ECTE323/8323 Power Engineering 2

Spring 2020

A/Prof. Ashish Agalgaonkar ashish@uow.edu.au (Weeks 1-7)

Prof. Danny (Sutanto) Soetanto soetanto@uow.edu.au (Weeks 8-13)

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Section 1 Overview

Topics Covered:
• Magnetic Circuits and basic magnetic principles – Week 1
• Transformers – Week 2
• Basics of Electric Machines & Induction Machines – Week 3
• Induction Machines – Week 4
• DC Machines – Week 5
• Synchronous Machines – This Week
• Revision and Class Test – Week 7
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Synchronous Machines – Sections 12.5 & 12.6 of Text Book

Introduction

• Unlike Induction or DC Machines, Synchronous machines are

more commonly used as generators!
• The Synchronous Generator is the most used machine for
generating electricity;
• All power plants use Synchronous Generators to convert
mechanical power (from the turbine) into electrical power;
• Synchronous Generators have enormous capacity – a single
generator can produce over 2 GW of electric power;
• Largest examples found in nuclear and hydro power plants.
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El-Sharkawi@University
of Washington
4 Grand Coulee Dam
El-Sharkawi@University
5 Grand Coulee Dam
of Washington
El-Sharkawi@University
of Washington
6 Grand Coulee Dam
Synchronous Machine Basics
• The stator construction is similar to that of a three phase
induction motor (three phase distributed windings)
• Rotor winding carries a direct current passed into the rotor
through slip rings (in smaller machines this field can be setup
using PMs). The field produced is sinusoidally space distributed
by design. Note that this field is stationary with respect to rotor.

• In synchronous machines the stator windings are the armature

windings and the rotor windings are the field windings. 7
Synchronous Machine Basics

• In generator (alternator) applications the prime mover speed

(along with the number of poles) governs the frequency
induced in stator:
N s pp
f=
60

• Cylindrical rotor in high speed generators (steam or gas turbines

as prime mover), long and small diameter – fewer poles
• Salient pole rotor in low speed generators (hydro turbine as
prime mover), short and large diameter – higher # of poles
• In motor applications the three phase ac supply will establish the
stator rotating field. The rotor field (exactly the same in pole
number to stator) will lock onto the stator field and run in
synchronism (starting is an issue). 60 f
Nr = Ns =
pp
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 Steady-State Equivalent Circuit
• The rotor current (dc) of a generator produces the rotor field (𝜑f)
which travels at Ns (i.e. synchronous speed) and induces voltages in
the three phase stator windings.

• When current (Ia) flows in the stator windings, another rotating

field 𝜑s is set-up by the three-phase stator/armature arrangement.
• If there is no load on the armature windings, Ia = 0 and 𝜑s = 0.
Hence the induced voltage is a function of 𝜑f only:
 Steady-State Equivalent Circuit
• When the armature windings are loaded, the induced voltage is a
function of the total airgap flux:

• In terms of rms, the terminal voltage Vt is equal to Eg less the

armature losses (due to leakage flux and winding resistance):

• Note that: , where La is the armature

winding inductance.

• Hence: , and Xa is the magnetising

reactance

• And:
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 Steady-State Equivalent Circuit

• The terminal voltage

equation can be
represented by the
equivalent circuit: Armature
reaction
Leakage flux &
armature resistance

• This can be simplified via

Xs = Xa + Xl, where Xs is
known as the
synchronous reactance
of the machine:
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 Torque/Power Angle
• The generator model can be further
simplified by ignoring armature
resistance (which is justified on large
machines):

• The angle between the terminal

voltage and the induced voltage (due to
the field winding) is known as the
torque or power angle.
S
• The torque angle is also the angle d
N
between the magnet system as shown.
• This angle has a strong relationship S
N
with the steady state and transient
performance of the generator.
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 Salient-Pole Equivalent Circuit

• The airgap is uniform in a cylindrical rotor machine – hence, the

armature reaction mmf and magnetising reactance are linearly
related and independent of the direction of the stator mmf (this
was the case in previous analysis).
• The airgap varies in a salient pole machine, depending on
direction. Hence, armature reaction mmf and magnetising
reactance are not linearly related.
• Hence, a different treatment has to be developed to deal with
the development of the terminal voltage equation for salient pole
machines.
• This is an advanced topic in electrical machine theory and hence
will not treated further in this subject.

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 Operating Characteristics

• Phasor diagrams for synchronous machines are generally drawn

with the terminal voltage as the reference (as seen on Slide 12).
• The phasor diagram for a cylindrical rotor synchronous generator,
where the load is inductive (not purely inductive), is drawn as:

Ef

d
jIaXs
q Vt
Ia IaRa

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 Operating Characteristics

• The phasor diagram for a cylindrical rotor synchronous generator,

where the load is capacitive (not purely capacitive), is drawn as:

Ef
jIaXs
Ia
q d
Vt IaRa

• Note: In this case there is the possibility that the terminal voltage Vt
could be larger than the most internal voltage Ef.

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Power of a Synchronous Generator

• Recall from Slide 12 that we can

simplify the analysis by ignoring
armature resistance on large
machines.
• Hence, the Real power at the
terminals is:

• However:

• And:

• Note that Pmax is inversely

proportional to Xs.
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Real Power as a Function of Power Angle

• Power-Angle equation:
• The input mechanical power
is controlled by the
operator at the power
plant.
• The output electrical power
increases with increased
input power.
• The power angle at the
operating point is the
actual angle between the
terminal voltage and the
equivalent field voltage Ef.
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 Real Power as a Function of Power Angle

• Hence, in a synchronous generator, the real power flow is

controlled by controlling the angle d.
• This is achieved by passing more steam/water through the
turbine.
• In effect the rotor field is advanced in relation to the resultant
magnetic field created by the armature (stator) currents (i.e., rotor
field ahead of resultant field).
• When d = 90° the maximum power transfer takes place, i.e., if
the electrical load exceeds this limit the generator is unable to
supply the demand and the phenomena known as pole slipping or
loss of synchronism takes place.

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Power Angle in Motor Operation

• The sign of d changes from generator to motor operation, i.e.,

the rotor field follows the resultant field.
P

generator
Pmax
-p/2
d
p/2

motor
Power angle characteristics

• As the load on the shaft increases, the magnitude of d will also

increase.
• When d = 90° we reach the maximum capability of the motor
and again pole slipping can take place.
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Synchronisation
• For a moving synchronous generator to be connected to the grid
(i.e., in parallel with existing generators), it must be synchronised
to the other generators.
• Ideally the voltage magnitudes, phase sequence (and their phase
angles) and the frequency of the two systems must be the same
before connecting the generator.
• A simple scheme, can be developed using light globes
(synchronising lamps):
1. Using voltmeters the excitation should be adjusted to get
the correct voltage level;
2. Lamps are then connected between each of the generator
terminals and the system terminals;
3. The speed of the generator is brought close to synchronous
speed, but not exact; 20
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 Synchronisation cont.
4. Hence, there will be a slight frequency difference between the
generator and the system. If the phase sequence is correct all
the three lights will vary from bright to dark simultaneously.
5. Once the frequency and the phase angles of the two systems
are close, the lights will tend to stay dark. At this point, the
generator is synchronised and circuit breakers can be closed.
• Large power plants have computer based auto-synchronisation.

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 Synchronous Motors

• Synchronous motors are identical in their basic features to

synchronous generators;
• They run at a constant speed (synchronous speed) governed by
the supply frequency;
• As the load on a synchronous motor varies, the torque angle d
varies;
• As noted earlier, maximum torque/power is when d = 90°;
• It is possible to operate a synchronous motor with no shaft load
and adjust its excitation so that it works as a synchronous
condenser (acts like a capacitor) – in fact, the excitation can be
adjusted to any level so that it is only drawing real power to do the
mechanical work, i.e., it only draws in-phase current.
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 Synchronous Motor Starting

• Synchronous motors are not self-starting;

• Most popular starting method is to use an auxiliary cage winding
on the rotor. DC excitation is disconnected and machine is started
as an induction motor. Once up to speed, DC field is connected
and the motor will pull into synchronism;
• Another method is to use an auxiliary motor (can be an induction
motor) connected to the shaft. With the excitation supplied, a
synchronous motor can be synchronised to the incoming ac supply
as a generator if the external auxiliary motor can bring it up to a
sufficient speed. Once synchronised, the auxiliary motor is
disconnected and the shaft load can be put on the synchronous
motor. This is often the best approach in larger motors, as the
starting current may be too large using an auxiliary cage winding.
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Controlling the Excitation Level – Synchronous Condenser

• Consider a synchronous motor connected to an infinite

busbar.
• An infinite busbar is a constant voltage constant frequency
system that has zero internal impedance – it can absorb and
deliver infinite power.
• The motor is unloaded, i.e., rotor is allowed to freely spin, with
real power (P) = 0 and d = 0.

Infinite busbar
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Controlling the Excitation Level

• If the machine is over-excited: i.e. |Ef| > |Vt|

Ia
Machine behaves like a capacitor –
has leading power factor, delivers
Ef
reactive power!

Vt jIaXs

• If the machine is under-excited: i.e. |Ef| < |Vt|

Ef jIaXs
Vt
Machine behaves like an inductor –
has lagging power factor, absorbs
Ia
reactive power!

• When Ef = Vt, the machine will neither absorb nor deliver

reactive power: Ef

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Va
Example 12.15 from Textbook:

A 60 Hz, four-pole synchronous generator of a thermal power

plant has a synchronous reactance of 5Ω. The stator windings
are connected in wye, and the line-to-line voltage is 15 kV. The
line current of the generator is 1 kA at 0.9 power factor lagging.
Determine:
a. Equivalent field voltage Ef;
b. Real power delivered to the grid;
c. Reactive power delivered to the grid.

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Example 12.16 from Textbook:

A synchronous generator is connected directly to an infinite bus.

The voltage of the infinite bus is 23 kVL-L. The excitation of the
generator is adjusted until the equivalent field voltage Ef is 25
kVL-L. The synchronous reactance of the machine is 2Ω.
a. If the output mechanical power of the turbine is 100 MW,
determine the power angle.
b. Determine the maximum power.
c. If the excitation of the generator is decreased by 10%,
determine the power angle and the maximum power.

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