensation line
X
with a complementary compensation Slope =
Vs

characteristic as:
Q
X
∆Vc = Vs Q

✫ ✪
✬ ✩

12 Automatic Voltage Control

a) Synchronous Compensators
• synchronous machine running without a prime mover
or a mechanical load Ref
Voltage
Regulation
Controller
• both leading and lagging reactive output are allow by
controlling the field excitation
Synchronous Compensator

22 b) Static Var Compensators

• static means no moving (rotating) parts
• used for surge-impedance compensation and for
compensation by sectioning in long-distance high-
voltage transmission systems and Voltage
Ref Regulation

• maintaining a substantially constant voltage at its Controller

terminals by continuous adjustment of the reactive

Static Var Compensator (SVC)
power it exchanges with the power system
✫ ✪

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12.1 Synchronous Compensators

• By controlling the field excitation, synchronous compensator can be made to

either generate or absorb reactive power. With a voltage regulator, it can
automatically adjust the reactive power output to maintain constant terminal
voltage.

• They fall into the category of active shunt compensators.

23
• Because of their high purchase and operating costs, they have been largely
superseded by static var compensators.

12.2 Static Var Compensators

• A Static Var Compensator (SVC) is a device capable of behaving in the same

manner as either a shunt reactor or a shunt capacitor, i.e. it can generate or

✫ ✪
absorb reactive power and thereby assist in controlling system voltages.

✬ ✩

• Their output is completely variable from maximum i

absorb to maximum generate compared with fixed

reactors or switched capacitors where only a fixed XL
‘lump’ of lagging or leading var can be switched
onto the system. v
• The output of a SVC is controlled by varying the Th 2 Th 1
24 lagging current via a bidirectional thyristor switch,
commonly referred to as thyristor valve, as shown
on the right.
• The thyristors conduct on alternate half-cycles of the supply frequency
depending on the firing angle α, as shown in the following figures. Full
conduction is obtained with a firing angle of 90o . Partial conduction is obtained
with firing angles between 90o and 180o . Firing angles between 0o and 90o are
not allowed as they produce asymmetrical currents with a dc component.

✫ ✪

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• A schematic one-line diagram of an SVC is HV bus

25
shown on the right. The SVC installation is
LV bus
connected to the power grid via a transformer.
The transformer feeds an LV voltage common
busbar system. Connected to this busbar are a
capacitor bank, a reactor and a harmonic filter.
• The reactor and capacitor banks are connected
through thyristors which are controlled auto- Thyristor Thyristor Filter
Switched Controlled Bank(s)

✫ ✪
matically by the SVC’s control system. Capacitor Reactor

✬ ✩

• The capacitor ‘leg’ is more commonly known as a Thyristor Switched Capacitor

(TSC) as the thyristors are used as simple on/off devices to switch in discrete
‘lumps’ of capacitance as required.
• The reactor ‘leg’ is referred to as a Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR). In case
of TCR, the thyristor firing angle is altered by the SVC control system so as to
obtain a varying amount of lagging current from a single reactor coil.

26 • In effect, the SVC obtains its variable output by switching in capacitance in

discrete blocks until it has more than it needs, and then using the TCR to add
sufficient lagging current to bring the overall SVC output back to the desired
value, i.e. the TSC acts as a coarsely variable source of MVAr which can be
‘fine-tuned’ by the TCR.
• The filter bank connected in parallel with TCR/TSC is needed to reduce the
harmonics contained in the non-sinusoidal current supplied by the TSC/TCR
combination.

✫ ✪

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I s =(BLMX -Bc)V
• The steady-state voltage-current characteristic V

of the SVC is shown in the figure on the right

together with the corresponding voltage-reactive
power characteristic. The linear control range I s =-BcV
Minimum
Vss
lies within the limits determined by the maximum
susceptance (BLM X ) of the reactor, the total
capacitive inductive
Is
Voltage-current
27 capacitive susceptance (Bc ) as determined by characteristic

Q=(BLMX -Bc)V 2
the capacitor banks in service and the filter Linear control
range
V

capacitance.
• If the voltage drops below a certain level
(typically 0.3 pu) for an extended period, control Q =-BcV 2
Minimum
Vss
power and thyristor gating energy can be lost,
Q leading Q lagging
requiring a shutdown of the SVC. The SVC can Q
Voltage-reactive power
restart as soon as the voltage recovers. characteristic

✫ ✪
✬ ✩
• SVCs can operate in two modes:
a) Target Voltage Mode: the SVC generates a number of MVAr proportional to
the difference between the actual system voltage and a set-point. The
set-point can be altered by the operator according to system needs.
b) Constant MVAr Mode: within certain limits, the SVC generates a fixed
number of MVAr.

28 12.2.1 Target Voltage (TV) Mode

• In TV mode the SVC varies its output Intercept System

Voltage, Vs Voltage
V2
according to the difference between
V1
the actual system voltage and a set-
point specified by the operator. The
MVAr generated or absorbed by the
SVC are determined by the SVC’s slope
Q1 Q2
characteristic. MVAr Generated MVAr Absorbed

✫ ✪

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• The set point is the intercept of the SVC characteristic and the y-axis. This
means that when the actual voltage equals the set-point (intercept) voltage,
the SVC’s output is zero.
• If the system voltage falls, from say Vs to V1 , then the SVC will generate MVAr
equal to Q1 . Similarly if the voltage rises above the set-point, to V2 say, then
the SVC will absorb MVAr equal to Q2 ,
• That is the output produced by the SVC in TV mode is determined by the
29
combination of the actual system voltage, the intercept set-point and the slope,
or droop, of the SVC characteristic.
• The intercept is easily adjusted according to system needs by the attendant on
site or by the control engineer if/when the site is telecommanded. The droop
(slope) setting can also be altered, but requires an engineer on-site.
• The droop setting is usually expressed as a percentage figure. This figure
represents the % fall in voltage necessary for the SVC to move from zero output

✫ ✪
to full MVAr generation (capacitive). The higher the % droop setting the steeper

✬ ✩

the characteristic’s slope and the greater the percentage voltage fall needed to
cause the SVC to generate full output.
• For example if the intercept voltage is 1 p.u. and the droop setting is 10% then a
voltage fall from 1 p.u. to 0.9 p.u. will cause the SVC to move from 0 MVAr
generated to full output.
• In mathematical terms the SVC’s output can be expressed as:
30
100 Qmax V
Qg = × (1 − )
%droop Vs
where Qg is the MVAr generated, Qmax is the maximum (capacitive) MVAr
output capability of the SVC, %droop is the percentage droop or slope setting
of the SVC, Vs is the intercept set-point voltage and V the actual measured
system voltage. This equation is, of course, only valid between the max absorb
and max generate capability, e.g. −75 < Q < 150 MVAr.

✫ ✪

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12.2.2 Constant MVAr Mode

In constant MVAr mode the SVC has an operating characteristic as shown in the
figure. This shows that between the upper and lower limits Vmax and Vmin the
MVAr output of the SVC is virtually constant. The constant MVAr setting and the
values of Vmax and Vmin can be set by the operator. If the system voltage moves
outside the range defined by Vmax and Vmin then an alarm is raised and the SVC
reverts to target voltage mode type operation along the characteristics AB and CD.
31
System D
Voltage
C
Vmax

B Vmin
A

✫ ✪
Constant
MVAr Generated MVAr Setting MVAr Absorbed

✬ ✩

Example 4
A transmission line in an interconnected power network has a reactance of 20 Ω.
The busbar voltages at the ends of the line are held at 275 kV and the line transfers
a power of 1300 MW.

i) Calculate the transmission angle of the line.

32
ii) With the aid of a phasor diagram, calculate the mid-point voltage of the line.

iii) Calculate the line current.

iv) If the mid-point voltage is regulated using a static var compensator, calculate the
var injection required to hold the voltage at 275 kV.

Solution:
EV 2752
i) P = X sin δ ⇒ 1300 = 20 sin δ ⇒ δ = 20.1o

✫ ✪

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✬ ✩
VS
ii) Mid-point voltage, Vm = VR cos δ2
o Im
= 275 cos 20.1 oc Vm
2
= 270.8 kV VR

√
iii) P = 3Im Vm ⇒ Im = √P
3Vm
= √ 1300 = 2.77 kA
3×270.8
33
VS Vm VR
P 1300
iv) IS = √ = √ o Qc
3VS cos δ4 3 × 275 cos 20.1
4
= 2.74 kA VS

IS
Ic = 2 × IS sin 4δ Ic
o
Vm
= 2 × 2.74 sin 20.1
4 = 0.48 kA IR
√ √
Qc = 3Vm Ic = 3 × 275 × 0.48 = 229 MVAr
✫ ✪
VR

✬ ✩

13 Excitation Control of Generators

• Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) controls
the magnitude of the terminal voltage Vt .

• Vt is continuously sensed, rectified, and

smoothened to produce a dc signal pro-
portional to |Vt | for comparsion with a dc
34
reference Vref .

• The resultant ”error voltage” Verr , after

suitable amplification and signal shaping,
serves as the input to the exciter which
finally delivers the voltage Vf to the
generator field winding.

✫ ✪

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 The HK Polytechnic University Reactive Power & Voltage Control

✬ ✩
Consider a simplified generator with synchronous reactance
Xs and neglectable armature resistance, its phasor diagram
with load angle δ is shown on the right.

Power P is always given by P = V I cos φ and the triangle

ABC can be used to give IXs cos φ = Ef sin δ so that
VE
P = Xsf sin δ with the relation between P and δ a
sinewave at fixed excitation which peaks when δ = 90◦ .
35
In addition, this phasor diagram can also be used to derive the generator operating
V V2 E V
chart: each phasor is scaled to X such that V becomes X , Ef becomes Xf
s s s
and IXs becomes V I , i.e. the Voltamperes.

Then with the whole diagram rotated through 90◦ with a new origin at the point A,
the new diagram forms the basic operating chart with

AD = CB = V I cos φ = real power, P (MW)

✫ ✪
AB = V I sin φ = reactive power, Q (VAr)
✬ ✩
• Since the vector in the direction AB
represents lagging VArs, that in the
direction OA must correspond to
leading VArs with an underexcited
machine generating leading VArs
but at a relatively high value of load
angle.
36
• It is now a simple matter to include some limits on this chart. The phasor AC is
proportional to armature current, so that a circular arc centre A can be drawn to
represent the stator heating limit. In a similar manner, the emf Ef , which is
proportional to the field current, is represented by OC so that a circular arc
centre O represents the rotor heating limit.
• There will also be a maximum value for the input power available from the prime
mover and the steady state stability limit will occur when the load angle δ (angle

✫ ✪
AOC) is 90◦ .

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 The HK Polytechnic University Reactive Power & Voltage Control

✬ ✩
The operating chart with theoretical limits can then be drawn as shown below.

37

Exercise:
A rotating field turbo-alternator with a synchronous reactance of 2.5 pu and
negligible armature resistance operates on fixed frequency busbars at a terminal
voltage of 1.0 p.u. The maximum input power available is 0.85 pu and the peak

✫ ✪
permissible value of the excitation emf is 4.0 pu.

✬ ✩
a) If the stability requirements mean that the machine cannot operate in the
leading power factor mode at full load, draw the operating chart to scale with the
given limits included.
b) Find the range in voltamperes reactive available at a power of 0.5 p.u. Calculate
the value of the excitation emf necessary if the machine is to operate at unity
power factor when the input power is 0.5 p.u. Is this an underexcited mode or an
overexcited mode ?
38
In practice, power will be transferred from the generators to load centres through
transmission and distribution networks. A more realistic model is shown below.

✫ ✪

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 The HK Polytechnic University Reactive Power & Voltage Control

✬ ✩
• AVR is closed loop system which will always operate in a dynamic mode with
small changes occurring continuously and will affect the stability limit. Of
course, it would be helpful if the presence of the AVR made this dynamic
stability limit better than the steady state limit previously used.
• The presence of a good AVR with a well designed stabiliser will lead to stable
operation at load angles of greater than 90◦ . However, a poor choice in the
values of the stabilising parameters can lead to the introduction of a dynamic
39 stability limit for a machine fitted with an AVR being worse than that for a
machine with constant excitation.

✫ ✪
✬ ✩
• A very simplified mathematical “proof” of this potential improvement in stability
can be produced based on the simple system model with, for simplicity,
Vb = Vt = 1.0 p.u. and Xt = Xi = 1.0 p.u.
The phasor diagram can be drawn for several assumed values of the angle α
between Vb and Vt up to the limit when α = 90◦ . This allows the values of Ef
and δ , the operating load angle, to be measured so that the P/δ curve can be
drawn. The construction is illustrated in the following sketches
40

✫ ✪

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 The HK Polytechnic University Reactive Power & Voltage Control

✬ ✩
The following results are obtained:

α 18 30 45 60 90
δ 35 54 70 90 117
Ef 1.09 1.23 1.45 1.73 2.24
P 0.31 0.5 0.71 0.87 1.0

41 It should be obvious from this table that the P/δ curve now peaks at a value of
the load angle greater than 90◦ , thereby increasing the stability margin. This
could be confirmed by plotting the P/δ curve to scale.
However, it should be noted that this is only a very simplified approach used to
illustrate a point without introducing complex mathematics.

✫ ✪

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 THE HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
Department of Electrical Engineering

EE4031 Power Systems

Tutorial on Control of Voltage and Reactive Power

1. A 275 kV overhead line of length 150 km is used to supply a load of 2000MVA at a

power factor of 0.85 lagging. The line has negligible resistance and inductive reactance
of 0.2Ω/km per phase with voltages at the ends held at 275 kV.
a) Calculate the transmission angle and the mid-point voltage of the line.
b) A SVC is installed at the mid-point of the line to improve the line voltage profile.
Calculate the rating of the shunt capacitor bank required to hold the mid-point
voltage at 275 kV.
c) Plot the voltage profile along the line before and after the compensation. How much
of the voltage has been improved?

2. A 50 Hz generator with internal reactance of 0.4 pu is connected to an infinite bus of

voltage Vb = 1 pu via transmission reactance of 0.6 pu. An ideal automatic voltage
regulator is installed to maintain the generator terminal voltage Vt at 1pu.
a) Draw a vector diagram to show the relationship between the generator internal
voltage E, terminal voltage Vt and the infinite bus voltage Vb when the power
transfer P from the generator terminal to the infinite bus is maximum.
b) Hence, or otherwise, determine the load angle δ between the internal voltage E and
the infinite bus voltage Vb when the power transfer is maximum.
c) Sketch the power-angle P/δ curve and comment the effects of the AVR on the
stability margin.

3. A 132 kV overhead line of length 100 km is used to supply a load of 50MW via a
132/33kV, 100MVA, 10% reactance transformer with the sending end of the line is fixed
at 132 kV and 50 Hz as shown in Fig.1. The line has a series resistance of 0.2Ω/km and
an inductive reactance of 0.5Ω/km. In operation, the reactive demand of the load will
vary from 30MVar lagging to 20MVar leading.
a) Calculate the maximum and minimum voltages at the load when the transformer is
set at nominal tap (i.e. t = 1).
b) Calculate the range of tap-changing required to maintain the load voltage at 33 kV.
c) A SVC is installed in parallel with the load for voltage regulation. Determine the
minimum output range of the SVC in MVAr required for maintaining the load
voltage at 33 kV if the tap-changing is limited to ±7%.

Fig.1

EE4031, KWCn, 23 Apr 2010 1

 EE4031 Power Systems
Tutorial on Control of Voltage and Reactive Power

1. a) Transmission angle:
EV 2752
P= sin δ → 2000 × 0.85 = sin δ → δ = 42.41o
X 0.2 × 150 Vs
Mid-point voltage:
δ 42.41 δ Im
Vm = VR cos = 275cos = 256.38 kV
2 2

Vr

b) Sending-end current
P 2000 × 0.85
Is = = = 3.63 kA
δ 42.41
3Vs cos 3 × 275cos
4 4 Vs
SVC current
δ 42.41 δ Is
I c = 2 I s sin = 2 × 3.63 × sin = 1.34 kA Ic
Vm
4 4
Ir
SVC output, Qc = 3Vm I c = 3 × 275 × 1.34 = 636.45 MVAr
Vr

δ δ
c) Vsm = VR 1 − cos 2 = 99.47 kV V ' sm = VR 1 − cos 2 = 50.60 kV
2 4
2 2
⎛i ⎞ ⎛i ⎞
Vi = ⎜ × Vsm ⎟ + Vm 2 Vi = ⎜ × V ' sm ⎟ + Vm '2
'
for i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠

2 8 0

2 7 5

2 7 0
Voltage (kV)

C o m p e n s a te d
2 6 5
U n c o m p e n s a te d

2 6 0

2 5 5

2 5 0
D is ta n c e

Voltage improvement
⎛ δ δ⎞ ⎛ 42.41 42.41 ⎞
VR ⎜ cos − cos ⎟ = 275 ⎜ cos − cos ⎟ = 13.92 kV
⎝ 4 2⎠ ⎝ 4 2 ⎠

EE4031, KWCn, 23 Apr 2010 2

2. a) A
Vb
IXt
2
B 1

1 δ
C
Vt O
IXs

α
E

b) Vb = Vt = 1 pu
Max power transfer between Vb & Vt => AO ⊥ BO
AC = IXt = 2 pu
AE = IXt +IXs = 2 /0.6 = 2.357pu
BE = AE – AB = 2.357 - 2 /2 = 1.65 pu
α = tan-1(OB/BE) = tan-1( 2 /2/1.65) = 23.2o
δ = 90o + ∠COE = 90o + (180o - ∠OCE - α) = 111.8o
Alternatively, δ can be derived graphically by drawing the vector diagram to scale.

c) Power transfer peaks at load angle of 111.8o which is higher that the usual 90o steady-
state stability limit without AVR. In other words, the use of AVR could increase the
stability margin of a power system.

102 112 123

83
139
68
Power

45 158

24

0 180
0 50 100 150 200
Power Angle in degree

EE4031, KWCn, 23 Apr 2010 3

 100
3. a) Transmission impedance = (0.2 + j 0.5) × 100 × + j 0.1 = 0.1148 + j 0.387 pu
1322
RP + X (Q − QC )
ΔV = VS − VL =
VL
When P = 50 MW, Q = -20 MVAr, the load voltage is maximum.
0.1148 × 0.5 − 0.387 × 0.2
i.e. 1 − VL (max) =
VL (max)
⇒ VL (max) = 1.02 pu or 33.65 kV

When P = 50 MW, Q = 30 MVAr, the load voltage is minimum.

0.1148 × 0.5 + 0.387 × 0.3
i.e. 1 − VL (min) =
VL (min)
⇒ VL (min) = 0.78 pu or 25.64 kV

b) To maintain the load voltage to 33 kV, i.e. 1 pu

⇒ tmin = VL (min) = 0.78
⇒ tmax = VL (max) = 1.02
⇒ required tap-changing range is from 0.78 to 1.02

c) The SVC output will reach its maximum QCmax when the transformer tap hits its lower
limited, i.e. t = 0.93, and the load is 30MVar lagging.
0.1148 × 0.5 + 0.387 × (0.3 − QCmax )
1 − 0.93 =
0.93
⇒ QCmax = 0.28 pu = 28 MVar

As the tap range is enough to cover the load in the leading factor, the output range of
the SVC required is from 0 to 28 MVar.

EE4031, KWCn, 23 Apr 2010 4