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 v  a = Cross sectional area [m2]
f '= f  
 v v  B = Bulk modulus [Nm-2]
 s 
e = Elongation
f = Frequency [Hz]
+ source moves away f ’ = Doppler shifted freq.
Spring Force Fs = -kx from the observer fB = Beat frequency
fn = n th harmonic
PEs = ½ kx2 F = Tension on string [N]
- source moves towards g = 9.8 ms-2
k 2 2 the observer I = Sound intensity [Wm-2]
v =±  A −x 
m 
Io = 1.0 x 10-12 Wm-2

T =2π
m f'= f ( )
v ± vo
v
L = Length [m]
n = Harmonic number
k T = Period [s]
1
f = + observer moves towards k = Spring constant [Nm-1]
T
the source m = Mass [kg]
v = Speed of sound [m/s]
Simple Pendulum - observer moves away vs = Speed of the source
from the source vo = Speed of the observer

( )
L
T = 2π
v ±vo
vSA = Speed of sound in air
g
f '= f vSL = Speed of sound in liquids
v v s
vSS = Speed of sound in solids
Waves on String x = Extension [m]
upper sign – O and S
Y = Young’s modulus [Nm-2]
v =
F moves towards each other
µ
lower sign – O and S β = Sound level [dB]
moves away from each λ = Wave length [m]
v = fλ (v = wave speed) μ = String’s Mass density [kgm-1]
other
ρ = Density [Kgm-3]
Sound
Standing waves
B
vSL = ρ Both end open air-pipe
fn = n f1 ; n = 2, 3, …
Y
vSS = v = One end open air-pipe
ρ
fn = n f1 ; n = 1, 3, 5, ...
(F / a)
Y =
(e / L)
fB = f2 – f1

vSA = (331) v = 331 1+ ( T

273
) ; T in
Kelvin

β =10 log ( ) I
Io

Doppler Effect
A = Amplitude [m]