Tami Cdi 4 Finality 12

LEARNING PACKETS
for
Traffic Accident Management and Investigation
(CDI – 4)
"Note: Information in this workbook was gathered and compiled from

several sources as indicated in the references. Due
acknowledgment is hereby given to said sources. By herein
compilation, good faith and due diligence were observed for
legitimate purposes and ends."
PREFACE
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Exclusive use for Leyte Colleges CCJ Students
The course covers laws and fundamentals of traffic safety education, enforcement, engineering,
techniques in vehicular and pedestrian direction and control, techniques in the preparation of selective
enforcement plans and policies for special and emergency traffic situations. Methods and procedures in
the use of hand signals and electronic signals lights; techniques in accident investigation. Determination
of reaction time and break-in-time, and application of scientific aids in hit-and-run cases.
The course will discuss the History and Traffic Accident Investigation and some Definition of
Terms and CONCEPT with its Legal Basis relevant to Traffic Accident Management and Investigation. It
will likewise focus on Kinds of Traffic Accident and Classifications of Motor Vehicle, Classification of
Accident According to Severity, Traffic Unit and Causes of Motor Vehicle Accident. Chain of Events in a
Vehicular Accident and Steps to be taken by the Police as a Traffic Law Enforcer, Traffic Accident
Report and Listing for Investigating Accident will form part of the discussion in connection with
investigation on traffic accident. As well as discussions on SKIDMARS, HIT and Run Accident
Investigation, Classification of Vehicles, Debris, Damage, Scratches and Gouges Debris in connection
with the study of Traffic Accident Management and Investigation. Finally with the discussion on Salient
provision on REPUBLIC ACT 4136 otherwise known as the “Land Transportation and Traffic Code and
other relevant Laws and Memorandum Circular and other Administrative Orders.
COURSE GUIDE
General Course Information
Course Title : Traffic Accident Management and Investigation
No. of Units : 3 units
Duration : 18 weeks
Course Learning Plan (Week 1 to 5) August 24 –September 25

Week No. Content/Topic Objectives/Competencies Teaching-Learning
Modality/
Strategies
Week 1 CHAPTER I Demonstrate competence and Home-based activity with
HISTORY - broad understanding in terms of learning modules/activity
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TRAFFIC traffic management accident in sheets to be distributed
ACCIDENT relation to law enforcement through social media platform
INVESTIGATIO administration, public safety, (GC), or in hard copy to be
N and criminal justice. picked-up in designated area.
Week 2 CHAPTER I Explain the concepts of Home-based activity with

HISTORY - Human rights and victim welfare learning modules/activity
TRAFFIC in terms of traffic accident. sheets to be distributed
ACCIDENT Discussion in connection with through social media platform
INVESTIGATIO the Revised Penal Code on (GC), or in hard copy to be
N Reckless Driving, and Other picked-up in designated area.
Relevant Special laws.
Week 3 CHAPTER II Explain the concepts of Human Home-based activity with
CONCEPT rights and victim welfare in learning modules/activity
-TRAFFIC terms of traffic accident. sheets to be distributed
ACCIDENT Discussion in connection through social media platform
INVESTIGATIO with the Revised Penal (GC), or in hard copy to be
N Code on Reckless Driving, picked-up in designated area.
and Other Relevant
Special laws.
Week 4 CHAPTER II Apply the Principles of and Home-based activity with
CONCEPT Jurisprudence of Criminal learning modules/activity
-TRAFFIC Law, evidence, and criminal sheets to be distributed
ACCIDENT procedure in relation to through social media platform
INVESTIGATIO traffic rules and regulation. (GC), or in hard copy to be
N Utilize Criminalistics or picked-up in designated area.
and Forensic Science in the
CHAPTER III investigation and detection
CLASSIFICATIO of crime in relation to traffic
N OF ACCIDENT rules and regulation. Home-based activity with
ACCORDING TO learning modules/activity
SEVERITY, Discussion on: sheets to be distributed
TRAFFIC UNIT 1. Classification of accident through social media platform
AND CAUSES OF according to Severity, (GC), or in hard copy to be
MOTOR 2. Kinds of Traffic picked-up in designated area.
VEHICLE Accident,
ACCIDENT and 3. Using Turn Hand Signal Collection of the Activities 1
Kinds of Traffic and to 3.
Accident 4. Concept of Hazards.
Week 5 CHAPTER III Discussion on: Home-based activity with

CLASSIFICATIO 1. Classification of learning modules/activity
N OF ACCIDENT Accident according to sheets to be distributed
ACCORDING TO Severity through social media platform
SEVERITY, (GC), or in hard copy to be
TRAFFIC UNIT 2. Traffic Unit picked-up in designated area.
AND CAUSES OF 3. Hazards
MOTOR 4. Using Turn or Hand
VEHICLE Signals
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ACCIDENT and 5. Kinds of Traffic
Kinds of Traffic Accidents
Accident 6. Activity 5
Course Learning Plan (Week 6 to 9) September 28 to October 23

Week No. Content/Topic Objectives/Competencies Teaching-Learning Modality/
Strategies
Week 6 CHAPTER IV Discussion on: Home-based activity with
CHAIN OF 1. Chain of Events in a learning modules/activity sheets
EVENTS IN A Vehicular Accident to be distributed through social
VEHICULAR media platform (GC), or in hard
2. Perception of hazard
ACCIDENT copy to be picked-up in
3. Five Levels of Activity
and designated area.
STEPS TO BE in Accident Investigation
TAKEN BY 4. Six Steps to be taken by
THE POLICE the Police as a Traffic
AS A TRAFFIC Law Enforcer during
LAW Traffic Accidents
ENFORCER

THE POLICE the Police as a Traffic Collection of the Activities 4 to
AS A TRAFFIC Law Enforcer during 5.
LAW Traffic
ENFORCER
THE POLICE the Police as a Traffic
AS A TRAFFIC Law Enforcer during
LAW Traffic
ENFORCER
Week 9 Discussion on: Home-based activity with
CHAPTER IV 1. Chain of Events in a learning modules/activity sheets
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CHAIN OF Vehicular Accident to be distributed through social
EVENTS IN A media platform (GC), or in hard
VEHICULAR copy to be picked-up in
ACCIDENT designated area.
and in Accident Investigation
STEPS TO BE 4. Six Steps to be taken by
TAKEN BY the Police as a Traffic
THE POLICE Law Enforcer during
AS A TRAFFIC Traffic Accidents
LAW
ENFORCER
Course Learning Plan (Week 10 to 14) October 26 to November 20

Modality/Strategies
ACCIDENT and copy to be picked-up in
STEPS TO BE designated area.
TAKEN BY in Accident
THE POLICE Investigation
AS A TRAFFIC 4. Six Steps to be taken by
LAW the Police as a Traffic
ENFORCER Law Enforcer during
Traffic Accidents
Week 11 CHAPTER V Discussion on: Home-based activity with

TRAFFIC 1. Traffic Accident learning modules/activity sheets
ACCIDENT Reports to be distributed through social
REPORT and 2. Preparation of Traffic media platform (GC), or in hard
LISTING FOR Accident Report copy to be picked-up in
INVESTIGATIN 3. Checklist for designated area.
G ACCIDENTS: Investigating Accidents
Week 12 CHAPTER V Discussion on: Home-based activity with

TRAFFIC 1. Traffic Accident learning modules/activity sheets
ACCIDENT Reports to be distributed through social
REPORT and 2. Preparation of Traffic media platform (GC), or in hard
LISTING FOR Accident Report copy to be picked-up in
INVESTIGATIN 3. Checklist for designated area.
G ACCIDENTS: Investigating
And Accidents.
CHAPTER VI
SKIDMARKS: For Chapter 6, Topics are
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AS A TOOL IN geared on Skidmarks to
TRAFFIC wit:
ACCIDENT 1. Skidmark- defined.
INVESTIGATIO 2. Skidmarks: as a Tool in
N Traffic Accident
Investigation
3. Skidmarks as Evidence
in Accident Cases
CHAPTER VI 4. SKIDMARKS DO
SKIDMARKS: NOT SHOW ALL THE
AS A TOOL IN SPEED
TRAFFIC 5. THINGS THAT
ACCIDENT DETERMINE
INVESTIGATIO SKIDDING
N DISTANCE
Week 13 CHAPTER VI Home-based activity with

SKIDMARKS: For Chapter 6, Topics are learning modules/activity sheets
AS A TOOL IN geared on Skidmarks to to be distributed through social
TRAFFIC wit: media platform (GC), or in hard
ACCIDENT 6. Other factors on copy to be picked-up in
INVESTIGATIO Determining the designated area.
N Distance,
7. LENGTH OF
SKIDMARKS
8. REACTION TIME
9. PROCEDURE
FOLLOWED BY THE
PNP
10. MEASUREMENT OF
SKIDMARKS
11. BASIC PRINCIPLES
IN CALCULATING
SPEEDS FROM
SKIMARKS
12. STOPPING A MOTOR
VEHICLE
Course Learning Plan (Week 14 to 18) November 23 to December 25

Modality/Strategies
Week 14 CHAPTER VI Discussion on: Home-based activity with
SKIDMARKS: 1. TEST RUNS; learning modules/activity
AS A TOOL IN Calculations for speeds sheets to be distributed through
TRAFFIC from skid marks social media platform (GC), or
ACCIDENT 2. SPEED in hard copy to be picked-up in
INVESTIGATIO CALCULATION designated area.
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N 3. FORMULAS USED IN
FINDING SPEED Collection of Activities 6
ESTIMATES
4. When accident vehicle
cannot be driven, Effects
Week 15 Discussion on: Home-based activity with

CHAPTER VII 1. Vehicle debris learning modules/activity
Debris, Damage, 2. Damage: sheets to be distributed through
Scratches and 3. Scratches and Gouges social media platform (GC), or
Gouges 4. Tire Marks in hard copy to be picked-up in
5. Classes Rotating Tires designated area.
6. Scuff Marks
7. Skidmark measurements
Week 16 CHAPTER VIII Topics for Week 16 are: Home-based activity with
HIT and RUN 1. RATIONALE; learning modules/activity
ACCIDENT Investigation of motor sheets to be distributed through
INVESTIGATIO vehicle accident social media platform (GC), or
N in hard copy to be picked-up in
2. HIT AND RUN CASES designated area.
DEFINED,
3. TWO IMPORTANT
CONSIDERATIONS;
Hit and Run cases
4. ELEMENTS OF HIT-
AND-RUN
5. CLASSES OF HIT-
AND-RUN DRIVERS
6. PRELIMINARY STEPS
on checklist on Accident
Investigation
7. FOLLOW UP
INVESTIGATION
Week 17 CHAPTER VIII Topics for Week 17 are: Home-based activity with
HIT and RUN 1. RATIONALE; learning modules/activity
ACCIDENT Investigation of motor sheets to be distributed through
INVESTIGATIO vehicle accident social media platform (GC), or
N in hard copy to be picked-up in
2. HIT AND RUN CASES designated area.
DEFINED,
3. TWO IMPORTANT
CONSIDERATIONS;
Hit and Run cases
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4. ELEMENTS OF HIT-
AND-RUN
5. CLASSES OF HIT-
AND-RUN DRIVERS
6. PRELIMINARY STEPS
on checklist on Accident
Investigation
7. FOLLOW UP
INVESTIGATION
Week 18 CHAPTER IX - Topics and discussion for Week Home-based activity with
DRIVING 18: learning modules/activity
Basic Concepts, 1. Basic Concepts sheets to be distributed through
Principles and 2. Principles and Safety social media platform (GC), or
Safety Tips Tips in hard copy to be picked-up in
3. Using Turn or Hand designated area.
Signals
4. Eight Secrets of Super
Collection of Activities 7 to 9
Driving
Course Forum
This is a read-and-write forum, which means you can access all learning materials and related
discussions and activities here.
Course Learning Outcomes:
1: Explain the concepts of Human rights and victim welfare in terms of traffic accident.
2: Demonstrate competence and broad understanding in terms of traffic management accident in

relation to law enforcement administration, public safety, and criminal justice.
3: Utilize Criminalistics or Forensic Science in the investigation and detection of crime in relation
to traffic rules and regulation.
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4: Apply the Principles of and Jurisprudence of Criminal Law, evidence, and criminal procedure
in relation to traffic rules and regulation.
5: Collaborate effectively and independently in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural teams

concerning traffic rules and management.
6: Engage in lifelong learning and understanding of the need to keep abreast on the developments
in the field Criminology and Criminal Justice related to traffic rules and management.
7: Apply professional, social, and ethical standards in the practice of profession relating to traffic
management and accident.
Class Assessment and Grading System

To pass the course, you must go through the Learning Packets with care and do the pre-assessment and
self-assessment activities.
Pre-Assessments,
Self-Assessment and
Examination - 40 %
Activities - 20 %
Experiential Reports - 20 %
Final Projects - 20 %
-------------
100%
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface i
Course Guide ii
General Course Information iii
Course Learning Plan iv
Table of Contents v
CHAPTER I
HISTORY - TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION 14 - 27
1. History
2. Definition of Terms:
3. Causes of Traffic Congestion – Types of Congestion
4. Agencies Involved in Traffic Management
5. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF TRAFFIC
6. AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
7. AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRAFFIC EDUCATION
8. Five (5) E’s of Traffic – EDUCATION, ENCOURAGEMENT, ENFORCEMENT,
EVALUATION, AND ENGINEERING
9. LAND TRANSPORTATION OFFICE (LTO)
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10. Historical Background LTO
11. Functions and Services
12. Fines and Penalties
13. Acitivity 1
CHAPTER II
CONCEPT -TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION 28 - 43
1. Traffic Accident Management and Investigation
2. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION DETERMINES THE FOLLOWING: (5W’s and1H)
3. PURPOSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION:
4. Reckless Driving ( RPC Article 365 Art. 365. Imprudence and negligence)
5. The Department of Justice (DOJ) warns that reckless driving–including over-speeding, drunk
driving, and distracted driving–is punishable under Republic Act 4136.
6. Erring driver do in case he is guilty of reckless driving that resulted to damages or injuries on the
road
7. Activity 2
8. SALIENT PROVISIONS on REPUBLIC ACT 4136 KNOWN AS THE LAND
TRANSPORTATION & TRAFFIC CODE and other relevant laws and Memorandum Circular
and other Administrative Orders
9. OTHER TRAFFIC Special LAWS AND RULES:
10. CLASSIFICATION OF VEHICLES:
11. Protocol/High-ranking government plates
12. Geographical designation
13. Special designation and Personalized plates
14. Activity 3
15. Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event:
16. Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident:
17. Chain of Events in Vehicular Accident:
18. Classification of Accident According to Severity:
19. Activity 4
CHAPTER III
CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO SEVERITY, TRAFFIC UNIT AND
CAUSES OF MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT and Kinds of Traffic Accident 44 - 46
1. Classification of Accident according to Severity
2. Traffic Unit
3. Hazards
4. Using Turn or Hand Signals
5. Kinds of Traffic Accidents
6. Activity 5
CHAPTER IV
CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT and
STEPS TO BE TAKEN BY THE POLICE AS A TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCER 47 - 54
1. Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident
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3. Five Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation
4. Six Steps to be taken by the Police as a Traffic Law Enforcer during Traffic Accidents
CHAPTER V
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT REPORT and LISTING FOR INVESTIGATING ACCIDENTS 55 - 59
1. Traffic Accident Reports
2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report
3. Checklist for Investigating Accidents
4. Activity 6
CHAPTER VI
SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION 60 -67
1. Skidmark- defined.
2. Skidmarks: as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation
3. Skidmarks as Evidence in Accident Cases
4. SKIDMARKS DO NOT SHOW ALL THE SPEED
5. THINGS THAT DETERMINE SKIDDING DISTANCE
6. Other factors on Determining the Distance,
7. LENGTH OF SKIDMARKS
8. REACTION TIME
9. PROCEDURE FOLLOWED BY THE PNP
10. MEASUREMENT OF SKIDMARKS
11. BASIC PRINCIPLES IN CALCULATING SPEEDS FROM SKIMARKS
12. STOPPING A MOTOR VEHICLE
13. TEST RUNS; Calculations for speeds from skid marks:
14. SPEED CALCULATION
15. FORMULAS USED IN FINDING SPEED ESTIMATES
16. When accident vehicle cannot be driven, Effects
17. Activity 8
CHAPTER VII
Debris, Damage, Scratches and Gouges 68 - 71
1. Vehicle debris
2. Damage:
3. Scratches and Gouges
4. Tire Marks
5. Classes Rotating Tires
6. Scuff Marks
7. Skidmark measurements
CHAPTER VIII
HIT and RUN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION 72 -75
1. RATIONALE; Investigation of motor vehicle accident
2. HIT AND RUN CASES DEFINED,
3. TWO IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS; Hit and Run cases
4. ELEMENTS OF HIT-AND-RUN
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5. CLASSES OF HIT-AND-RUN DRIVERS
6. PRELIMINARY STEPS on checklist on Accident Investigation
7. FOLLOW UP INVESTIGATION
CHAPTER IX - DRIVING
Basic Concepts, Principles and Safety Tips 76 - 80
1. Basic Concepts
2. Principles and Safety Tips
3. Using Turn or Hand Signals
4. Eight Secrets of Super Driving
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL EVENTS
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
 In 1645 a sort of cycle was invented by Jean Theson but it had no Brakes,
Pedal or Steering and needed feet motion.
 The Firsts in the History of World Traffic - The First Accident - In
1771 the first accident involving a motor vehicle took place in Paris when
Cugnot's steam tractor hit a low wall in the grounds of the Paris arsenal.
 The First Act - The Locomotives and Highway Act was the first piece of British motoring
legislation. This was also known as the Red Flag Act of 1865. The act required three persons in
attendance one to steer, one to stoke and one to walk 60 yards ahead with a red flag to warn the
oncoming traffic.
 The First Number of the World - The world's first car number plates were issued by the French
police in 1893.
 The First Petrol Pump - The first petrol pump was installed in USA in 1906.
 F i r s t M a n t o b e C
tricycle on the highway. He was probably the first motorist to appear in court.
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 First Fatal Car Accident - The first motor-car accident in Britain resulting in the death of the
driver occurred in Grove Hill, Harrow-on-the Hill, London, on 25th February 1899.
 Dusty Road to Tar Surface - In 1902 Tar was first used on a Macadam surface to prevent dust in
Monte Carlo. It was the idea of Dr. Guglielminetti, a Swiss. At first the tar was brushed in cold,
but soon it was applied hot.
 The Motor Car Act - The Motor Car Act of Britain came into force on 1st January 1904. It
required that all cars be registered and carry a number plate, and all motorists to have a driving
licence. But there was no driving test to pass and the licence was obtained by filing up a form and
paying the fee at a post office. The act made dangerous driving an indictable offence.
 The First Traffic Light of the World - The World's first traffic lights were installed in Detroit,
USA in 1919. The first traffic lights in Britain were installed in Wolverhampton during 1928.
However, they did not come to London till 1932. In Nepal we introduced traffic light in 1966.
 Pedestrian Crossing - The pedestrian crossing were instituted in Britain in 1934. The roads were
marked by dotted lines. On the pavement there were striped Belisha beacon light poles named
after Britain's Minister of Transport L. Hore-Belisha. The Zebra crossing with black and white
stripes was developed after the second world war.
 First Traffic Police Woman - Police women were used for traffic control duties for the first time in
Paris in 1964.In Nepal we introduced woman traffic police in 1995.
 Laufmachine cycle was then created by Karl Von (1817). Soon this was
made into the regal Dandy Horse by Dennis Johnson.
 In 1839 the proper cycle was shaped by K. Macmillan. It had iron wheels and
a wooden frame.
 The manifestation of automobile horse-power was taught in 1769 by Nicolas
Joseph Cugnot, who invented the first 'Steam Truck' which the French
army thought was useful.
 In 1885, Gottlieb Daimler (together with his design partner Wilhelm
Maybach) took Otto's internal combustion engine as the prototype of the
modern gas engine.
 The first person to have developed an engine that could run off diesel was Rudolf Diesel
 In 1771 the first accident involving a motor vehicle took place in Paris when Cugnot's steam
tractor hit a low wall in the grounds of the Paris arsenal.
 The Locomotives and Highway Act was the first piece of British motoring legislation. This was
also known as the Red Flag Act of 1865. The act required three persons in attendance one to steer,
one to stoke and one to walk 60 yards ahead with a red flag to warn the oncoming traffic.
 The world's first car number plates were issued by the French police in 1893
 In 1895 John Henry Knight was convicted and fined for using a motor-tricycle on the highway. He
was probably the first motorist to appear in court.
 The first motor-car accident in Britain resulting in the death of the driver occurred in Grove Hill,
Harrow-on-the Hill, London, on 25th February 1899.
 The World's first traffic lights were installed in Detroit, USA in 1919.
 The Motor Car Act of Britain came into force on 1st January 1904. It
required that all cars be registered and carry a number plate, and all
motorists to have a driving license but there was no driving test to
pass and the licence was obtained by filing up a form and paying the fee at
a post office. The act made dangerous driving an indictable offence.
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 The pedestrian crossing were instituted in Britain in 1934. The roads were marked by dotted lines.
On the pavement there were striped Belisha beacon light poles named after Britain's Minister of
Transport L. Hore-Belisha.
 The Zebra crossing with black and white stripes was developed after the second world war .
 Box junctions, marked with yellow cross-hatching, were introduced in London during 1964.
 When cars became popular, local governments established traffic laws to limit collisions with
horse-drawn wagons and ensure safety. The mandatory registration of automobiles was one of the
first traffic regulations in the United States. New York became the role model in 1901 by being
the first state to require that automobile owners register their vehicles.
 By 1920, license plates were mandatory in all states. It took longer for the states to require a
driver’s license. In 1935, there were just 39 states that issued the licenses and only a few tested
applicants. Before the 1930s, most drivers received their training from automobile salesmen,
nonprofit organizations such as the YMCA, family members and friends. Soon, however, driver’s
education was provided in the high schools.
FATHER OF TRAFFIC SAFETY

It did not take cars long to clog the streets and cities to begin
setting speed limits, installing traffic lights, designing one-way streets
and adding parking meters. Yet, it did take drivers longer to start
obeying these laws.
The book “Rules of the Road” was written by William P. Eno
in 1903. Eno, “the father of traffic safety,” introduced many road
regulations, such as the need for slow traffic to remain to the right and cars to pass only on the
left, as well as one-way streets, crosswalks for pedestrians, stop signs and safety islands.
He believed that stoplights would never work and police would always be necessary at
intersections. Ironically, he had his chauffeur drive him around. This is “The History of Traffic.”
OBEYING TRAFFIC LAWS

Traffic laws now make up a major part of most state regulations. Their main purpose is to
improve unsafe driving and to provide education to bad drivers. Research shows that most people
will obey the traffic laws, even when they hit a red light at 3 a.m. and there is not another car in
sight.
There is, however, a group of people who constantly get caught for ignoring the laws.
Studies show that more people follow the laws when they think that there is a good chance of
being caught and less adhere to them when they believe they can get away with it.
Definition of Terms:
a. TRAFFIC – refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by
combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of travel.
b. ACCIDENT – is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces
unintended injury, death, or property damage.
c. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT – an accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
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d. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT – is any event that results in unintended injury or
property damage attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its
loads.
Included are:
1. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
2. Fires;
3. Explosion;
4. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
5. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on stationary
rails or tracks;
6. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.
Excluded are:
1. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;
2. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change of the earth
surface);
3. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is being loaded on or
unloaded from another conveyance.
e. MOTOR VEHICLE – is every device which is self-propelled

and every vehicle which is propelled by electric power
obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon rails.
f. TRAFFIC WAY – is the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of
which any part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter
of right or custom.
g. ROADWAY – the portion of a traffic way which is improved, designed or ordinarily used
for vehicular travel, exclusive of the shoulder.
h. KEY EVENT – an event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a
motor vehicle traffic accident.
i. DEBRIS – is the accumulation of broken parts of vehicles rubbish, dust and other
materials left at the scene of the accident by a collision.
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j. SKID MARKS – are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to rotate,
usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked.
k. SCUFF MARKS – are signs left on the road by tires that are sliding or scrubbing while the
wheel is still turning (Republic Act 4136)
Causes of Traffic Congestion – Types of Congestion
There are four types of traffic congestion: Environmental, Mechanical, Human and
Infrastructure-related. Take a deep dive on traffic jams and their causes. There are two overall
types of traffic congestion, according to the Department of Transportation: recurring and non-
recurring. The DOT states that about half of traffic congestion is the recurring kind, which
happens daily and is due to a lack of capacity on the road — or in other words, there are more
vehicles travelling at a given time than can physically fit. The other type of congestion, non-
recurring, is what the DOT calls “temporary disruptions” in travel, such as bad weather or a
vehicle collision.
Within these two types of traffic congestion, we’ll look at four more specific categories:
1. Environment (Non-recurring) - A study by Dr. Jean Andrey and Daniel Unrau found
that traffic collisions increase by around 50 percent during snow and rain. From rainy or foggy
weather, to the extreme snowstorm that stops drivers in their tracks, weather has an uncontrollable
affect on not just traffic but road conditions as well. Even a gentle rain can make an impact if all
drivers slow down together.
Something more serious such as a sudden mudslide could not only stop traffic but cause a
collision if a driver happens to be in the wrong muddy place at the wrong muddy time. This is an
example of how weather can have a compounding effect on traffic by creating bad situations, or
by making already bad traffic situations even worse. All in all, bad weather is the main culprit in
15% of traffic congestion cases, according to the DOT.
2. Mechanical (Non-recurring) - Another factor that can cause traffic congestion is the case
of a mechanical failing. While arguably a mechanical failing could fall into a human-caused
category, such as if the person failed to properly maintain the vehicle’s tires, this is not always the
case.
Mechanical failings can also happen due to external factors such as a sharp object on the road, and
can happen suddenly while driving, even if you just had your vehicle maintained.
While humans can help prevent and decrease mechanical issues by inspecting vehicles before
every trip and making sure preventive maintenance cycles are followed, either way, these issues
require the driver to get off the road. When you’re on a five-lane highway, this task can prove
difficult. When other drivers rush to get around the stopped vehicle, it only further drags out the
impact on traffic as drivers merge into surrounding lanes instead of stopping to let the person
quickly get to the shoulder.
Again, while in some scenarios a driver may have been able to prevent the issue, even some of the
most seasoned and responsible drivers can find themselves in these situations.
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3. Human (Non-recurring) - The all-too-common cause of traffic is humans. From distracted or
drunk driving to drowsy driving or emotional driving, there are many dangerous scenarios — even
with our opposable thumbs and large frontal lobes — that humans trigger on the road.
Just taking a quick look at some 2016 traffic fatality statistics from the National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration gives a plain view at the chaos our decisions can cause
on the road:
 There were 29 alcohol-impaired driving fatalities per day. This number has been steadily
increasing over the last few years.
 In the passenger car segment, 21% of drivers involved in a fatal collision had a blood
alcohol content of .08 or higher.
 Speeding-related accidents accounted for 27% of fatalities.
Phantom Traffic Jams:

It’s unsurprising then that drivers end up making quick decisions and engage in behaviors
like last-minute braking. Once a driver slams on the brake because he or she was distracted, a
ripple effect begins. Depending on other traffic conditions, this one mistake in braking could slow
traffic in that lane and surrounding lanes for hours. This is what referred to as phantom traffic
jams is because as drivers get through the sluggish spot, it will seem as though absolutely nothing
had caused the slowdown. Researchers describe it as the same ripple effect that a bomb makes.
(Geotab report: Predicting Traffic Congestion with Driving Behavior -2019)
The even-worse situation is when that last-minute braking scenario turns into a fender bender.
Again, that time getting off the road causes even more residual traffic, especially when
“rubbernecking” is present.
But the truth is that much of the congestion caused by humans is due to a much simpler reason
than any of those listed above — driver training. Many of our fleet readers who have gone through
driver training programs likely agree. To get a license, a driver must show an understanding of the
rules of the road, not necessarily how to best merge onto a freeway or use the accelerator instead
of last-minute braking to deal with stop-and-go traffic. If all drivers went through the training and
fleet safety coaching that many fleet drivers do, it’s arguable that some traffic congestion could be
prevented.
4. Infrastructure (Recurring)- Another category that could also arguably be human-caused is

infrastructure. However, while humans created it, infrastructure is so vast and the world around it
changing so rapidly, that’s it’s not necessarily the fault of engineers who didn’t foresee the
demands which would be put on roads at exponential rates.
l. From potholes that cause slowdowns to bottlenecks in areas that out-populated their
roadways, infrastructure is the hidden troll that amplifies traffic problems in many urban
and suburban areas.
m. Bottlenecks alone account for 40% of traffic congestion causes, according to the DOT.
Ironically, in our efforts to improve infrastructure, construction also causes 10% of traffic.
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF TRAFFIC

1. Land Transportation Office - tasked to enforce laws, rules and regulation governing the
registration of motor vehicles, operation of motor vehicle and traffic rules and regulation as
provided by RA 4136 as amended.
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2. Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board - tasked to regulate transport route,
regulate franchising, prescribe fare rates, investigate traffic cases, perform judicial function,
promulgate rules, impose and collect fees, formulate and enforce rules and regulation for transport
operation for promotion of safety and convenience of public
3. Department of Transportation and Communications - in charge of planning programs
coordinating implementing and perform administrative function and promotion development and
regulation of dependable and coordinated network of transportation and communication in order
to have fast, safe, efficient and reliable postal transportation and communication services (EO No.
125.)
4. Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA) - created under RA. 7924 and sets policies
concerning traffic in Metro Manila, coordinates and regulates implementation of program related
to traffic
5. Congress and Local Council - the branch of government primarily tasked to create laws for
the welfare of the public
6. Traffic Management Group (TMG) - the basis service of the PNP tasked to direct and control
traffic, perform accident investigation, enforce the laws and issue citations.
7. Judiciary - the branch of government that interprets the law through adjudication of cases
AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

1. Department of Public Works and Highways - has responsibility of determining traffic flow
planning approval of program and budget finding of construction and maintenance of road and
instrument
2. Local Public Works and Engineering Offices - local government units and instrumentalities that
have the same function as the DPWH – perform such powers within their territorial boundary
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRAFFIC EDUCATION

1. Schools
 Elementary - tasked to educate children to obey traffic rules through their programmed
curricula
 Secondary - tasked to educate students in obeying tha traffic rules by imposing school
policies intended for the welfare of the students
 Higher Education - they offer subjects on driving and traffic safety course or any allied
subjects
2. TRAFFIC EDUCATION
o is priceless gem in the entire scale of social order of the road
o is the process of inculcating to an individual the knowledge, skill, responsibilities and
values to become a fully developed person
o the key to smooth traffic flow is discipline and to acquire discipline people must be
educated
3. PURPOSE OF DRIVER EDUCATION

 To Instill awareness of one's legal and moral responsibilities in traffic; and
 To teach abilities required for one to be eligible for a driver’s license.
Five (5) E’s of Traffic –

EDUCATION, ENCOURAGEMENT, ENFORCEMENT, EVALUATION, AND
ENGINEERING
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For safer walking and biking routes can best be accomplished through a combination of
infrastructure and non-infrastructure projects and programs. These are known collectively as the
"5 Es": Education, Encouragement, Engineering, Enforcement, and Evaluation.
1. Education: Teach students and community members about walking and biking safely.
Education can happen through in-school curriculum, bike/ped safety assemblies,
newsletter blurbs, tips sheets, and send-home flyers.
2. Encouragement: Get students and parents excited about walking and biking by
hosting special events, walking school buses and bike trains, holding school wide
competitions, or celebrating walking and biking with student art or other projects.
3. Enforcement: Reduce negative behaviors such as speeding, double parking, or
disobeying traffic signals by working with local law enforcement. Officers can attend
walking events to monitor speeding activity or to build relationships with school
children and neighbors.
4. Evaluation: Check to see if your strategies are working! Schools and local
governments can record walking and biking rates, parent concerns, and traffic data to
evaluate the success of a SRTS program. Evaluation activities can help set goals and
establish baseline data for planning projects.
5. Engineering: Improve the physical walking and biking environment. Schools can
work with local government agencies to determine if infrastructure improvements are
needed to encourage students to walk or bike to school safely. (saferoutes.vermont.gov,
Copyright © 2020 State of Vermont)
LAND TRANSPORTATION OFFICE (LTO)

The Land Transportation Office (Filipino: Tanggapan ng
Transportasyong-Lupa or LTO) is an agency of the Philippine
government under the Department of Transportation and is
responsible for all land transportation in the Philippines. Functions of
the Land Transportation Office include the inspection and
registration of moto vehicles, issuance of license and permits,
enforcement of land transportation rules and regulations, adjudication
of traffic cases, and the collection of revenues for the government of the
Philippines.
Its primary mission is to rationalize the land transportation services and facilities and to
effectively implement the various transportation laws, rules, and regulations. It believes that it is
the responsibility of those involved in the public service to be more vigilant in their part in the
over-all development scheme of national leadership. Hence, the promotion of safety and comfort
in land travel is one of LTO's continuing commitments.[2] It aims to be a frontline government
agency that showcases fast and efficient public service for a progressive land transport sector.
(The Land Transportation Office, Wikipedia.)
A. Historical Background - Land Transportation Commission

During the Marcos dictatorship, Executive O rder No. 546 was promulgated in 1979,
creating the Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MOTC). The Land
Transportation Commission was renamed into Bureau of Land Transportation (BLT) and
was absorbed into that ministry. The creation of the Board of Transportation and the Bureau of
Land Transportation (BOT) was nullified in 1985 by Executive Order 1011. The E.O.
established the Land Transportation Commission, which was tasked to perform functions such
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as registering motor vehicles, licensing of drivers and conductors, franchising of public utility
vehicles and enforcing land transportation rules and regulations.
Establishment of the Land Transportation Office

The Land Transportation Commission was abolished in 1987, and two offices were
created, namely the Land Transportation Office (LTO) and the Land Transportation
Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB). The LTO took over the functions of the former
BLT while the LTFRB took over the functions of the BOT. The MOTC was likewise renamed as
the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC).
B. Functions and Services - The LTO is in charge of the issuance, renewal, and regulation of driver's
licenses. It can issue licenses to both citizens and foreigners provided that they meet the requirements for
those licenses. The LTO provides the non-professional driver's license, which allows holders to operate
vehicles under the restriction codes 1,2, and 4. It also provides the professional driver's license, which
allows the bearer to operate vehicles under all 8 restriction codes.
The LTO also issues student permits (SP), which are a primary requirement for both the
non-professional and professional driver's licenses. All applicants are also required to pass both a
written and practical examination to be granted their license. The application process for any
license or permit may be done at any LTO Licensing Center and District/Extension Office.
c. Fines and Penalties
Fixers
The Land Transportation Office and their various constituent branches and offices are
notorious for their corrupt employees who engage in the malpractice of hiring and colluding with
‘fixers’ to illicitly garner more income. Fixers litter the various branches of the LTO, offering
faster and/or easier transaction and procurement of official LTO paraphernalia at a more
expensive price than the standard fee. These fixers and their employers pocket the extra payment
in exchange for placing a client higher up in the queuing system, falsifying official government
documents, fabricating driving test and written test results, and many other illegal practices.
Section 11 of the Republic Act No. 9485 or the “Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007” lists
fixing and/or collusion with fixers as a grave offense, with the penalty being dismissal and
perpetual disqualification from public service. The fixers themselves can receive a penalty of
imprisonment not exceeding six years or a fine not less than Twenty Thousand Pesos (P20,000.00)
but not more than Two Hundred Thousand Pesos (P200,000.00) or both fine and imprisonment at
the discretion of the court.
5-year Validity of Drivers’ Licenses
August 29, 2017 marked the beginning of the five-year validity of drivers' licenses cards
issued by the LTO. Applications were accepted beginning October 2016 for driver's licenses as
well as renewals with five-year validity, however, issues with the printers' contracts stalled the
card printing for almost one year resulting in a backlog of 3.6 million driver's licenses which only
began to be processed September 2017.
Republic Act (RA) No. 10930 effectively amended Section 23 of Republic Act No. 4136,
otherwise known as the "Land Transportation (LTO) and Traffic Code" which was signed
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on August 2, 2017 by President Rodrigo Duterte to extend the validity of the driver's license from
three years to five years.
- According to the law, "Except for student permits, all drivers' licenses shall be valid for five
years reckoned from the birthdate of the licensee, unless sooner revoked or suspended."
This amendment also added that holders of nonprofessional and professional driver's licenses who
do not commit violations in RA 4136 or any other traffic laws during the five-year period "shall
be entitled to a renewal of such license of 10 years, subject to the restrictions as may be imposed
by the LTO."
Besides the amendments to the law, new improvements to the quality and security of the license
cards were introduced. The old cards with three-year validity were made from PVC, thermally
printed, and had limited security features. The new plastic license cards are laser engraved and
made of polycarbonate material which are more durable. The new cards also includes several new
security features. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_Transportation_Office_(Philippines)
ACTIVITY 1:
Answer the question by explaining and giving examples. Provide
your answers in the box provided.
1. What are the purposes of traffic accident investigation?
2. What should an erring driver do in case he is guilty of reckless

Driving that resulted to damages or injuries on the road?
3. Enumerate at least 5 reasons why we should “Obey the Traffic Laws?
4. In your own observation, what is/are latest situation in traffic control,

Enumerate at least five (5)?
5. Explain the most common distraction that lead to traffic accident?
6. Explain the History and establishment of the Land Transportation Office?
7. What are the purposes of driving education?
CHAPTER II
CONCEPT -TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION
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Traffic Accident Management and Investigation:
To know what question to ask and what to look for, you must have some fundamental
bearing on accidents and their causes. When you speak of traffic accident, everybody knows what
you mean – SOMETHING WENT WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody
injured or possibly killed.
In this relation, as traffic law enforcers, you should have knowledge of traffic accidents
and their investigations. (https://www.bigwas.com/2014/11/traffic-management-and-accident-
investigation-reviewer.html)
Difference between an “accident” and a “crash”

According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, an “accident” is defined as an unexpected
and undesirable event, especially one resulting in damage or harm. Basically an unforeseen
incident. A “crash” is defined as colliding violently or to strike against something with great force,
causing damage or destruction, or cause something such as a car to strike against something in this
way.
The difference between an “accident” and a “crash” is an “accident” implied something

that was out of your control and unavoidable whereas a “crash” describes a violent collision. A
person who causes a traffic accident could have avoided the incident based on their decisions. It
may as well mean for some unexplained reason, forces of the universe have met at a certain point
in time and place and a result occurred that defies explanation. It means that it has likely never
happened before and will probably never occur again in the future.
(https://www.pinow.com/articles/2348/traffic-accident-investigations)
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TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION DETERMINES THE FOLLOWING: (5W’s and1H)
a. WHAT happened?
b. WHO and WHAT was involved?
c. WHERE did it happen?
d. WHY did it happen?
e. HOW did the accident occur?
f. WHEN did the accident happen?
PURPOSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION:
Accidents are generally investigated for four (4) main reasons, depending on who does the
investigation:
a. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the accident.
b. Police are also interested in finding out whether there is enough evidence of law violation
in the accident to take enforcement action.
c. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers
involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted.
d. Officials and other want specific information about accidents to know how to prevent
future accidents.
Reckless Driving:
Reckless Driving - Who is a reckless driver? The Department of Justice defines a reckless driver
when he operates a motor vehicle without reasonable caution. Without reasonable caution means:
(https://www.philstar.com/metro/2011/06/04/692501/doj-defines-reckless-driving#:~:text=The%20DOJ,
2011)
1) Not considering the width, traffic, grades, crossing, curvatures, visibility and other conditions
of the highway and the conditions of the atmosphere and weather;
2) Endangering the property or the safety or rights of any person; and
3) Causing excessive or unreasonable damage to the highway.
In short, “every time a person operates a motor vehicle in violation of traffic rules, at the risk of
harming others and with less than the full attention, focus and skill required of every driver, he is
driving recklessly.”
Legal basis: Article 365 Art. 365. Imprudence and negligence. — Any person who, by reckless
imprudence, shall commit any act which, had it been intentional, would constitute a grave felony,
shall suffer the penalty of arresto mayor in its maximum period to prision correccional in its
23 | P a g e
medium period; if it would have constituted a less grave felony, the penalty of arresto mayor in its
minimum and medium periods shall be imposed; if it would have constituted a light felony, the
penalty of arresto menor in its maximum period shall be imposed.
Reckless imprudence consists in voluntary, but without malice, doing or falling to do an act from
which material damage results by reason of inexcusable lack of precaution on the part of the
person performing of failing to perform such act, taking into consideration his employment or
occupation, degree of intelligence, physical condition and other circumstances regarding persons,
time and place. (Republic Act 3815 otherwise know the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines.)
The Department of Justice (DOJ) warns that reckless driving–including over-speeding, drunk
driving, and distracted driving–is punishable under Republic Act 4136.
1. Over-speeding - Over speeding are called “Killer Highways” because of the number of
accidents they cause. A proper speed prescribed by the law is described as:
 A speed that is careful and prudent, not greater or less than what is reasonable and proper
considering traffic, road and other existing conditions
 A speed that will not endanger the life, limb and property of any person
 A speed that will permit a driver to bring his vehicle to a stop within the assured clear
distance ahead
2. Drunk-driving - One’s degree of “drunkenness” may depend upon the blood alcohol content
indicator.
According to DOJ, national laws should adopt such an indicator similar to initiatives already
started at the level of the local government units (LGUs). For instance, Navotas and Makati City
defines a drunk driver “if he registers a Blood Alcohol Content level of 0.06% within one (1) hour
of his apprehension.”
3. Distracted driving - According to DOJ, distracted driving is a form of reckless driving,

because it takes a driver’s attention away from the road, “causing him to commit acts or omissions
that may endanger himself and others.”
The most common causes of distractions include:

i. Conversing with another person in the vehicle or
on the phone
ii. Retrieving objects in the floor/dashboard
iii. Eating or drinking
iv. Adjusting car radios
v. Using any other gadget or device like mobile
phones, laptops/iPads, iPods/MP3 players or
GPS-enabled devices
If there are damages and injuries as a result of

reckless driving, then the Revised Penal Code will be
applied. According to DOJ, “depending on the extent of
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damages caused, a person may be charged with crimes such as physical injuries, damage to
property or even homicide and murder.” (https://doj.gov.ph/files/advisory, 2011)
What should an erring driver do in case he is guilty of reckless driving that resulted to
damages or injuries on the road? The offender is mandated and obliged to do the following:
1) Show his license and give his true name and address;
2) Give the true name and address of the owner of the motor vehicle; and
3) Render assistance to the victim. (https://doj.gov.ph/files/advisory. 2011)
The third one is important. Reckless drivers SHOULD help their victims. Otherwise, the offender
shall be held liable for the crime of Abandonment of One’s Own Victim, punishable under Article
275 of the Revised Penal Code.
Failure to assist one’s own victim is excused only when:

1) He is in imminent danger of being seriously harmed by reason of the accident;
2) He reports the incident to the nearest officer of the law ; and
3) He summons a physician or nurse
Reckless driving carries a penalty of a PHP1,200 fine under
Drunk driving is punishable by a fine ranging from PHP2,000-PHP5,000, or imprisonment (three

to six months) or both, at the discretion of the court.
Distracted driving is punishable by a fine ranging from PHP5,000 to PHP20,000, with the
possibility of suspending/revocation of the driver’s license. Final word, it’s important to note that
reckless driving, drunk driving, and distracted driving don’t have to result in damages, injuries or
death to be punishable by law. (Traffic Accident Mngt and Investigation, DOJ – 2017).
ACTIVITY 2:
1. Distinguished “accident” VS “crash”?
2. Enumerate at least 4 purposed of traffic accident?
3. Define reckless driving?
4. In relation to reckless driving, what do you understand

“Without Reasonable caution?
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5. Enumerate at least 5 most common causes of distractions?
6. What should an erring driver do in case he is guilty of

Reckless driving that resulted to damages or injuries on the road?
7. What should an erring driver do in case he is guilty of reckless driving that resulted to
damages or injuries on the road?
SALIENT PROVISIONS on REPUBLIC ACT 4136 KNOWN AS THE LAND

TRANSPORTATION & TRAFFIC CODE and other relavant laws and Memomrabdum
Circular and other Administrative Orders
SPEED LIMIT
Any person driving a motor vehicle on a highway shall drive the same at careful and prudent
speed, not greater nor less than what is reasonable and proper, having due regard for the traffic,
the width of the highway and any other condition then and there existing, and no person shall
drive any motor vehicle upon a highway at such speed as to endanger the life, limb and property
of any person, nor at a speed greater than will permit him to bring the vehicle to stop within the
assured clear distance ahead.
PRESCRIBED RATE OF SPEED AS:

PER SECTION 35 OF REPUBLIC ACT 4136 KNOWN AS THE LAND
TRANSPORTATION & TRAFFIC CODE:
Maximum Passenger Cars Motor Trucks

Allowable Speed & Motorcycles & Buses
 On open country roads with no "Blind Corners" not closely bordered by

habitations.
80 km/hour 50 km/hour
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 On "Through Streets" or Boulevards, clear of traffic with no "Blind Corners",
when so designated.
 On city and municipal streets with light traffic, when not designated
"Through Streets".
 Through crowded streets approaching intersections at "Blind Corners",

passing school zones, passing other vehicles which are stationary or for
similar dangerous circumstances.
THE HEREIN PRESCRIBED RATE OF SPEED SHALL NOT APPLY TO THE FOLLOWING:
1.) A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls.
2.) The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of accident or other
emergency.
3.) Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment to a hospital, clinic or
any similar place.
4.) The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the armed forces while in use for official purposes
in times of riot, insurrection or invasion.
5.) The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a criminal.
6.) A law-enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic laws.
7.) The driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department provided that exemption
shall not construed to allow useless or unnecessary fast driving of drivers aforementioned.
OTHER TRAFFIC Special LAWS AND RULES:
1. (LTFRB) Memorandum Circular #91-014-Allowing Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ) to ply out of
line, emergency, and personal use of the operator’s immediate family.
2. PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NUMBER 96 - Declaring unlawful use or attachment of siren,

bells, horns, whistles, or similar gadgets that emit exceptionally loud or startling sounds,
including dome lights and other signaling or flashing devices on motor vehicles.
Exceptions:
 AFP
 NBI
 LTO
 PNP
 FIRE Department
 Hospital Ambulance
3. LETTER OF INSTRUCTIONS NUMBER 112 - Prevention for unnecessary destruction of

roads by careless users arising from non-observance of the load capacity of public roads and
bridges.
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4. LETTER OF INSTRUCTIONS NUMBER 229 - Directing the installation of Early
Warning Device on Motor Vehicles.
5. RA 7924 Metropolitan Manila Development Authority - An act that provides that the
MMDA shall enforce all Laws and regulations in Metro Manila thru its Traffic Operation
Center.
6. MMDA Regulation Number 96-003 - Authorizing Traffic Law Enforcer Agencies to TOW
and IMPOUND stalled motor vehicles and / or attachment thereof in any public road, street or
thoroughfare within Metropolitan Manila and providing penalties thereof.
Stalled Vehicle – Shall mean any motor vehicle and / or its attachment which for any
cause is unable to proceed under its own motive power and is on a public road, street
or thoroughfare such as:
 Mechanical and / or engine failure
 Electrical and / or battery failure
 No fuel or gasoline; and
 A flat tires and cannot move under its own motive power due to its heavy load.
7. Republic Act 8750 - An act requiring the mandatory compliance by motorists of private and
public vehicles to use seat belt devices, and requiring vehicle manufacturers to install seat belt
devices in all their manufactured vehicles.
8. LTO Administrative Order No. BGC-A0-004 - Implementing Rules and Regulations

governing the installation and use of seat belt devices and seat belt anchorage.
9. DOTC Memorandum Circular Number 19-005 - Prescribing proper conduct and decorum
during confrontation with or apprehension or traffic laws, ordinances, rules and regulations
violators.
10. Presidential Decree Number 1151 - Philippine Environmental Policy.
11. Republic Act 8749 - Clean Air Act of 1999 – An act providing for a comprehensive Air
Pollution Control Policy.
12. The general procedure for dealing with a traffic violation is not the arrest of the
offender, but the confiscation of the driver’s license Under R.A. 4136, or the Land
Transportation and Traffic Code, the general procedure for dealing with a traffic violation is
not the arrest of the offender, but the confiscation of the driver’s license of the latter.
13. The Revised Penal Code – “Art. 208. Prosecution of offenses; negligence and tolerance. –
The penalty of prision correccional in its minimum period and suspension shall be imposed
upon any public officer, or officer of the law, who, in dereliction of the duties of his office,
shall maliciously refrain from instituting prosecution for the punishment of violators of the
law, or shall tolerate the commission of offenses.”
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14. The Civil Code – “Art. 27. Any person suffering material or moral loss because a public
servant or employee refuses or neglects, without just cause, to perform his official duty may
file an action for damages and other relief against the latter, without prejudice to any
disciplinary administrative action that may be taken.”
15. “Art. 34. When a member of a city or municipal police force refuses or fails to render aid or
protection to any person in case of danger to life or property, such peace officer shall be
primarily liable for damages, and the city or municipality shall be subsidiarily responsible
therefor. The civil action herein recognized shall be independent of any criminal,
proceedings, and a preponderance of evidence shall suffice to support such action.”
16. “Art. 2189. Provinces, cities and municipalities shall be liable for damages for the death of,
or injuries suffered by, any person by reason of the defective condition of roads, streets,
bridges, public buildings, and other public works under their control or supervision.”
17. The Local Government Code – “Sec. 24. Liability for Damages. – Local government units
and their officials are not exempt from liability for death or injury to persons or damage to
property.”
18. PER SECTION 29 OF REPUBLIC ACT 4136 KNOWN AS THE LAND

TRANSPORTATION & TRAFFIC CODE:
SECTION 29. Confiscation of Driver’s License — Law enforcement and peace officers of

other agencies duly deputized by the Director shall, in apprehending a driver for any violation
of this Act or any regulations issued pursuant thereto, or of local traffic rules and regulations
not contrary to any provisions of this Act, confiscate the license of the driver concerned and
issue a receipt prescribed and issued by the Bureau therefor which shall authorize the driver to
operate a motor vehicle for a period not exceeding seventy-two hours from the time and date
of issue of said receipt. The period so fixed in the receipt shall not be extended, and shall
become invalid thereafter. Failure of the driver to settle his case within fifteen days from the
date of apprehension will be a ground for the suspension and/or revocation of his license.

19. Similarly, the Philippine National Police (PNP) Operations Manual provides the following
procedure for flagging down vehicles during the conduct of checkpoints: SECTION
7. Procedure in Flagging Down or Accosting Vehicles While in Mobile Car. This rule is a
general concept and will not apply in hot pursuit operations.
20. Republic Act No. 10930 - An act rationalizing and strengthening the policy regarding Driver's
License by extending the validity period of Driver's Licenses, and penalizing acts in violation
of its issuance and application, amending for those purposes section 23 of Republic Act No.
4136, as amended by Batas Pambansa Blg. 398 and Executive Order No. 1011, otherwise
known as the Land Transportation and Traffic Code
21. Republic Act No. 10913 - An Act Defining and Penalizing Distracted Driving
22. Republic Act No. 10666 - An Act Providing for the Safety of Children Aboard Motorcycles
23. Republic Act No. 10586 - An Act Penalizing Persons Driving Under the Influence of
Alcohol, Dangerous Drugs, and Similar Substances, and for Other Purposes
24. Republic Act No. 10054 - An Act Mandating All Motorcycle Riders to Wear Standard
Protective Motorcycle Helmets While Driving and Providing Penalties Thereof
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25. Republic Act No. 8794 - An Act Imposing a Motor Vehicle User's Charge on Owners of all
Types of Motor Vehicles and for Other Purposes
26. Republic Act No. 8750 - An Act Requiring the Mandatory Compliance by Motorists of
Private and Public Vehicles to Use Seat Belt Devices, and Requiring Vehicle Manufacturers to
Install Seat Belt Devices in All Their Manufactured Vehicles
27. Republic Act No. 8749 - An Act Providing for a Comprehensive Air Pollution Control Policy
and for Other Purposes
28. Republic Act No. 8730 - An Act Requiring the mandatory Compliance by Motorists of
Private and Public Vehicles to Use Seat Belt Devices and Requiring Vehicle Manufacturers to
Install Seat Belt Devices in All Their Manufactured Vehicles
29. Republic Act No. 4136 - An Act to Compile the Laws Relative to Land Transportation and
Traffic Rules, to Create a Land Transportation Commission and for Other Purposes.
(https://www.lto.gov.ph/issuances/republic-act.html, 2020.
CLASSIFICATION OF VEHICLES:
 PRIVATE – motor vehicle shall not be used for hire
under any circumstance (green green)
 FOR HIRE or PUV (yellow plates)
 GOVERNMENT – motor vehicles owned by the

government of the Phil or any of its political subdivisions. (red plates)
 DIPLOMATIC – motor vehicles owned by foreign

governments or by their duly accredited diplomatic officers in the Phil
and used in the discharge of their official duties. (blue plates)
Protocol/High-ranking government plates

• 1 - President
• 2 - Vice President
• 3 - Senate President
• 4 - Speaker of the House of
Representatives
• 5 - Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
• 6 - Cabinet Secretaries
• 7 - Senators
• 8 - Representatives (Congressmen)
• 9 - Associate Justices of the Supreme
Court
• 10 - Presiding Justice and other Justices
of the Court of Appeals, Solicitor General
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(President Arroyo abolished the OSG's protocol plate number '13' by virtue of Executive
Order No. 400-A)
• 11 - Chairman of the Commission on Elections
• 12 - Cabinet Undersecretary
• 14 - Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines and Chief, Philippine National Police
• 16 - Regional Trial Court Judges
• 17 - First Level Courts (Metropolitan Trial Court, Municipal Trial Court, Municipal Trial
Court in Cities and Shari'ah Circuit courts), added by Memorandum Order No. 297 signed by
President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on March 2, 2009.
(https://dotr.gov.ph/images/issuances/DO/2015/13.pdf)
Geographical designation
• "A" - Region I (Ilocos Region) and CAR (Cordillera Administrative Region)
• "B" - Region II (Cagayan Valley Region)
• "C", "R" - Region III (Central Luzon Region), "R" are overflow series since the "C" series
has been exhausted
• "D", "V" - Regions IV-A (CALABARZON) and IV-B (MIMAROPA), "V" are overflow
series
• "E" - Region V (Bicol Region)
• "F" - Region VI (Western Visayas Region)
• "G", "Y" - Region VII (Central Visayas Region), "Y" are overflow series
• "H" - Region VIII (Eastern Visayas Region)
• "J" - Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) and ARMM
• "K" - Regions X and XIII (Northern Mindanao and Caraga)
• "L" - Region XI (Davao Region)
• "M" - Region XII (SOCCSKSARGEN)
• "N" - National Capital Region, 1981-1982, 2009-2010
• "P" - National Capital Region, 1982-1991, 2010-present
• "T" - National Capital Region, 1991-1995
• "U" - National Capital Region, 1995-1997
• "W" - National Capital Region, 1997-2001
• "X" - National Capital Region, 2001-2005
• "Z" - National Capital Region, 2005-2009
I, O and Q are previously not used to avoid confusion with the numbers "1" & "0". But with
the recent exhaustion of the "Z" series, they are already used by reverting to the old "N"
series. A new serial scheme is implemented using these characters, instead of the third letter
coming into series (e.g. after ZAA-999 has been reached, ZAB-100) the middle letter is the
one being replaced (e.g. after NAI-999 series has been exhausted, NBI-100 will follow)
e.g. NAI 101, NQO 212, NOQ 323
Special designation
• "S" - Government
• "P", "T", "U" - Public utility vehicles (they usually begin with these letters but not always).
They always (since 1999) have "V", "W", "X", or "Y" in the middle of the letter block
(LLL).
e.g. PWM 757
31 | P a g e
Personalized plates
A motorist who would like to have personalized plates can have any letter combination he fancies
upon three conditions:
1. It is unique i.e., the plate does not have a registered duplicate anywhere else in the
Philippines.
2. The plate should not have the same format as government vehicles.
3. The motorist can afford to pay its PHP 25,000 ($500+) price tag.
There were many variations prior to the current format, and it depends on who is the
incumbent president; the trend of the slogan on the license plate first began within the Ramos
administration and followed by the next two presidents. This can be seen on what the slogan is
written at the bottom of the plate.
• PILIPINAS (most common format) (1981-1995, 2001-2003)
• PHILIPPINES 2000 (1995-2000)
• ANGAT PINOY 2004 (2000-2001)
• PERLAS NG SILANGAN (2001-2002)
• MATATAG NA REPUBLIKA (2003-present)
 National capital region
 N - 1979-1981
 P - 1981-1991
 T - 1991-1995
 U - 1995-1997
 W - 1997-2000
 X - 2000-2004
 Z - 2004 to present
 LAST DIGIT OF THE LICENSE PLATE NR
 1 - January
 2 - February
 3 - March
 4 - April
 5 - May
 6 - June
 7 - July
 8 - August
 9 - September
 0 - October
Middle digit
Number Week days
 1, 2,3 1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 4, 5, 6 8,9,10,11,12,12,14
 7, 8, 15,16,17,18,19,20,21
 9, 0 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28
 29, 30, 31
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_the_Philippines,2020)
ACTIVITY 3:
32 | P a g e
1. What are the classification of vehicles, enumerate at least 3 and explain?
2. What is the best remedy for traffic enforcer in case of any violations of traffic rules, explain at
least 3 paragraphs?
3. PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NUMBER 96 - Declaring unlawful use or attachment of siren, bells,
horns, whistles. What are the exception? Enumerate at least 7?
4. Enumerate at least 5 Special laws in connection with traffic laws?
5. What do you understand “Stalled Vehicle?”
6. Memorize ““Art. 2189. Provinces, cities and municipalities shall be liable for damages for the
death of, or injuries suffered by, any person by reason of the defective condition of roads, streets,
bridges, public buildings, and other public works under their control or supervision.
7. Enumerate at least 5 exception on the rule of speed limit?
Traffic Accident Investigation:
Definition of Terms
“Doctrine of the Last Clear Chance” - “The doctrine of the last clear chance” should
serve to guide the conduct of all drivers. In layman’s language, it mean “The Driver
who is better position to prevent the accident has the responsibility of preventing the
accident”. The prevention of traffic accident is first responsibility of all drivers.
Traffic – it is the movement of traffic units in a public thoroughfare.
Non-Traffic – it is a movement of traffic units in traffic way other than the public
thoroughfare.
Accident – Any chance event or unexpected happening causing catastrophe,

suffering or death and damage to property.
Traffic Accident – it is an accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
Non-Traffic Accident – it is an accident involving travel transportation on a traffic

way other than the public thoroughfare.
Motor Vehicle Accident – Any accident that results in unintended injury or property
damage attributed directly or indirectly to the motion of a motor vehicle on a road.
Motor Vehicle – any vehicle propelled by any power other than muscular power
using the public highway.
Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event:

Running off road
a. motor vehicle in traffic
Non-collision on road:
a. overturning
33 | P a g e
b. Other non-collision
Collision on road with Motor Vehicle versus:

a. other motor vehicle in traffic e. railroad train
b. pedestrian f. fixed object
c. parked motor vehicle g. other objects
d. bicycle
Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident:

Simultaneous factor:
a. road conditions
b. driver’s attitude
Sequential factor:
a. speed is greater or less than safe
b. defective vehicle
Operational factor:
a. road hazards
b. driver’s non compliance to traffic laws
Perception factor:
a. driver’s in ability to react promptly to a situation
b. driver’s faulty action to escape collision course
Chain of Events in Vehicular Accident:

 Perception of Hazard - Seeing, feeling or hearing and understanding the usual or unexpected
movement or condition that could be taken as a sign of the accident about to happen.
 Start of Evasive Action - The first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision course
or otherwise avoid the hazards.
 Initial Contact - A first accidental touching of an object of collision course with by a traffic unit in
motion.
 Maximum Engagement - Is the greatest collapse or overlap in a collision.
 Disengagement - the separation of traffic unit in motion from an object with which it has
collided. Force between the object ceases at this time.
 Stopping or Final Position - The place and time when the object involved in an accident finally
come to rest without application of power.
 Severity of Accident - the result of the accident, either death, injuries and property damage.
Classification of Accident According to Severity:
 Fatal accident - Any motor vehicle accident that results in death to one or more persons.
 Non-fatal accident - Any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries other than fatal (death) to
one or more persons.
 Property damage accident - Is any motor vehicle accident where there is no death or injury to
person but only to the motor vehicle or to another property injury or death to animal.
34 | P a g e
(https://www.coursehero.com/file/p5q2jah/Collision-between-automobiles-on-a-highway-
CHAIN-OF-EVENTS-IN-A-VEHICULAR)
CHAPTER III
CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO SEVERITY,
TRAFFIC UNIT AND CAUSES OF MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT and
Kinds of Traffic Accident
CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO SEVERITY:
a. Property Damage Accident – is any motor vehicle accident where three is no fatal or
injury to any person but only damage to the motor vehicle or to other property
including injury to animals.
b. Slight – accident causing slight damages to properties.
c. Non-FataL Injury Accident – any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries
other than fatal to one or more persons.
c.1 Less Serious – accidents causing less serious injuries to persons.
c.2 Serious – causing serious injuries to persons.
d. Fatal – any motor vehicle accidents that results in death to one or more persons.
TRAFFIC UNIT – is any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes as a pedestrian
or driver, including any vehicle, or animal which he is using. It applies not only to motor vehicle but also
to:
 Pedestrians;
 Cyclists;
 Street cars;
 Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
 Farm tractors; and
 Other road users in almost any combination.
Example: A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a pedestrian.
Concept of HAZARDS:
HAZARDS – A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a traffic unit and
another object develops due to the movement of either or both.
Example: A curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic unit in the path is also a hazard.
SAFE SPEED – The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road and traffic situation
ahead. Safe speed on the road is determined by the road rather than the particular driver of a vehicle.
Example: A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can be taken
comfortably.
35 | P a g e
PERCEPTION OF HAZARD – Seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the unusual or
unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as a sight of an accident about to
happen.
5 Common road hazards and how to deal with them
When emergency services responded to a

vehicle rollover in rural areas, it was an all-too-familiar scene for police officers and emergency services.
The dangerous combination of speed, soft edges and animals was to blame for the inexperienced driver
losing control and rolling the vehicle. While the vehicle was a ‘write-off’, the driver and passengers
escaped unharmed, but learned first-hand the many hidden dangers of common road hazards and to be
cautious at all times.
1 - Soft edges When it comes to avoiding potential car

accidents, it is imperative that drivers are aware of the
road conditions and drive accordingly. This is
particularly so when it comes to variable road
surfaces from cities, the arid outback and
everything in between.
In the country, gravel and dirt roads are common and

often have soft edges and verges. Avoid getting your wheels caught.
The first thing for drivers to do is slow down. Your speed should be no faster than 80km/hr.
Inexperienced drivers should avoid driving on dirt roads at night. A good way to visualise the hazard is to
liken the tyre to driving on a road surface of ball bearings. If you should hit a verge, don’t panic, hit the
brakes or pull the wheel.
2 – Rain after a long dry spell

Rain doesn’t seem very intimidating. But rain on the roads
after a long period of dry is a hidden hazard in Australia.
36 | P a g e
During extended dry spells road surfaces accumulate grease, grime, oil and other contaminants, which get
baked onto the surface by the harsh sun. When the rain eventually falls, these substances create a slimy,
slippery surface that provides a challenge to driver stability. It is similar to the effect black ice has when
you’re driving. It’s invisible so if you’re driving at too great a speed, you may find your car skating across
the road with little to no traction.
Be aware of this condition and adjust your speed accordingly.
It is also important to check tyres regularly, including tread and pressures to keep them at optimal
performance and safety.
3 – Wildlife & animals
Be aware that one of the danger times for hitting animals

and wildlife is at dusk.
It is nighttime and you are driving along on a country

road, sitting comfortably on the speed limit of 100kph.
Without warning, a kangaroo jumps out in front of the car.
Do you swerve to avoid it or put you foot on the brake and
run the risk of hitting the ‘roo’?
Be aware that one of the danger times for hitting animals and wildlife is at dusk.
Drive slower than you normally would and if there are no approaching vehicles, keep your lights on high
beam. If the situation should arise, it is always best to avoid swerving – because as already explained, that
will place you in danger of several other common road hazards.
In the event of an animal suddenly appearing on the road, the best course of action is to put on the brakes,
sound your horn and flash the lights
4 – Flooded roads
If it’s flooded, forget it! Every year people ignore the

warnings and road advice by regarding flooded roads.
There is always news of people in cars caught in high
water and in many cases, the outcome is fatal or
requires the help of emergency services and airlifts to
safety.
37 | P a g e
Instead, take the long way around or avoid driving altogether. When the water levels subside, a series of
other hazards emerge (like potholes and rough or
eroded surfaces). Drive with caution and maintain
lower speeds.
5 – Driver fatigue “I ran off the road. There were no

fences so there was no injury to myself but it really
alerted me to the issue of fatigue,” he says.
Driving between destinations in Australia can mean

long travel times and big stretches of road. It is
important to plan your trip in advance and work out
how far you will travel each day without compromising your personal safety or that of others on the road.
Signs of fatigue are many and in some cases, hard to pinpoint. A feeling of vagueness or a dreamy-like
state, restlessness, sore eyes, headache, yawning and difficulty maintaining concentration are just some
things to look out for.
Drink water, take a brisk walk and refresh.
Be aware of how long you have been awake and driving. Don’t start your journey after working all day (if
you can avoid it) and take a break every couple of hours.
Drink water, take a brisk walk and refresh. Australia has many driver reviver stops along its roadways —
many of which offer free coffee and biscuits — providing the perfect excuse to break the journey.
First, get a good night’s sleep. In addition to

stopping regularly, keep hydrated, maintain a
well-ventilated car and instead of pulling into
the nearest fast food joint for a heavy burger
and fries, try eating smaller, lighter meals.
Kids in the car can also be a distraction and
be tiring to manage when you’re driving long
distances. Pack some good games, have
devices fully charged and keep snacks and
water handy. Also, make scheduled stops to
break the boredom. (https://www.budgetdirect.com.au/blog/5-common-road-hazards.html
38 | P a g e
Using Turn or Hand Signals
Before making any turn, whether onto another roadway, a

parking lot, another traffic lane, or leaving a parked position, it is
important that you signal.
Your signal lets other drivers, cyclists, and pedestrians know

your intentions. You must give a proper turn signal at least 100 ft
(200 ft in some states, e.g.,Indiana) before turning or changing lanes.
LEFT HAND TURN, RIGHT HAND TURN and SLOW or

STOP Signal, respectively.
Consult your state's Drivers handbook for details. If your

vehicle's turn signals do not work, use hand signals as shown in the
next slides. (https://driversed.com/driving-information/driving-
techniques/using-turn-or-hand-signals)
ACTIVITY : 4
1. What are five (5) Common road hazards and how to deal with them?
2. What are the kinds of traffic accident, explain each?
3. What are the reasons why we should “Obey the Traffic Laws?
4. Explain the use of hand signals?
5. How is the crime of Art. 365. Imprudence and negligence, committed?
6. Enumerate the Plates of High ranking officials in the Government 1 to 17 ?
7. Explain the “Doctrine of the Last Clear Chance?
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CHAPTER IV
CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT and
STEPS TO BE TAKEN BY THE POLICE AS A TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCER
A. CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR

ACCIDENT:
For the purpose of reporting, traffic accident may
usually be described well enough as a single occurrence
but when accident is investigated, attention is directed to
particular stages of the occurrence. In fact, an accident
may be usually defined as a series of an expected events
leading to damage or injury. One event usually leads to
another so that the series can be spoken of as a “chain of
events”. Some of these events are described below:
B. Perception of hazard; “Chain of events”.

1. Perception of hazard – is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or unexpected
movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the accident about to happen.
2. Start of evasive action – is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision course
or otherwise avoid a hazard.
3. Initial Contact – is a first accidental touching of an object collision course of otherwise avoid a
hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement – is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision the force between the traffic
unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum engagement.
40 | P a g e
5. Disengagement – is separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it has
collided. Force between the object ceases at this time.
6. Stopping – is coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation.
7. Injury – is receiving bodily harm.
8. POINT OF NO ESCAPE – is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be
prevented by the traffic unit under consideration.
9. FINAL POSITION – is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally come to
rest without application of power.
C. FIVE (5) LEVELS OF ACTIVITY IN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION:

a. Reporting
b. At-scene investigation
c. Technical, preparation
d. Professional reconstruction
e. Cause analysis
D. STEPS TO BE TAKEN BY THE POLICE AS A TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCER DURING
TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:
STEP ONE
UPON LEARNING OF ACCIDENT:
A. ASKED FIRST:
1. When did the accident happen?
2. Exactly where was it?
3. How bad was it?
4. Did you see the accident happened?
5. Where can you be reached?
B. DECIDE WHETHER TO GO TO THE SCENE:

1. Will scene have been cleared by the time of arrival?
2. Is it in investigator’s area?
3. Should headquarters’ be informed or consulted?
C. THEN FIND OUT, IF NECESSARY:

1. Is traffic blocked?
2. Has ambulance been called?
3. Has wrencher been called?
4. Was fire apparatus called?
STEP TWO
A. UPON ARRIVAL AT THE SCENE OF ACCIDENT:

1. Select parking place carefully.
2. Is it safe?
3. Will it block traffic?
4. Can headlight illuminate scene?
5. Look over bystanders and others.
41 | P a g e
6. Look for drivers.
7. Look for possible witnesses.
8. For volunteers who will help you.
9. Get them under control
10. Have spilled gasoline guarded.
11. Look for fire and electrical hazards.
12. Look for traffic hazards.
13. Put out flares.
14. Ask helper to direct traffic
15. Keep bystanders off roadway.
16. Request help from headquarter if needed.
B. ARRANGE FOR ANY HELP: START FOR THE SCENE: With two way radio, you can do
two things while on the way.
Step 1
a. CHOOSE BEST APPROACH: Consider:
1. Time
2. Possible traffic jams
3. Possible route of driver involved and
4. Probable situation at scene.
b. DRIVE SAFELY:
Get there safely, if you get involved in accident yourself then other units
must be used.
c. BE ALERT FOR CARS LEAVING SCENE:

5. As possible witnesses or hit and run drivers.
6. Records registration numbers of any likely looking vehicles.
d. GET EQUIPMENT READY FOR USE:

So far as practical on the way.
e. LOOK FOR CONDITIONS CONFRONTING A DRIVER APPROACHING

SCENE:
7. Low visibility view obstructions, and
8. Traffic control devices.
f. NOTE HAZARDS TO APPROACHING TRAFFIC:

9. Drop helper to direct traffic if necessary
10. Look for physical evidence. Have it guarded until it can be examined,
collected or located.
Step 2
1. Look for congestion or potential congestions.
2. Direct traffic or have it directed.
3. CARE FOR INJURED:
a. Stop arterial bleeding
42 | P a g e
b. Call for help if necessary
c. Help injured from cars safely
d. Ask for emergency assistance from bystanders from any where.
4. LOCATE DRIVERS:
i. Consider possibility of hit and run accident and need to alert headquarters.
ii. Look for witnesses at scene, arrange to question and get names and addresses.
5. Measure location or short lived evidences.

6. Arrange for clearing roadway.
7. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.
Step 3
WHEN EMERGENCY IS UNDER CONTROL
a. PRELIMINARY QUESTIONING OF DRIVERS:

1. Who was driving each vehicle?
2. Note unpremeditated statement.
3. Look for signs of nervousness, confusion and intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars.

1. Question other witnesses especially bystanders in hurry to go.
2. It needed, get signed statement at once from why who may be hard to find later.
c. Examine drivers conditions

1. Get specimen for chemical test.
2. Question about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d. Question drivers carefully

1. Check license and record data from it.
2. Verify and identify address.
3. Check registration and record data.
4. Verify ownership and correct address.
5. Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e. Position and condition of vehicles.

1. Note lights and light switches
2. Note gear position and tires.
3. Mark position of vehicles if it must be removed.
4. Look for unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f. From preliminary opinion as to how accident occur:
g. Photography:
1. Photograph skidmark and location of vehicles.
2. Mark skidmark location for later measurement.
43 | P a g e
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be taken.
Step 4
AFTER GETTING SHORT-LIVED EVIDENCES:
1. Make test skids.

2. Decide whether proof of violation is sufficient for arrest.
3. If so, make arrest or issue citation.
4. Get additional formal statements, from witnesses remaining at the scene
5. Have road clear if traffic is obstructed.
a. Suggestion to drivers:
1. How much accidents can be avoided in the future.
2. Tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss them.
3. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved.
b. Look for:
1. View obstructions.
2. Traffic control devices, etc.
3. Probable points of perception.
4. Road surface conditions.
c. Complete examinations of vehicles.
d. Locate key event of accident.
e. Make additional photographs of vehicle damage.
1. Vehicle damage
2. View obstruction
3. Pavement’s conditions
4. Control devices, and general view, etc.
f. Establish exact location of accident and record it.

g. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
h. Review notes of evidence or testimony.
1. Get additional facts at scene.
2. Identify all notes with places and time.
i. Clean up location or arrange to have it done.

j. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone.
Step 5
AFTER LEAVING THE SCENE:
a. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.

b. Question drivers or witnesses:
1. At hospital or home if not adequately questioned.
2. Take need additional statements.
c. Notify:
1. Relatives of dead or injured;
2. Owner of vehicles.
44 | P a g e
d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical / laboratory test.
e. Have photograph developed, get prints if needed for report.
f. Complete the report of the accident.

1. Have copies made if necessary
2. File report and copies
g. Complete factual data on investigation report if not completed at scene.
h. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available for making it.
i. Reconstruction of the accident.
1. Estimate speeds of vehicles involved.
2. Draw scale diagram
3. Analyze angle of collision
4. Get technical help if necessary, and
5. Summarize opinions
j. Present case summary to a lawyer.
k. Complete report or investigation (file reports and notes).
l. Submit to superior for approval.
m. Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the scene which needs attention for
safety.
Step 6
IF CASE GOES TO COURT:
a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.

b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following:
1. Additional photographs of general scene and
2. Long-lived evidence
3. Measure for scale diagram for use in court.
4. Locate additional witnesses and review tier testimony.
4.1 Relatives and friends who confirm activities before the accident.
4.2 Technicians who developed pictures, made chemical tests, etc.
4.3 And experts who can help.
c. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court
d. Have large scale diagram made for use in court.
e. Pre-trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review testimony.
f. Insure that subpoenas are issued
g. Testify in court.
h. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future reference.
i. Insure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers record and other reports.
45 | P a g e
ACTIVITY 5:
1. Explain “Chain of event” in a vehicular accident?
2. Enumerate how “Chain of event” in a vehicular accident is

described?
3. What are the 5 levels of activity in a vehicular accident?
4. Enumerate the steps (1 to 6) taken by a traffic law enforcer

in a traffic accident?
5. Explain in step 6 “if the case is Going to court? What should an

Erring driver do in case he is guilty of Reckless driving that resulted to
Damages or injuries on the road?
6. What are five (5) Common road hazards and how to deal with
them?
7. Enumerate at least 5 reasons why we should “Obey the Traffic Laws?
CHAPTER V
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT REPORT and LISTING FOR INVESTIGATING ACCIDENTS:
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT REPORT:
A. Uniform Traffic Accident Reporting System OR

STEPS TO BE TAKEN BY THE POLICE AS A TRAFFIC
LAW ENFORCER DURING TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
46 | P a g e
B. Preparation of Traffic Accident report:
1. By a competent bonafide traffic accident investigator.
2. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence gathered,
diagrams, sketches as well as sworn statements of witnesses.
3. Traffic Accident Investigation Report will be accomplished in five (5) copies:
A. For the Court or Prosecutor’s Office;
B. For TRAFCOM;
C. For the Investigator
D. For the Insurance company of Party-involved #1; and
E. For the Insurance company of Party-involved #2.
C. PARTIAL CHECK LIST FOR INVESTIGATING ACCIDENTS:
The following check list will assist the accident investigation to evaluate the quality of his
investigations. It may be used as an administrative tool to determine the quality of accident
investigation that will be used as a standard.
(Check One)
STEPS IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT : : Yes : : No :
INVESTIGATION : Good : Fair : Poor : :
I. Get to Scene Quickly and Safely

1. Respond Immediate to Call : : : : :
2. Drove carefully on way : : : : :
3. Parked properly at scene : : : : :
II. Care for Injured

1. Made immediate inquiry for
injuries : : : : :
2. Provide first aid, or for
medical attention : : : : :
3. Handled injured properly : : : : :
4. Safeguard properly injured : : : : :
III. Safeguard Scene

1. Took precautions to prevent further
accident : : : : :
2. Prove for orderly handling of traffic : : : : :
3. Obtained required help in handling
the accident : : : : :
4. Prevented destruction of evidence : : : : :
5. Parked car properly : : : : :
IV. Determine if Hit-and-run

1. Quickly located drivers : : : : :
2. Observed condition of drivers : : : : :
3. “Listened” to drivers’ story : : : : :
47 | P a g e
4. Took notes on drivers’ story : : : : :
5.”Questioned” drivers about the
accident : : : : :
V. Seek and Interview Witnesses

1. Made proper search for witnesses : : : : :
2. Techniques used in search for
witnesses : : : : :
3. Approached witnesses : : : : :
4. “Listened” to witness’ story : : : : :
5. “Questioned” witnesses on pertinent
information : : : : :
6. Asked witnesses to write out his
statement : : : : :
7. Asked for witnesses’ signatures to
statements taken : : : : :
8. “Handled” witnesses interview
properly. : : : : :
VI. Examine Physical Evidence

1. Checked position of vehicles on
roadway : : : : :
2. Checked traffic control devices : : : : :
3. Checked damage of vehicles : : : : :
4. Checked brakes of vehicles : : : : :
5. Checked obstruction to view : : : : :
6. Checked condition of roadway : : : : :
7. Checked marks and materials on
roadway surface. : : : : :
VII. Compare Statements of Drivers and Witnesses

1. Checked statement against each
other : : : : :
2. Checked with drivers and / or
witnesses on statements inconsistent
with each other or physical condition : : : : :
3. Decision at this point, tentatively at
least on any violation of law involved : : : : :
VIII. Witnesses Repeat Statement In Presence of Drivers and Investigator

1. Brought drivers and witnesses together : : : : :
2. Stories repeated in presence of each
drivers and investigator : : : : :
3. Drivers permitted to reply to statement
made : : : : :
4. Procedure handled tactfully by investigator : : : : :
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IX. Secure Written Statement of Drivers
1. Drivers asked to write out their story : : : : :
2. Drivers asked to sign statement they made : : : : :
3. Signed statement obtained : : : : :
4. Procedure handled efficiently by
investigators : : : : :
X. Take Photograph and Measurements

1. Proper photograph taken : : : : :
2. Tire and skid marks tied in with vehicles : : : : :
3. Marked properly measurement : : : : :
4. Diagram of accident made, both drivers
signed it : : : : :
XI. Take Appropriate Enforcement Action

1. Investigator identified violations involved : : : : :
2. Proper charges placed against the violator : : : : :
3. Evidence obtained to satisfy all elements
of charge made : : : : :
4. Investigator detected all pertinent
evidence : : : : :
XII. Obtain Complete Factual Data

1. All pertinent data on accident obtained. : : : : :
2. All obtained data factual : : : : :
3. “On the Scene” notes taken by
investigators : : : : :
4. Complete investigation made by
Investigators : : : : :
XIII. Pre-Report Follow-up

1. Mechanical inspection of vehicles
was made : : : : :
2. Participants not at scene, interviewed : : : : :
3. Witnesses not at scene, interviewed : : : : :
4. All other follow-up requirements made : : : : :
XIV. Write up Report

1. Investigator obtained sufficient data : : : : :
2. Investigator obtained accurate data : : : : :
3. Proper diagram included in report : : : : :
4. Sound opinions also included in the report : : : : :
5. Finished report meets of department records : : : : :
ACTIVITY 6:
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1. What is the process of “Preparation of Traffic Accident report?”

4. How Reckless Imprudence resulting to Homicide is committed?
5. Enumerate at least fourteen (14) steps in traffic accident?
6. What is the crime committed in cases the traffic accident is

Intentional, with clear and evident premeditation?
And how is the crime committed?
7. Explain the most common distraction that lead to traffic accident?
CHAPTER VI
SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
A. SKIDMARKS, defined.
The sudden application of brakes which results in the

locked wheel condition places such a great pressure
between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the
frictional force at this point becomes greater than the
frictional force between the tire and the road surface.
When this condition exists, the wheels skid.
B. SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
One of the main reasons for studying and measuring skid marks at the scene of a traffic accident is
to get some idea how fast the car which left these marks was going prior to the accident.
Estimates of speed based on skid marks sometimes lead to convictions in connection with an
accident. On the other hand, knowing how to estimate speed correctly may help to keep an innocent
person from being convicted.
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For example, skid marks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene. A test skid made 20
miles per hour showed 20 feet long skid marks.
It was argued in court that with skid marks 20 feet long from a speed of 20 miles per hour, the car
must be going 80 miles per hour to leave 80 feet skid marks. The driver was unjustly convicted. His
actual speed was more nearly half of that, or 40 miles per hour.
C.SKIDMARKS AS EVIDENCE IN ACCIDENT CASES:

Skid marks are useful in several ways:
1. Aid in determining the speed of the car prior to
the accident or collision.
2. It will show if the vehicle was traveling in the
wrong distance or on the wrong side of the road.
3. It will indicate if the driver failed to observe the
right of way.
4. It will also show if the driver did not obey a
traffic signal.
D. SKIDMARKS DO NOT SHOW ALL THE SPEED:
Skid marks never show all of the speed of a car before the accident happened. They show only
how far the car would have had to slide to stop in the distance shown by skid marks.
Evidence of additional speed. A car is somewhat going faster and often faster is calculated from
skid marks because in addition to losing speed is sliding the distance shown by the skid marks, the car
also losses some of its speed on one or more of the following ways:
1. SLIDING WITH ONE OR MORE WHEELS BEFORE ANY SKIDMARKS BEGIN TO

APPEAR - Dark clear skid marks do not appear until the tires have slid far enough to got hot
enough to smear rubber or scar on the pavement. This is less true on such materials as gravel
and dirt.
2. BRAKING WITHOUT SKIDDING - Before sliding begins during gaps after marks and
before the car comes to rest. Usually, braking just the wheels start to slide actually shows the
car more than after the wheels starts to slide.
3. DRAGGING THE CAR AS IT HITS SOME OBJECT - The crumpling ands mashing some of
parts of the car slows the car down rapidly.
4. DAMAGING OTHER CARS OR OBJECTS
5. SLIDING OTHER CARS OR OBJECTS ALONG THE ROADWAY.
6. VAULTING OR BOUNCING UP INTO THE AIR.
In many accident of course, other is evidence of terrific speed is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF
DAMAGE), but there are no skid marks at all because brakes were not put on hard enough to lock the
wheels.
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In an accident in which brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the skid marks maybe
only two or three feet long and therefore, show a speed of only five or six miles per hour. Whereas, the
wreckage tells us that the total speed may have been ten times as great.
In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated from skid marks
may come close to showing how fast he car was actually going. Accidents involving pedestrians are the
most common ones of this kind.
In any accident in which great damage was done will skid marks show more than small part of the
speed, often a very minor part of it; but if the skid marks have been rightly identified and measured, it can
be said that the car was going faster than the speed calculated from the skid marks, much faster if there
was considerable damage.
E. THINGS THAT DETERMINE SKIDDING DISTANCE:
How far a car will take to skid or slide to stop when all four wheels are locked depends on many
things. Three of these factors are important, and you must consider them in every estimate of speeds
based on skid marks.
1. SPEED ITSELF IS BY FAR THE MOST IMPORTANT
2. SLIPPERINESS OF THE PAVEMENT
3. GRADE OR SLOPE OF THE ROAD UP OR DOWN.
Every driver knows, of course, that it takes much longer to stop on pavements that are slippery,
and that he can stop more quickly on an upgrade than downgrade road.
Of many other factors on which distance depends, none has had a very great effect. Most of them
will affect a calculated speed by only a few miles per hour. They therefore have a little effect on the
speed calculated form the skid marks usually not more than a couple of miles per hour.
F. Other factors on Determining the Distance, are the following:
1. BRAKE PEDAL PRESSURE - When

wheels are actually sliding, additional brake
pedal pressure will not make the stop any
quicker. Once the wheels have been locked
and the car is sliding, the brakes have done all
they can in slowing the car and the grab of the
pavement on the tires is what determines how
fast the car will slow down.
2. WEIGHT OF THE CAR - Makes a great difference in stopping distance before the wheels lock, but
once they have locked, it makes a very little difference. It is true that it takes much greater pressure to
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lock the wheels on a vehicles when it is heavily loaded than it is empty. However, when the wheels are
once locked, a greater weight of the vehicle, which gives it greater momentum, also causes it to press
harder on the road surface and therefore, give it a corresponding greater drag from the pavement.
3. TIRE TREAD - On the most ordinary surfaces, a smooth tire and one with a deep tread pattern will
stop the car in about the same distance. On some other surfaces, particularly on ice, a smooth tread is
better because it distributes the weight over greater area.
4. AIR PRESSURE - Makes a very slight difference in stopping distance. On ice, for example, soft
tire will distribute the weight a little more and give somewhat better traction.
5. TIRE MATERIAL - There is a slight difference between tires made of synthetic and those made
of natural rubber.
6. ROAD SURFACE - Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and on ice, tires equipped with chains have
a better road-gripping capacity. On some hard pavements, however, chains may decrease road
gripping capacity.
7. DIRECTION OF SLIDES - Makes a slight but unimportant difference. A tire will lengthwise
except in materials so soft that it ploughs or sinks.
8. TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR AND ROAD SURFACE - Make some difference. In general,
on ordinary pavements, hot weather produces longer stopping distance. This is not necessary on
ice and snow.
9. AGAINST A HEAD WIND - A car will slide a little farther from given speed with a tall wind
than against a head wind, but this is not a matter of great importance. For most ordinary purposes,
you do not have to consider those minor factors in establishing speeds from skid marks.
G. LENGTH OF SKIDMARKS
In determining the Length of Skidmars, consider the following:
1. Be sure they are skid marks – not just tire marks.
2. Did all wheels slide or just some of them? It makes little difference if tire is sliding forward or
sidewise.
3. Are there any gaps in the skid marks? Be sure there are gaps caused by a release of brake pedal
pressured and not skids caused by bounced.
4. What is the length of each skid marks around any curves; it may not make straight from beginning
to the end in the shortest line. You may want to consider two separate lengths for each skid
marks. One of these is based on the part of the skid mark you can positively identify. It gives you
speed which will be minimum beyond reasonable doubt. The others is a possible skid mark which
will give you a more likely speed. The first is all you can use in court, the second is often much
useful in figuring out just what did happen in the accident.
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5. Use the length that the wheel skid, not the tire slid. Dual tires which leave two marks are
considered as one wheel, and the skid mark length is counted if either tire on the wheel leaves this
mark.
H. REACTION TIME
Reaction Time - This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes:
a. Divide seconds in an hour (3, 600) into feet in a mile (5, 280) = 1, 467.
b. To determine distance you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50) times
the speed which you are traveling.
c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is ¾ of a second on the
average. The age of the driver should be considered.
d. 1.5 x speed = length in feet covered before brake works for you.
I. PROCEDURE FOLLOWED BY THE PNP
a. The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the skid marks and the Court
interprets the facts in the light of other evidence.
1. Some courts require the assistance of an expert.

2. Measurements should be accomplished by two men.
3. Sketches and photographs with measurements indicated should be made soon after the
accident.
b. Some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from the legal speed limit,
if this can be done safely, and compare the skid marks with those in the accident.
c. Some would draw conclusions from tests on physical calculation.
J.MEASUREMENT OF SKIDMARKS
a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the skid marks and the distances to
embankment of other fixed constructions should verify each other’s measurements so that they
can corroborate each other’s testimony in court.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skid marks were made by the suspect car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court.
K. BASIC PRINCIPLES IN CALCULATING SPEEDS FROM SKIMARKS:
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Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed possesses energy. As the speed of
the vehicle increases, the resulting energy developed is said to increase as the square of the ratio of the
increase in speed.
EXAMPLES:
20 kph = 40
30 kph = 90
40 kph = 160
L. STOPPING A MOTOR VEHICLE

Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped, the energy which it possesses at that time must be
expended/absorbed or spent. It is only when most or all of the vehicle’s energy is expended through
skidding of tires that a fairly accurate calculation may be made of the vehicle’s speed before the accident.
M. TEST RUNS;
Steps; Calculations for speeds from skid marks:
In making calculations for speeds from skid marks, it is often necessary to conduct one or more
test runs, using the vehicle involved in the accident or, if it cannot be driven, another vehicle of similar
characteristics may be used.
a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident occurred. The character of the
road, whether wet or dry, should be the same.
b. Conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same direction.
c. The vehicle’s speedometer should be checked, and any difference from accurate calibrations
should be noted.
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should be selected for the test run.
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible when the car is moving at the selected
test speed.
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.

g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be accurately determined using
such equipment, either mechanically or electrically operated.
h. Generally, it is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the selected speed. The test producing
the longest braking distance, that which favors the defendant most, is generally used in the
calculation.
i. To avoid possible differences in the application of brakes by the driver, it may be advisable to
have the driver of the accidents vehicle drive the car in the test runs.
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N. SPEED CALCULATION - When a vehicle is stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to calculate
the speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the skid by using the formula based on the principle that the
skidding or braking distance vary as the square of the speed.
O. FORMULAS USED IN FINDING SPEED ESTIMATES:
The following are some of the formulas being used in conducting reconstruction, particularly
the speed estimates (mph) to wit:
01. S = 5.5 . / DF = (speed on a level road)
02. S = 5.5. / DF = uphill or downhill
03. D = S2 / 30 F = Skid marks
04. F = S2 / 30 D = Drag Factor
WHERE:
S = speed (mph)
F = coefficient of friction (drag factor)
f = grade (1, 2, 4) or super elevation
D = distance (feet)
P. When accident vehicle cannot be driven, Effects:

When the vehicle is damaged so badly that if cannot be driven, part of the vehicle’s energy
is expended in damaging the car and the object struck. A calculation of speed form skid marks left
under these circumstances gives a speed based only on the amount of energy expended in the
skidding. Consequently, the resulting speed value may be considerably less than the actual pre-
accident speed, since it is not possible to determine how much farther the vehicle would have skidded
had there been no collision.
ACTIVITY 7:
1. What are the purposes of traffic accident investigation?
2. How is skid mark used in traffic accident?
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4. Define “reaction time?”
5. What are the formulas used in finding the estimated speed?
6. What are the effects if the car in a traffic accident cannot be driven?
7. Enumerate step by-step-the Calculations for speeds from skid marks?
CHAPTER VII
Debris, Damage, Scratches and Gouges
Debris
A. Vehicle debris
Vehicle debris is detached material from a
vehicle. It results when the vehicle strikes or is struck
by something else. The primary use of vehicle debris is
to determine the point of impact. In hit-and-run cases,
vehicle debris can be used to help identify the suspect
vehicle and help determine the vehicle's direction and
actions after the impact.
Types of vehicle debris are:

a. Underbody debris, such as rust, dirt,
mud.
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b. Parts of the vehicle, such as chrome, glass, paint marks.
c. Vehicle fluids, such as water, gas, oil.
d. Cargo, either solid or fluid.
e. Road materials, such as dirt, tar, asphalt.
f. Body fluid from victims, such as blood.
g. Clothing from victims.
B. Damage:
Damage includes, that occurring to the vehicles and to the roadway or fixed objects along
the roadway. Damage can provide information concerning the chain of events, color of vehicles,
damaged areas on vehicles, and may indicate the final resting position of vehicles. Vehicle
damage may be either contact or induced.
C. Scratches and Gouges:

These are masks made into the roadway by parts of the vehicle. They assist in determining the
speed of the vehicle and the chain of events.
D. Tire Marks
Tire marks are the marks left at the scene of an accident by the vehicles involved. They are caused
by rotating or sliding tires. The table below shows the types of marks. Tire marks are the prime
means of estimating minimum speed of vehicles, and the path of vehicles before, during and after
impact.
E. Classes Rotating Tires

 Prints--Tires leave prints on a road surface after rolling through a wet substance. This
print will reveal the tire tread pattern, cuts, bald spots, etc.
 Imprints--Tires rolling through soft materials such as mud, dirt or sand leave imprints.
Scuff Marks--Scuff marks are left on the road by tires that are sliding or
scrubbing while the wheel is still turning.
Types of Scuff Marks:

1. Decelerating scuffs--These occur at the beginning of
skidmarks after the brake has been applied enough to slow
the wheels so they drag, but before the wheels are locked.
2. Side scuffs--These marks are left by a tire sliding
sideways, without braking. Close striations are a
characteristic of side scuffs. The striations are narrow,
parallel, light grooves, scratches or stripes.
3. Combination scuffs--These are combinations of sliding
with decelerating or side scuffs. They can be caused by a vehicle braking and steering at
the same time, or steering and applying power at the same time.
4. Flat tire scuffs--These are marks left on the road by the edges of an under inflated or
greatly overloaded tire. There are two distinct marks for each tire, leaving a flat tire scuff.
Sliding Tires
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When a wheel is not rotating and the vehicle is in motion, the tire is sliding. There are five types
of marks left by a sliding tire. These are skidmarks, yaw marks, a combination of skid and yaw
marks, skip skids and gap skids.
Skid marks--These marks can appear as a straight or broken line. They occur when brakes are locked and
the vehicle continues moving in the original direction. There is a distinct difference between front tire and
rear tire skid marks. Front tire marks appear dark on the outer edges and light in the center; while rear tire
marks are darker in the center and light on the outside edge.
Yaw marks--These are caused by a turning

movement in the tires while the vehicle is still
traveling in the same general direction. They are
normally wider than skid or scuff marks. However,
they may be narrower when just the edge of a tire is
in contact with the road surface.
Combination marks--Sliding tires can show a
combination of skid and yaw marks. As with all
sliding marks, there is a lack of signs of steering and
tread pattern.
Skip skidmarks are caused when a braking wheel jumps over a rut, bump or hole. They may also
be left by rear wheels which are jumping on the springs. Skips are usually one or two feet (.4 to .5
meters) long, but may be longer if the vehicle was traveling at a high rate of speed.
Skips and Gap Skids

Gap skidmarks are caused when the pressure on the brakes is released. When pressure is
reapplied, the marks continue. Gaps are rarely less than 10 feet (3 meters) in length. When
measuring a skidmark with gaps, the gap lengths are not included in the total measurement.
Measuring Tire Marks
G. Skidmark measurements must include:

 Darker portion of the skidmarks caused by friction on pavement.
 Light gray or dark shaded area called the shadow.
 Any uncolored portion of road surface that shows scratches caused by material between
the tire and road surfaces.
If photographs of the marks are needed, they should be taken first. Next, the dark portions
and the shadow should be marked with chalk. The shadow is viewed by looking at the skid from a
low angle, such as with your eyes approximately one foot above the ground. Measurements are
then made. Skip skids are included in the measurements--gap skids are not included.
ACTIVITY 9:
1. Distinguished skid mark from scuff marks to yaw marks?

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3. What are types of scuff marks?
4. Enumerate at least seven (7) types of vehicle debris?
5. What is necessary included in skid mark measurement and explain

each?
6. Enumerate and explain the classes of rotating tires?
7. Distinguished Debris, Damage, Scratches and Gouges Debris?

CHAPTER VIII
HIT and RUN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
1. RATIONALE; Investigation of motor vehicle accident
The objective of the investigation of motor vehicle accident involving the flight of one of the
participants in Two Fold.
First, responsibility for the collision must be determined and secondly, the identity of the driver
of the vehicle who fled the scene must be established,
This text will discuss the latter of these objectives, the identification of the driver who left the
scene without complying with the legal requirement of stopping, giving aid and identifying himself to the
other participants.
2.HIT AND RUN CASES DEFINED:
Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a

traffic accident in which a driver fails to comply with any of
the duties required (Sec. 55 of RA 4136).
Further, it states that no driver of a motor vehicle

concerned in a vehicle accident shall leave the scene of the
accident without aiding the victim, except under any of the
following circumstances:
a) If the driver is imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or

persons by reason of the accident;
b) If the driver reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law; or
c) If the driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.
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3. TWO IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS - In any investigation of this kind of accident, two basic
considerations must be kept in mind. These are:
1. The driver who flees the scene of an accident is not necessarily the driver responsible
for the accident - His reason for flight are often more important than the simple evasion
of responsibility. He may be wanted for another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid
license, etc.
2. The hit-and-run driver often will report the damage to his own vehicle as having been
the result of another hit-and-run accident in which some “other mysterious driver”
fled without identifying himself - Similarly, it is not unusual for the hit-and-run driver
to abandon his vehicle and then report it stolen as a means of covering up his involvement
in the accident.
As stated earlier, the basic objectives of these investigations is the identification of the driver who
fled the scene. The discovery and arrest of the driver, once identified generally comes after the location
and of the vehicle.
However, the mere recovery of the vehicle does not always immediately establish the identity of
the driver.
4. ELEMENTS OF HIT-AND-RUN
a. You must prove

suspect was driving the vehicle at the time of the
accident. Even if you have witnesses to prove this,
get evidence to disprove his alibi.
b. Suspect was involved

in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or
damage to property.
c. Suspect failed to stop,

give aid or information as to his identify to other
person (s) involved, to police or to anyone at the accident scene; or failed to take reasonable steps
to notify the owner of damaged property other than a vehicle. Do not overlook the possibility of a
simulated second accident to explain damaged caused by the first accident.
d. Suspect had knowledge of the accident.
1. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the

accident.
2. Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle
would preclude allegation of lack of knowledge. If suspect refrained from using his vehicle
for several days since the accident, this would also indicate the guilt.
3. Guard against claims that the vehicles was stolen to evade
responsibility.
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5. CLASSES OF HIT-AND-RUN DRIVERS
a. Drunk drivers
b. Criminals fleeing from the scene of the crime.
c. Improperly licensed drivers, or drivers with no

license or with revoked or expired license.
d. Drivers who fear publicity and prosecution.
e.
Ignorance of the accident.
f.
Driver who flees in panic
g.
Drug addicts.
h.
Insurance or financial reasons.
i. Juveniles.
6. PRELIMINARY STEPS on checklist on Accident Investigation:
a. Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.
b. Obtain the best possible description of the car and driver.

1. A good description may be obtained from partial descriptions given by witnesses.
2. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
3. Concentrate on the car’s description first
4. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the Headquarters and
to police agencies that may assist in spotting and stopping the suspect vehicle.
5. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car and river to all police units and offices.
6. Try to determine the damage to the feeling car.
c. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.
d. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence.

1. These may include broken glasses and fragments, hubcaps, paint scrapping from
hit-and-run car, other evidence such as dirt from subject car, radiator ornament, etc.
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2. Carefully preserve and label all evidence found at the scene.
3. Request laboratory study of evidence.
4. Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to the scene of the
accident. This has been known to happen.
e. the Victim
1. Check his clothing; other parts of his body, tire marks, grease, paint chips,
fragments, and such things that might have been left on him by the suspect car.
2. If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood from him at the
morgue and samples of hair, skin, etc.
3. Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and other items
he was wearing at the time of the accident.
7. FOLLOW UP INVESTIGATION
a. Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit-and-run driver;
also operators of filling stations and garages.
b. Canvass parking lots and other filling stations
CHAPTER IX - DRIVING
Basic Concepts, Principles and Safety Tips
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A. Basic Concepts - As a defensive driver, you can avoid crashes and help lower your risk behind the
wheel. If you've been out on the roads, you know that not everyone drives well — but most people think
they do. Some drivers speed aggressively. Others wander into another lane because they aren't paying
attention. Drivers may follow too closely, make sudden turns without signaling, or weave in and out of
traffic.
Aggressive drivers are known road hazards, causing one third of all traffic crashes. But inattentive
or distracted driving is becoming more of a problem as people "multitask" by talking on the phone,
texting or checking messages, eating, or even watching TV as they drive.
You can't control the actions of other drivers. But updating your defensive driving skills can help
you avoid the dangers caused by other people's bad driving.
B. Principles and Safety Tips – Skills That Put You in Control. Before you get behind the wheel of that
two-ton frame of glass and steel, here are some tips to help you stay in control:
 Stay focused. Driving is primarily a thinking task, and you have a lot of things to think about
when you're behind the wheel: road conditions, your speed and position, observing traffic laws,
signs, signals, road markings, following directions, being aware of the cars around you, checking
your mirrors — the list goes on. Staying focused on driving — and only driving — is critical to
safe driving.
Distractions, like talking on the phone or eating, make a driver less able to see potential problems and
properly react to them. It's not just teen drivers who are at fault: People who have been driving for a while
can get overconfident in their driving abilities and let their driving skills get sloppy. All drivers need to
remind themselves to stay focused.
 Stay alert. Being alert (not sleepy or under the influence) allows you to react quickly to potential
problems — like when the driver in the car ahead slams on the brakes at the last minute.
Obviously, alcohol or drugs (including prescription and over-the-counter drugs) affect a driver's
reaction time and judgment. Driving while drowsy has the same effect and is one of the leading
causes of crashes. So rest up before your road trip.
C.Using Turn or Hand Signals
Before making any turn, whether onto another roadway, a parking lot, another traffic lane, or
leaving a parked position, it is important that you signal.
Your signal lets other drivers, cyclists, and pedestrians know your intentions. You must give a
proper turn signal at least 100 ft (200 ft in some states, e.g.,Indiana) before turning or changing lanes.
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Consult your state's Drivers handbook for details. If your vehicle's turn signals do not work, use
hand signals as shown in the next slides.
LEFT HAND TURN RIGHT HAND TURN SLOW DOWN or STOP
D.Eight Secrets of Super Driving
When you drive defensively, you're aware and ready for whatever happens. You are cautious, yet ready to take
action and not put your fate in the hands of other drivers. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, 90%
of all crashes are attributed to driver error.
Following these defensive driving tips can help reduce your risk behind the wheel:
1. Think safety first. Avoiding aggressive and inattentive

driving tendencies yourself will put you in a stronger
position to deal with other people's bad driving. Leave
plenty of space between you and the car in front. Always
lock your doors and wear your seatbelt to protect you from
being thrown from the car in a crash.
2. Be aware of your surroundings — pay attention. Check
your mirrors frequently and scan conditions 20 to 30
seconds ahead of you. Keep your eyes moving. If a vehicle
is showing signs of aggressive driving, slow down or pull over to avoid it. If the driver is driving so dangerously
that you're worried, try to get off the roadway by turning right or taking the next exit if it's safe to do so. Also, keep
an eye on pedestrians, bicyclists, and pets along the road.
3. Do not depend on other drivers. Be considerate of others but look out for yourself. Do not assume another driver
is going to move out of the way or allow you to merge. Assume that drivers will run through red lights or stop signs
and be prepared to react. Plan your movements anticipating the worst-case scenario.
4. Follow the 3- to 4-second rule. Since the greatest chance of a collision is in front of you, using the 3- to 4-second
rule will help you establish and maintain a safe following distance and provide adequate time for you to brake to a
stop if necessary. But this rule only works in normal traffic under good weather conditions. In bad weather,
65 | P a g e
increase your following distance an additional second for each condition such as rain, fog, nighttime driving, or
following a large truck or motorcycle.
5. Keep your speed down. Posted speed limits apply to ideal conditions. It's your responsibility to ensure that your
speed matches conditions. In addition, higher speeds make controlling your vehicle that much more difficult if
things go wrong. To maintain control of your vehicle, you must control your speed.
6. Have an escape route. In all driving situations, the best way to avoid potential dangers is to position your vehicle
where you have the best chance of seeing and being seen. Having an alternate path of travel also is essential, so
always leave yourself an out — a place to move your vehicle if your immediate path of travel is suddenly blocked.
7. Separate risks. When faced with multiple risks, it's best to
manage them one at a time. Your goal is to avoid having to deal
with too many risks at the same time.
8. Cut out distractions. A distraction is any activity that diverts
your attention from the task of driving. Driving deserves your full
attention — so stay focused on the driving task.
Safe driving! (https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/driving-safety.html)
ACTIVITY 8:
1. Enumerate at least eight (8) defensive driving tips can help

reduce your risk behind the wheel? “Eight Secrets of Super Driving”
2. What are the elements of HIT and RUN accident?
3. Enumerate at least seven (7) classes of hit and run drivers?
4. Illustrate the use and turn of hand signals?
5. In any investigation on hit and run accident, two basic considerations must
be kept in mind?
6. What is the rationale (in two fold) why hit and run traffic accident
on motor vehicle collision?
7. Explain “3- to 4-second rule?”
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~~~~~~~ References ~~~~~~
References
1. saferoutes.vermont.gov
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_Transportation_Office_(Philippines
)
3. https://www.bigwas.com/2014/11/traffic-management-and-accident-
investigation-reviewer.html
4. https://www.pinow.com/articles/2348/traffic-accident-investigations
5. https://www.philstar.com/metro/2011/06/04/692501/doj-defines-
reckless-driving#:~:text=The%20DOJ
6. https://www.coursehero.com/file/p5q2jah/Collision-between-
automobiles-on-a-highway-CHAIN-OF-EVENTS-IN-A-VEHICULAR
7. https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/driving-safety.html
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
"Note: Information in this workbook was gathered and compiled

from several sources as indicated in the references. Due
acknowledgment is hereby given to said sources. By herein
compilation, good faith and due diligence were observed
for legitimate purposes and ends.
67 | P a g e

Tami Cdi 4 Finality 12

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LEARNING PACKETS

"Note: Information in this workbook was gathered and compiled from

Course Learning Plan (Week 1 to 5) August 24 –September 25

Week 2 CHAPTER I Explain the concepts of Home-based activity with

Week 5 CHAPTER III Discussion on: Home-based activity with

Course Learning Plan (Week 6 to 9) September 28 to October 23

Week 7 CHAPTER IV Discussion on: Home-based activity with

Course Learning Plan (Week 10 to 14) October 26 to November 20

Week 11 CHAPTER V Discussion on: Home-based activity with

Week 12 CHAPTER V Discussion on: Home-based activity with

Week 13 CHAPTER VI Home-based activity with

Course Learning Plan (Week 14 to 18) November 23 to December 25

Week 15 Discussion on: Home-based activity with

Course Learning Outcomes:

2: Demonstrate competence and broad understanding in terms of traffic management accident in

5: Collaborate effectively and independently in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural teams

Class Assessment and Grading System

FATHER OF TRAFFIC SAFETY

OBEYING TRAFFIC LAWS

e. MOTOR VEHICLE – is every device which is self-propelled

Causes of Traffic Congestion – Types of Congestion

Phantom Traffic Jams:

4. Infrastructure (Recurring)- Another category that could also arguably be human-caused is

AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF TRAFFIC

AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRAFFIC EDUCATION

3. PURPOSE OF DRIVER EDUCATION

Five (5) E’s of Traffic –

LAND TRANSPORTATION OFFICE (LTO)

A. Historical Background - Land Transportation Commission

Establishment of the Land Transportation Office

c. Fines and Penalties

5-year Validity of Drivers’ Licenses

1. What are the purposes of traffic accident investigation?

2. What should an erring driver do in case he is guilty of reckless

3. Enumerate at least 5 reasons why we should “Obey the Traffic Laws?

4. In your own observation, what is/are latest situation in traffic control,

5. Explain the most common distraction that lead to traffic accident?

6. Explain the History and establishment of the Land Transportation Office?

7. What are the purposes of driving education?

Difference between an “accident” and a “crash”

The difference between an “accident” and a “crash” is an “accident” implied something

b. WHO and WHAT was involved?

c. WHERE did it happen?

d. WHY did it happen?

e. HOW did the accident occur?

f. WHEN did the accident happen?

PURPOSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION:

3. Distracted driving - According to DOJ, distracted driving is a form of reckless driving,

The most common causes of distractions include:

If there are damages and injuries as a result of

Failure to assist one’s own victim is excused only when:

Reckless driving carries a penalty of a PHP1,200 fine under

Drunk driving is punishable by a fine ranging from PHP2,000-PHP5,000, or imprisonment (three

1. Distinguished “accident” VS “crash”?

2. Enumerate at least 4 purposed of traffic accident?

3. Define reckless driving?

4. In relation to reckless driving, what do you understand

6. What should an erring driver do in case he is guilty of

SALIENT PROVISIONS on REPUBLIC ACT 4136 KNOWN AS THE LAND

PRESCRIBED RATE OF SPEED AS:

Maximum Passenger Cars Motor Trucks

 On open country roads with no "Blind Corners" not closely bordered by