Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 1

Running Head: INTERTEXTURE ANALYSIS OF ACT 2 AND LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT

Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment

Wilbur A. Reid

Regent University
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 2

Abstract

Peter utilized prophecies in scripture to effectively introduce skeptical Jews to the idea of Jesus
as the messiah in a sermon to thousands on the day of Pentecost. Beginning with Joel, Peter
describes the unusual events that the people are witnessing. Later, he uses the words of David
to illustrate the messiah would suffer and die, but not be left in the grave. Finally, he utilizes
another Psalm of David to say that the same Jesus that they crucified is now sitting at the right
hand of God. Contemporary leadership theories of servant leadership and organizational
change can be compared to this passage to understand how Peter, the disciples, and the Holy
Spirit effectively brought about change to the world.
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 3

Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment

The beginning of the church of Christ on the day of Pentecost marked a transition from

the old covenant to the new covenant (Lunan, 1984). It was a dramatic event that was marked

by rushing winds, tongues of fire over the heads of the apostles, and a crowd of God-fearing

Jews gathering in bewilderment (Acts 2:2-6). Peter stood to speak to an audience of thousands

of Jews that had come to Jerusalem to celebrate Pentecost, and he wanted to persuade them

that this Jesus that had just been crucified was the Messiah that they had been longing for. To

do this, he utilized the scripture and traditions that the people were familiar with to weave

together a message that incorporated oral-scribal, historical, social, and cultural intertexture

into a compelling message that would lead to repentance. Intertexture is when “authors

frequently weave the words of older, existing texts (whether those texts are written or passed

on orally, ancient or contemporary) into the new texts they create” (DeSilva, 2004, p. 800). The

purpose of this paper is to examine the intertexture relationships in Acts 2, especially as it

relates to the divine empowerment of leaders in early Christianity. Peter’s sermon “parallels

the proem sermon of rabbinic literature, in which there is an opening text (Joel 2) and an

exposition given using a series of texts” (Treier, 1997). He utilizes three references to oral-

scribal sources that his audience was familiar with so that they would understand that Jesus

was a fulfillment of prophecy. Since the words recorded as Peter’s sermon in Acts 2 would only
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 4

take a few minutes to deliver, it can be assumed that Luke paraphrased and condensed a longer

sermon into the text that we have recorded in Acts 2 (Longenecker, 1975).

Intertexture Study of Joel 2

Peter began the sermon by explaining the incredible sight that crowd was witnessing.

He starts by quoting Joel 2:28-32 to explain the unusual spectacle of speaking in tongues. Table

1 demonstrates the differences between the original text in Joel and Peter’s use of this text in

Acts 2:

Table 1

Joel 2 Acts 2
28
"And afterward, 17" 'In the last days, God says,
I will pour out my Spirit on all people. I will pour out my Spirit on all people.
Your sons and daughters will prophesy, Your sons and daughters will prophesy,
your old men will dream dreams, your young men will see visions,
your young men will see visions. your old men will dream dreams.
29
Even on my servants, both men and women, 18
Even on my servants, both men and women,
I will pour out my Spirit in those days. I will pour out my Spirit in those days,
and they will prophesy.
30
I will show wonders in the heavens 19
I will show wonders in the heaven above
and on the earth, and signs on the earth below,
blood and fire and billows of smoke. blood and fire and billows of smoke.
31
The sun will be turned to darkness 20
The sun will be turned to darkness
and the moon to blood and the moon to blood
before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD. before the coming of the great and glorious day of the Lord.
32
And everyone who calls 21
And everyone who calls
on the name of the LORD will be saved; on the name of the Lord will be saved.'

If he had attributed speaking in tongues to the ability of the speakers, the crowd would not

have accepted it (McGarvey, 1892). However, by quoting Joel he was able to show that this was

of divine origin and that the listeners were eyewitnesses to the fulfillment of prophecy.

Joel wrote in a time of despair for the Jews because they had been devastated by a

locust plague, which Joel pointed out as the judgment of God for their sin (Treier, 1997). He

encourages the people by telling them at some point in the future, God will pour out His spirit

on all people. Peter quoted from the Septuagint, or LXX, Greek version of the scriptures, but he

changed a few words from the original version. Joel describes the locust plague and judgment
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 5

from God in the first 27 verses of chapter 2, but then transitions to the miracles that God will

bestow on His people by using the phrase “then afterword” (Joel 2:28). Peter wants to

emphasize the imminent return of Christ, so he describes the pouring out of God’s spirit to be

“in the last days” (Acts 2:17). Peter also adds the phrase “God declares” (Acts 2:17) to parallel

God’s commitment of good things to his people with the passage of Joel 2:19 when God took

pity on His people and spoke to them. Joel mentions the old men dreaming dreams and then

young men seeing visions, but Peter reverses the order (Joel 2:28, Acts 2:17).

Joel does not mention the servants prophesying (Acts 2:18), but Peter states that male

and female servants will be prophesying, possibly as a foreshadowing of the more prominent

role that women will play in the New Testament church and possibly as an explanation for

events that were happening right then on the day of Pentecost. “During this time frame,

women carried second citizen ranks, and Gentiles were considered unclean salvages” (Green,

2008). However, Paul indicates in 1 Corinthians 11:5 that women were prophesying in the

church. Peter also adds additional description regarding the heaven being above and the earth

being below (Joel 2:30, Acts 2:19). Finally, Joel describes the day of the Lord as dreadful, while

Peter describes it as glorious (Joel 2:20, Acts 2:31). When Joel says that “everyone who calls on

the name of the Lord will be saved” (Joel 2:32), he is referring to Yahweh as the Lord. However,

Jesus said that “no one goes to the father except through me” (John 14:6) and Peter said that

later that “Salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to

men by which we must be saved" (Acts 4:11). Therefore Peter must have been referring to

Jesus as Lord.
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 6

Peter’s use of Joel’s prophecy to begin the sermon on Pentecost was effective because

he was able to explain the unusual events that the crowd was witnessing and to begin to draw

their minds unto repentance and calling upon the name of the Lord.

Intertexture Study of Psalm 16

Once Peter had the attention of the crowd and explained the miracles that they were

witnessing, he was able to tell them about Jesus. Peter recites a list of things that God did

through Jesus:

Jesus of Nazareth was a man accredited by God to you by miracles, wonders and signs,
which God did among you through him, as you yourselves know. This man was handed
over to you by God's set purpose and foreknowledge; and you, with the help of wicked
men, put him to death by nailing him to the cross. But God raised him from the dead,
freeing him from the agony of death (Acts 2:22-24).

Of the claims that Peter made in this text, the people knew that Jesus performed miracles and

was crucified, however they would be skeptical that he had been approved by God or that he

rose from the dead (McGarvey, 1892). Therefore, Peter again uses scripture to demonstrate

that these events had been foretold in prophecy. David may not be considered a prophet often,

but Peter reminds the crowd that David said that God would not allow His Holy One to rot in

the grave. Table 2 provides a comparison of the original text in Psalms and Peter’s use of in

Acts:
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 7

Table 2

Psalm 16 Acts 2

25
David said about him:
8
I have set the LORD always before me. " 'I saw the Lord always before me.
Because he is at my right hand, Because he is at my right hand,
I will not be shaken. I will not be shaken.

9 26
Therefore my heart is glad and my tongue rejoices; Therefore my heart is glad and my tongue rejoices;
my body also will rest secure, my body also will live in hope,

27
10 because you will not abandon me to the grave, because you will not abandon me to the grave,
nor will you let your Holy One see decay. nor will you let your Holy One see decay.

28
11 You have made known to me the path of life; You have made known to me the paths of life;
you will fill me with joy in your presence, you will fill me with joy in your presence.'
with eternal pleasures at your right hand.

Since David used the first person in this passage, as he often did in the Psalms (McGarvey,

1892), Peter followed this quote by saying in his sermon that David could not have been

referring to himself since he had been dead and buried for centuries. Therefore, he must have

been talking about the messiah rising from the dead, for he would not refer to anyone else as

his Lord. The prophet Nathan proclaimed the word of the Lord to David:

The LORD declares to you that the LORD himself will establish a house for you: When
your days are over and you rest with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring to
succeed you, who will come from your own body, and I will establish his kingdom. He is
the one who will build a house for my Name, and I will establish the throne of his
kingdom forever. I will be his father, and he will be my son. (2 Samuel 7:11b-14a)

This indicates that David knew that the messiah would come from his family, so he was able to

speak about the messiah that was to come from his family (Hauser & Watson, 2003).
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 8

The pronouns in Acts 2:25 can be confusing. If we replace the pronouns with the names,

the meaning of the verse becomes clear: David said about the messiah: David saw the messiah

always before David. Because the messiah is at David’s right hand, David will not be shaken.

Before Peter applied this interpretation to Psalm 16, it was believed that David was simply

referring to God saving him from a life-threatening situation (Herrick, 2000). Peter reconfigures

the meaning of Psalm 16 by recontextualizing it to a more eschatological meaning so that the

new church would gain hope in the return of Christ.

Again, Peter’s use of prophecy was effective. He was able to take the words of the well-

known and revered King David and show that he was talking about the messiah that was to

come, and then show the people how Jesus matched the description that David had provided.

Intertexture Study of Psalm 110

He then closes this compelling argument with another Psalm from David: “The LORD

says to my Lord: Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet" (Psalm

110: 1). The multiple use of the term Lord can be clarified by restating the first clause: Yahweh

says to the messiah. David prophecies that the messiah will be honored at the right hand of

God. Peter has shown through scripture that God will pour out his Spirit on all people, and that

the messiah will be raised from the dead and seated at the right hand of God. The hearers then

realize that the messiah’s throne is a heavenly throne, not an earthly one (McGarvey, 1892). He

concludes the sermon by stating that Jesus is “both Lord and Christ” (Acts 2:36). It is significant

that Peter says that Jesus is both the Lord that David referred to and the Christ, or messiah, that

the Jews had been looking for. They are one and the same person.
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 9

Table 3

Psalm 110 Acts 2

Of David. A psalm.
34
For David did not ascend to heaven, and yet he said,
1
The LORD says to my Lord: " 'The Lord said to my Lord:
"Sit at my right hand "Sit at my right hand
35
until I make your enemies until I make your enemies
a footstool for your feet." a footstool for your feet."

Acts 2 and Leadership

“There are numerous leadership theories and models that can be used to draw further

insight from the text in order to better understand divine empowerment” (Norbutus, 2009).

Estrada (2004) stated that the day of Pentecost was the beginning of the disciples’

transformation from followers to leaders. The idea of transformation can be applied not only to

the disciples, but also to the thousands of Jews on that day whose lives were transformed

because they saw the new paradigm of Jesus as the suffering messiah who came to earth to

save them from their sins. This concept follows Burns (1978) theories of transformational

leadership. House’s path-goal theory could be used to describe Peter’s directive approach as he

provided the path for the Jews to reach the goal of finding the messiah. “Wisdom, foresight,

and insight come together to provide the leader with a vision which is the fundamental quality

of leadership” (Rice, 2008).

The story of the son of God coming to earth to die is the greatest example of servant

leadership. The “servant-leader is servant first” (Greenleaf, 1977, p. 24). Paul describes the

servant nature of Christ in his letter to the Philippians:

 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 10

Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature[a]
God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped, but made himself
nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness. And being
found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedient to death—
even death on a cross! Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the
name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in
heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is
Lord, to the glory of God the Father (Philippians 2:5-11).

Peter, the disciples and the Holy Spirit embarked on a mission recorded in the book of

Acts that could be likened to an enormous organizational change. They were attempting to

change the hearts and minds of a nation and, indeed, the entire world. Kotter (1996) said that

preparing for change this kind of significant change requires 8 steps for leaders. First, leaders

must (1) establish a sense of urgency. The people need to realize that the status quo is no

longer acceptable and that change is inevitable. Peter created this sense of urgency on the day

of Pentecost when he made the people realize that they crucified the messiah, and responded,

probably in panic: "Brothers, what shall we do" (Acts 2:37)? Once the sense of urgency is

created, the leader needs to (2) establish a powerful coalition of individuals that embrace the

need for change. In this case, Peter already had his coalition of the 11 that stood with him (Acts

2:14). The leaders must (3) create a vision and (4) communicate the vision effectively to the

organization. Peter used descriptive words to craft a vision of Jesus exalted and sitting at the

right hand of God (Acts 2:33, 36), which provoked an emotional response from the listeners

(Acts 2:37). Peter then invited those who believed to repent and be baptized for the forgiveness

of sin and the gift of the Holy Spirit. This (5) empowered others to act on the vision and created

(6) short-term wins in the Jewish crowd in Jerusalem. The fledgling church was then able to
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 11

build upon success by (7) consolidating gains in local churches all over the world and, finally, (8)

institutionalize the new approaches of Christianity (Kotter).

Table 4

Kotter's 8 Steps to Organizational Change as Utilized by Peter and the Holy Spirit in Acts 2

Kotter's 8 Steps to Organizational Change Peter and Holy Spirit in Acts

Therefore let all Israel be assured of this: God

has made this Jesus, whom you crucified,
(1) establishing a sense of urgency. both Lord and Christ. When the people heard
this, they were cut to the heart. (Acts 2:36-
37)

(2) establish a powerful coalition of

individuals that embrace the need for change.
(3) create a vision
(4) communicate the vision effectively
(5) empower others to act on the vision
(6) plan for and create short-term wins
(7) consolidating improvements and
producing more changes
(8) institutionalize the new approaches
Then Peter stood up with the Eleven (Acts
2:14)
Exalted to the right hand of God… (Acts 2:33,
36)
When the people heard this, they were cut to
the heart. (Acts 2:37)
Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in
the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness
of your sins. And you will receive the gift of
the Holy Spirit. (Acts 2:38)
Those who accepted his message were
baptized, and about three thousand were
added to their number that day. (Acts 2:41)
Everyone was filled with awe, and many
wonders and miraculous signs were done by
the apostles. (Acts 2:43)
Every day they continued to meet together in
the temple courts. They broke bread in their
homes and ate together with glad and sincere
hearts, praising God and enjoying the favor of
all the people. (Acts 2:46, 47)

In conclusion, the events of Acts 2 show several parallels to contemporary leadership

theory. Most prominent among these are the servant leadership of Greenleaf, the
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 12

transformational leadership of Burns, and the eight steps of transforming an organization that
Kotter outlined. The intertexture analysis showed Peter’s effective use of prophecy in scripture
to illustrate how Jesus was the messiah that the people had been longing for.
 Intertexture Analysis of Acts 2 and Leadership Empowerment 13

References

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DeSilva, D. (2004). An Introduction to the New Testament. Contexts, Methods, and Ministry Formation.
Nottingham, England: Apollos.

Estrada, N. (2004). From Follower to Leaders. New York: T & T Clark International.

Green, D. (2008). Divine Empowerment: Interpretation through the Exegesis of Acts 2.

Greenleaf, R. (1977). Servant Leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. Mahwah,
NJ: Paulist Press.

Hauser, A., & Watson, D. (2003). A History of Biblical Interpretation: The ancient period . Grand Rapids, MI: Wm
B. Eerdman's Publishing.

Herrick, G. (2000). The Use of Psalm 16:8-11 in Acts 2:25-28. Biblical Studies Press .

Kotter, J. (1996). Leading Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Longenecker, R. (1975). Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period. Grand Rapids: Eermans.

Lunan, D. (1984). Pentecost: The Day the Church was Born. The Expository Times , 95 (8), 247-248.

McGarvey, J. (1892). New Commentary on Acts of the Apostles. Cincinnati, OH: The Standard Publishing
Company.

Norbutus, T. (2009). Acts 2: The Divine Empowerment of Leaders. Emerging Leadership Journeys , 2 (1), 17-42.

Rice, K. (2008). Divine Empowerment of Christian Leaders.

Treier, D. (1997). The fulfillment of Joel 2:28-32: A multiple lens approach. Journal of the Evangelical Theological
Society , 40 (1), 13-26.