HBEC3203 Child Psychology - Vapr20 PDF

HBEC3203
Child Psychology
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBEC3203
CHILD
PSYCHOLOGY
Dr Rohani Abdullah

Project Directors: Prof Dr Widad Othman
Dr Aliza Ali
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Dr Rohani Abdullah
Moderator: Dr Azhar Md Adnan

Enhancer: Dr Wirawani Kamarulzaman

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2014

Second Edition, April 2020 (MREP)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2020, HBEC32203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi–xvi
Topic 1 What is Child Psychology? 1

1.1 Definition and Concept of Child Psychology 2
1.1.1 Domains in Child Psychology 3
1.1.2 Periods of Development 4
1.1.3 Key Issues in Child Psychology 4
1.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Development 5
1.3 Research in Child Psychology 11
1.3.1 Research Designs 12
1.3.2 Designs for Studying Development 13
1.3.3 Research Methods 14
1.3.4 Reliability and Validity of Instruments 16
1.3.5 Ethics In Research on Children 17
1.4 Applying Child Development and Perspectives in Early 18
Childcare and Education Practices
Summary 20
Key Terms 21
References 22
Topic 2 Biological and Environmental Factors 23

2.1 Nature versus Nurture 24
2.1.1 Genetics and Child Psychology 25
2.1.2 Social Atmosphere and Child Psychology 26
2.2 Prenatal Development and Birth 27
2.2.1 Prenatal Development 27
2.2.2 Prenatal Environment Influences 30
2.2.3 Birth 37
Summary 42
Key Terms 43
References 43

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Early Capacities in Infancy 45

3.1 Infant States and Baby Reflexes 46
3.1.1 Infant States 47
3.1.2 Baby Reflexes 49
3.2 Sensory and Perceptual Capacities 52
3.2.1 BabiesÊ Sensitivity to Touch, Taste, Smell and Balance 52
3.2.2 Development of Hearing and Speech Perception 53
3.2.3 Development of Vision 54
3.3 Early Learning and Memory 61
3.3.1 Classical Conditioning 61
3.3.2 Operant Conditioning 61
3.3.3 Habituation 62
3.3.4 Newborn Imitation 62
3.3.5 Early Memory 63
3.3.6 Newborn Behavioural Assessment 63
Summary 63
Key Terms 65
References 66
Topic 4 Physical Development and Health 67

4.1 The Brain 68
4.1.1 Neurons 69
4.1.2 Development of Regions in the Brain 73
4.1.3 Brain Stimulation 76
4.2 Physical Growth 77
4.2.1 Changes in Body Size 77
4.2.2 Changes in Body Proportions 78
4.2.3 Changes in Muscle-fat Makeup 78
4.2.4 Skeletal Growth 78
4.3 Motor Development 78
4.3.1 Gross Motor Skills 79
4.3.2 Fine Motor Skills 80
4.4 Health and Physical Growth 86
4.4.1 Hormonal Influences on Physical Growth 86
4.4.2 Nutrition 87
4.4.3 Childhood Diseases and Immunisations 89
4.4.4 Environmental Threats to ChildrenÊs Health 89
4.4.5 Childhood Injuries 89
Summary 90
Key Terms 91
References 92

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 The Social and Emotional World of Children 93

5.1 Emotional Development and Attachment 94
5.1.1 Emotional Development 94
5.1.2 Attachment 101
5.2 Self and Identity 104
5.2.1 Development of Self 104
5.2.2 Development of Identity 109
5.3 Gender Roles and Gender Differences 111
5.3.1 Gender Roles and Gender Stereotyping 111
5.3.2 Gender Differences 113
Summary 115
Key Terms 117
References 118
Topic 6 Context of Moral Development 119

6.1 Theories of Moral Development 120
6.1.1 PiagetÊs Theory of Moral Development 120
6.1.2 KohlbergÊs Theory of Moral Development 121
6.1.3 FreudÊs Psychoanalytic Theory and the Role of Guilt 123
6.1.4 Social Learning Theory 123
6.1.5 Moral Reasoning And Behaviour 124
6.1.6 Development of Morally Relevant Self-control 126
6.1.7 Domain Approach to Moral Understanding 128
6.2 Prosocial Behaviours 129
6.2.1 Responsibility 130
6.2.2 Development of Empathy 131
6.2.3 Role-taking 132
6.2.4 Altruism 134
6.3 Aggression 134
6.3.1 Development of Aggression 135
6.3.2 Does Childhood Aggression Last? 136
6.3.3 Treatment of Aggressive Behaviours 137
Summary 139
Key Terms 140
References 141

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Context of Cognitive Development 142

7.1 Overview of Piaget and VygotskyÊs Theories 143
7.1.1 PiagetÊs Theory of Cognitive Development 143
7.1.2 VygotskyÊs Sociocultural Theory 149
7.2 Information Processing and Core Knowledge Approaches 151
7.2.1 The Store Model 151
7.2.2 Attention 152
7.2.3 Memory 153
7.2.4 Metacognition 155
7.3 Intelligence, Achievement and Schooling 156
7.3.1 Definitions of Intelligence 156
7.3.2 Measuring Intelligence 158
7.3.3 Giftedness: Creativity and Talent 163
7.3.4 Schooling and Achievement 164
Summary 167
Key Terms 168
References 169
Topic 8 Language and Communication 170

8.1 Major Theories of Language Development 171
8.1.1 The Nativist Perspective 171
8.1.2 The Behaviourist Perspective 172
8.1.3 The Interactionist Perspective 173
8.2 Major Components of Language 174
8.2.1 Semantic Development 174
8.2.2 Grammatical Development 177
8.3 Antecedents of Language Development 179
8.3.1 Prelinguistic Development: Getting Ready to Talk 179
8.3.2 Phonological Development 181
8.4 Learning the Social Uses of Language 184
8.4.1 Pragmatic Development 184
8.4.2 Development of Metalinguistic Awareness 185
8.4.3 Multilingualism: Learning More Than One 186
Language in Childhood
Summary 188
Key Terms 190
References 191

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 9 Family, Peers and Community 192

9.1 Family System 193
9.1.1 The Family as a Social System 194
9.1.2 Parenting Styles and Development 197
9.1.3 Family Structure 199
9.2 Relationships with Peers 200
9.2.1 Peer Interaction According to Age 200
9.2.2 ParentsÊ Effects on Peer Interaction 202
9.2.3 Friendship and Peer Acceptance 203
9.3 Schools and Communities 205
9.3.1 Childcare Centres and Schools 206
9.3.2 Mass Media 208
Summary 211
Key Terms 213
References 214
Topic 10 Child Psychology within the Context of Early Childhood 215

Education
10.1 The Reflective Practitioner 216
10.1.1 What Makes a Reflective Practitioner 216
10.1.2 Experiential Learning Cycle of a Reflective Teacher 218
10.2 Learning in Young Children 219
10.2.1 Child Development and Learning 220
10.2.2 Learning Structure and Environment 221
10.2.3 Early Childhood Education Models 223
10.3 Managing Behaviour for Learning 227
10.3.1 Managing Problem Behaviours 227
10.3.2 Good Classroom Management 228
Summary 229
Key Terms 230
References 231

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the
course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order
to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide from time to
time as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important
study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEC3203 Child Psychology is one of the courses offered at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over
8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education with Honours programme. This module aims to impart the
fundamentals of child psychology. This module should be able to form a strong
foundation for Early Childhood Education courses.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirement and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 4
Study the module 64
Attend 3 tutorial sessions 6
Online participation 15
Revision 16
Assignment(s) 15
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify the major theories of child development;
2. Demonstrate an ability to align with current issues faced by parents, teachers
and caregivers regarding the physical and emotional well-being of children;
3. Explain developmentally appropriate practices that meet the needs of young
children; and
4. Evaluate learning experiences that foster children's holistic development.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into ten topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 defines the concept of child psychology as well as introduces theoretical

perspectives on development and research in child psychology. It also outlines the
application of child development and psychology in early childcare and education
practices.
Topic 2 highlights the controversy between the impact of biological and

environmental factors on child psychology, giving special focus on the influence
of nature versus nurture on prenatal development and birth.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 3 describes the early capacities in infancy, infant states and babyÊs reflexes,
sensory and perceptual capacities as well as early learning and memory.
Topic 4 discusses the context of physical development, with emphasis on the brain,
physical growth, motor development and health.
Topic 5 reviews the social and emotional world of children, drawing attention to
emotional development, attachment, the self, identity, gender roles and gender
differences.
Topic 6 deliberates on the context of moral development, paying special attention

to theories of moral development, prosocial behaviours and aggression.
Topic 7 examines the context of cognitive development, comparing contributions

of Piaget, Vygotsky and information processing theories. Intelligence, achievement
and schooling are also reviewed.
Topic 8 evaluates language and communication, focussing on the theories of

language development, components of language, antecedents of language
development and acquiring social uses of language.
Topic 9 analyses the influences of families, peers and community on child

psychology, reflecting on the family system, relationships with peers and children
in the social context.
Topic 10 deals with child psychology within an early childhood education context,
pondering the role of the reflective practitioner. Learning in young children and
managing behaviour for learning are scrutinised.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently
refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your
understanding of the topic.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one subtopic or a few subtopics.
It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component,
try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the
question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the
subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly
from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the Summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
Summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,
journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References section), at the
end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer
to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed and to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There is no prior knowledge required.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Refer to myINSPIRE online forum.
REFERENCES
Main References
Bee, H. L., & Boyd, D. G. (2012). The developing child (13th ed.). Pearson.
Bentham, S. (2011). A Teaching assistantÊs guide to child development and

psychology in the classroom. Routledge.
Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development (9th ed.). Pearson.
Feldman, R. S. (2014). Child development: A topical approach. Prentice Hall.
Harwood, R., Miller, S. A., & Vasta, R. (2008). Child psychology: Development in
a changing society. Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Parke, R. D., & Gauvain, M. (2009). Child psychology: A contemporary viewpoint

(7th ed.). McGraw Hill Education.
Snowman, J. (2012). Psychology applied to teaching. (13th ed.). Wadsworth

Cengage Learning.
Additional Readings
Ellis, J., (2006). Educational psychology: Developing learners. Pearson Education.
Martin, C. L. (2006). Discovering child development. Pearson Education.
Santrock, J. W. (2008). Educational psychology. (3rd ed.). Hill International

Ormrod.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of OUM learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24×7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you
are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

Topic  What is Child
1 Psychology?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the concept of child psychology;
2. Compare and contrast major theories of child development;
3. Explain various theoretical perspectives on development;
4. Discuss research methodologies used in studying child psychology;
and
5. Apply knowledge of child development and child psychology in
early care and education practices (care, development and education
of children).
 INTRODUCTION
I stood at the entrance of my primary school; the school I once attended was under
reconstruction. Its dilapidated structure was being replaced with a new one. I
distinctly remembered my first day of school. When the teacher called my name
in full, I did not respond. I thought it was someone elseÊs. When I discovered it
belonged to me, I was stunned that my dad actually gave me a beautiful name.
The name my family usually called me, Ah Phen, was short and ordinary. It felt
good to have a beautiful name – Josephine!
We learnt to read in first grade. There was no kindergarten back then. We had lots
of homework. Sometimes I could not complete mine on time. My other friends
shared the same fate. As punishment, we sometimes had to wash the toilets

2  TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CHILD PSYCHOLOGY?
(the penalty I dreaded most). Most of the time, we just had to remove weeds from
the school lawn. We actually enjoyed this activity. It gave us a break from the
monotony of daily lessons. We would chat and have fun as we tidied the lawn.
As I think of those school days, it brings to mind B.F. SkinnerÊs operant

conditioning and the concept of reward and punishment. What is considered
punishment to one might actually be a reward to another! Before we prescribe any
verdict or disciplinary action for a childÊs misbehaviour, we must consider the
childÊs psychology, which includes the childÊs history, personality as well as
cultural and social background.
Contemporary thoughts suggest the use of positive guidance instead of punitive

discipline, which focuses on misbehaviours, when dealing with children. It is
believed that a child misbehaves when he or she is unaware of the „right‰
behaviour in a situation. It is not an intentional defiance of family rules. Our role
as adults is to explain to each child the limits that focus on important things that
he has to abide to. We redirect behaviours and teach more appropriate behaviours
that are beneficial for the growing child. We give cues for new behaviours, offer
choices and support a childÊs behaviour.
This module will help you to understand child psychology and development, from
the prenatal period through adolescence. Major theories and the developmental
aspects of children's intellectual, emotional, social and physical growth are
discussed. The impact of biological and psychological factors on the child in the
process of childcare, development and learning in an early childhood context is
also examined.
1.1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF CHILD

PSYCHOLOGY
Child psychology has five main domains, which comprises of:
(a) Physical;
(b) Socio-emotional;
(c) Moral;
(d) Cognitive; and
(e) Language development.

TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CHILD PSYCHOLOGY?  3
Changes within these domains vary widely, according to childrenÊs periods of

development from conception through adolescence. These periods include the
prenatal stage, infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood and
adolescence. Key issues that affect child psychology include brain plasticity,
continuum of development and critical periods.
1.1.1 Domains in Child Psychology

Child psychology is divided into five domains, which are linked in an integrated
manner to produce a complete child:
(a) Physical development includes changes in body size, proportions,

appearance, perceptual and motor skills and physical health.
(b) Socio-emotional development refers to changes in emotional

communication, self-understanding and knowledge about other people,
interpersonal skills, friendship and intimate relationships. It examines the
way in which children react and interact with others and how their social
relationships grow, change and remain stable over the course of their life.
(c) Moral development focuses on the emergence of moral values, prosocial

behaviours, empathy and altruism as well as antisocial behaviours and
aggression. It examines how children develop an understanding of
intentions, decisions and actions that are either "good" or "bad."
(d) Cognitive development comprises changes in mental abilities, which

includes attention, memory, knowledge, problem-solving skills,
imagination, creativity and language.
(e) Language and communication development is a process in which a child

acquires the forms, meanings and uses of words, utterances and behaviours
that are deemed to be appropriate and for strategic use in social situations.
Language development includes phonology, semantics, syntax, morphology
and pragmatics.

1.1.2 Periods of Development

Psychologists usually divide child development into the following age periods
(Berk, 2013):
(a) Prenatal Period, from Conception to Birth

This is the most rapid time of growth. During this period, a tiny fertilised
cell, which is invisible to the human eye, is transformed into a seven pound
baby.
(b) Infancy and Toddlerhood, from Birth to Two Years

This is the period in which dramatic changes occur in the body and brain. It
lays the foundation for development of a wide range of motor, social,
emotional, linguistic and intellectual abilities.
(c) Early Childhood, from Two to Six Years

During this period, motor skills are refined, thinking skill improves,
imagination blossoms, language expands rapidly, a sense of morality
emerges and children embark on friendships with peers.
(d) Middle Childhood, from Six to Eleven Years

During this period, children begin to learn about the wider world and
establish responsibilities that gradually resemble those of adults.
(e) Adolescence, from Eleven to Eighteen Years

During this period, puberty results in an adult-sized body while sexual
maturity and thought becomes abstract and idealistic. Adolescents begin to
establish personal values and goals, and initiate independence from their
families.
1.1.3 Key Issues in Child Psychology

The following are some issues which are commonly debated among professionals
in the field of child psychology:
(a) Plasticity
Plasticity is the degree in which a behaviour, skill or physical structure is
changeable. It is related to the brainÊs ability in forming neural pathways and
synapses.

(b) Continuous versus Discontinuous Change

(i) Some theorists believe that development is a continuous and gradual
progression. The process consists of gradually adding more of the same
types of skills and achievements at one level while building on those of
the previous levels.
(ii) Other theorists believe that development is discontinuous.
Discontinuous change occurs with each consecutive stage, bringing
about behaviours that are qualitatively different from behaviours at
earlier stages. They believe that development results in new ways of
understanding and responding to the world at specific times.
(c) Critical Periods

(i) A critical period is a specific time during development when a
particular event has the greatest consequence.
(ii) Humans are now considered more malleable than was ever thought to
be possible. Thus, recent ethological theories identified sensitive
periods instead of critical periods. During sensitive periods, we are
exceptionally inclined to certain kinds of stimuli in our environments.
However, the absence of those stimuli does not always produce
detrimental consequences.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Describe the major domains in child psychology.
2. What are the periods of development that help make the study
of human change more convenient and manageable?
1.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON

DEVELOPMENT
A theory is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains and
predicts behaviour. Theories are vital tools for two reasons:
(a) They guide and give meaning to what we see around us. They help us
understand development; and
(b) Theories that are verified by research often serve as a sound basis for
practical action.

Theories of child psychology guide and give meaning to the scientific study of
children. Theories organise and integrate existing knowledge into a coherent
account of how children develop. They also help us predict their behaviours at
specific ages and within certain contexts. Every theory has both strengths and
limitations. As your view on child development evolves, you may adopt an eclectic
position, which involves the blending of a number of theories.
Major theoretical perspectives in child development research differ in many

respects, however, all the major theories take a stand on three basic issues of
development, namely:
(a) Is the course of development continuous or discontinuous?
(b) Do all children follow one course of development or are there many possible
courses?
(c) Is development mainly shaped by nature or nurture?
Contemporary theories of child development have roots that go back many

centuries. The theories that have been major forces in child development research
vary in their focus on different domains of development and in their views of
development.
(a) Psychoanalytic Perspective

According to the psychoanalytic perspective, children go through a series of
stages in which they face conflicts between biological drives and social
expectations. The way these conflicts are resolved shapes the personÊs ability
to learn, to get along with others and to cope with anxiety.
(i) Sigmund FreudÊs Psychosexual Theory

Freud found that nervous symptoms such as fears and paralyses were
related to painful childhood events. The way parents managed their
childÊs sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years will affect
their psychological health. Freud identified three parts of the
personality (id, ego and superego) that are integrated during the five
stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital). During
childhood, sexual impulses shift from the oral to the anal to the genital
regions of the body. At each stage, parents must strike a „correct‰
balance of gratifying the childÊs basic needs. If they succeed, the child
will grow up to be a well-adjusted adult.

(ii) Erik EriksonÊs Psychosocial Theory

Erikson was the most influential of the neo-Freudians in the field of
child development. EriksonÊs theory highlights that the ego not only
mediates between the idÊs impulses and the demands of the superego
but is also a positive force in development. EriksonÊs first five stages of
development parallel FreudÊs stages. He believed that normal
development must be understood in the context of individual culture
and respective life situations.
Psychoanalytic theorists strongly commit to the in-depth study of each child.

They employ the clinical method, which integrates information obtained
from various sources into a detailed picture of a childÊs personality.
Psychoanalytic theories have stimulated a wealth of research in many aspects
of emotional and social development.
(b) Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory

Studies on children have also been influenced by the perspective of
behaviourism, which views directly observable events – stimuli and
responses – as the appropriate focus of study. It is based on the notion that
learning comes about as a result of interactions with the environment. The
environment shapes behaviour. Internal mental states such as thoughts,
feelings and emotions do not explain behaviours.
(i) Classical Conditioning Theory

Ivan Pavlov discovered the principle of classical conditioning through
his studies of animal learning. Classical conditioning is a learning
process that occurs when an environmental stimulus (such as a bell) is
linked with a naturally occurring stimulus (such as food).
Inspired by PavlovÊs work, John Watson wanted to find out if this

concept could be applied to childrenÊs behaviour. Watson believed that
adults could mould childrenÊs behaviour by carefully controlling the
stimulus-response links. Watson carried out his classic experiment, in
which fear was conditioned in a child called Little Albert after a rat was
recurrently paired with loud, terrifying sounds, which scared the child.
The child's fear was also then generalised to other fuzzy white objects.
(ii) Operant Conditioning Theory

B. F. Skinner developed the operant conditioning theory in which the
behaviour is modified because of the consequences of the behaviour.
The frequency of a childÊs behaviour can be strengthened by pairing it
with specific reinforcements and can be decreased through
punishment. For example, imagine that a teacher praises (as a reward)

each time the child finishes his food. When he fails to finish his food,
the teacher withholds the praise. Eventually, the child forms an
association between his behaviour of eating his food and receiving the
desired reward.
(iii) Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura pointed out that learning is a cognitive process that
takes place in a social context and can occur purely through modelling
or observation of behaviours. Learning also occurs through vicarious
reinforcement, the observation of rewards and punishments.
Modelling and feedback about their own actions help children
construct personal standards of behaviour and a sense of self-efficacy –
the belief that their own abilities will enable them to succeed. As
children acquire attitudes, values and convictions about themselves,
they learn to control their own behaviour.
Behaviour modification combines conditioning and modelling techniques to

decrease undesirable behaviours and increase desirable behaviours. It is
used to reduce severe problems as well as to deal with regular
developmental problems that occur during childhood.
(c) Jean PiagetÊs Theory of Cognitive Development

In PiagetÊs theory, children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate
and explore their world. Central to his theory is the biological concept of
adaptation, whereby structures of the mind develop to better fit with or
represent the external world. According to PiagetÊs theory, childrenÊs brains
expand as they move through four stages of qualitatively unique ways of
thinking:
(i) Sensorimotor stage: Infants construct knowledge when they use their
senses and movements to explore the world.
(ii) Preoperational stage: ChildrenÊs action patterns progress into the
symbolic but illogical thinking of a preschooler.
(iii) Concrete operational stage: Cognition is transformed into the more
structured, logical reasoning of a school-age child.
(iv) Formal operational stage: Cognition advances into the complex,
abstract reasoning system of adolescents and adults.

Children are active learners, whose minds progress as they explore,

experiment and experience the environment. PiagetÊs theory encourages the
development of educational programmes that emphasise learning through
discovery by directly exploring, experimenting and experiencing the
environment.
(d) Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory compares the human mind to a computer
which uses precise steps to solve problems. From the time information is
obtained by the senses at input until it emerges as a response at output, the
information is actively coded, transformed and organised. The information-
processing approach is used to explain the processing of social information
such as gender-linked preferences. The understanding of social information
processing may help us promote favourable social development.
(e) Lev Semanovich VygotskyÊs Socio-cultural Theory

VygotskyÊs theory focuses on how culture (the values, beliefs, customs and
skills of a social group) is passed on to the next generation. Vygotsky believes
that social interaction allows children to acquire the way that their more
knowledgeable members of society think and behave. He views cognitive
development as a socially mediated process, in which a child relies on adult
assistance as he confronts new challenges. Cross-cultural research shows that
different cultures select different tasks for childrenÊs learning. The social
interactions surrounding those tasks lead to skills valued in each culture.
Consequently, children in each culture develops unique strengths and
developmental feats.
(f) Ethological Theory

Ethology is concerned with the adaptive value of behaviour and its
evolutionary history of ethological theory. Konrad Lorenz and Niko
Tinbergen observed behavioural patterns that support the survival of
animals in their natural habitats. One such pattern is imprinting – an early
trailing behaviour of baby birds that ensures they stay close to their mother.
Observations of imprinting led to the birth of a major concept in child
development – the critical period, during which the child is biologically
prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviours. However, the child needs
the support of an appropriately stimulating environment in order to do so.
The term „sensitive period‰ applies better to human development than the
term „critical period.‰ A sensitive period is a time in which the individual is
particularly receptive to environmental influences. It is an optimal period for
specific abilities to surface. Emergence of ability can appear later but it is
harder to induce and may not reach its full potential.

John Bowlby applied the ethological theory to the knowledge of attachment

in the infant-caregiver relationship. He thereby transformed our
understanding of a childÊs ties to the mother and its disruption through
separation, deprivation and loss.
Mary Ainsworth tested BowlbyÊs ideas empirically and expanded the theory
to include the concept of the attachment figure as a secure base from which
an infant can explore the world. She also discussed maternal sensitivity to
infant signals and its role in the development of infant-mother attachment
patterns.
Researchers in child psychology have applied ethological concepts in the

understanding of the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional
and social capabilities, which change with age.
(g) Urie BronfenbrennerÊs Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner viewed children as developing within a complex system of
relationships shaped by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. In
ecological systems theory, children are both products and producers of their
environment, tied in a network of interconnected effects. Any attempt to
change a childÊs behaviour must consider all facets of the childÊs
environment that includes and extends beyond the home, school and
neighbourhood settings. The environment is seen as a series of nested
structures as described in the following:
(i) The innermost level of the environment is the microsystem. It consists
of activities and interactions in the childÊs immediate surroundings. All
relationships are bi-directional - adults affect childrenÊs behaviour;
childrenÊs physical attributes, personalities and capacities affect adultsÊ
behaviour.
(ii) The mesosystem includes links between microsystems such as the
home, school, neighbourhood and childcare centre that fosters
childrenÊs development.
(iii) The exosystem consists of social environments that do not contain
children, yet affect their experiences in immediate settings. The
exosystem includes formal settings like parentsÊ workplaces as well as
informal support such as parentsÊ friends.
(iv) The macrosystem comprises of resources, cultural values, customs and
laws. The priority that the macrosystem gives to childrenÊs needs such
as childcare affects the quality of their environment.

(v) The chronosystem refers to the ever-changing, temporal dimension of

childrenÊs environment. Important life events such as the birth of a
sibling or parentsÊ divorce create new conditions that affect childrenÊs
development.
The ecological systems theory offers the most elaborate explanation of

contextual influences on childrenÊs behaviours. The theory has a huge impact
on the way psychologists tackle child psychology. For example, in tackling a
behavioural problem of a child from an urban poor family, we have to look
at all facets of the systems that may have possible effects on the child. A
simplistic solution will not solve the problem effectively because the
environments are very much intricately intertwined.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Describe three basic issues which underlie major theories.
2. Choose four of your favourite major theoretical perspectives on

child development. Highlight their contributions to your
understanding of children.
1.3 RESEARCH IN CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

Research in child psychology has both scientific and practical values (Feldman,
2014; Harwood, Miller & Vasta, 2008). To understand children and to meet their
needs effectively, our policies must be guided by research. We must team up with
community and government agencies in order to improve the well-being of
children and families effectively. In conducting research on children, we begin
with a researchable idea, either a research question or a hypothesis. The idea may
be constructed from an observation of a situation or drawn from a theory.

1.3.1 Research Designs

Once we have determined our research questions or hypotheses, we must decide
on a research design. Two main types of designs, namely correlational and
experimental, are used in child psychology. They are as follows:
(a) Correlational Design

In correlational design, researchers collect data on children without altering
their experiences. The relationships between childrenÊs characteristics and
their behaviours (variables) are analysed. Relationships between variables
are then measured using a correlation coefficient, which describes the
strength of the relationship between two variables. The closer the value is to
+1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the correlation. The sign of the number (+ or –)
refers to the direction of the relationship.
(i) A positive sign (+) means that as one variable increases, the other also
increases.
(ii) A negative sign (–) means that as one variable increases, the other
decreases.
(b) Experimental Design

A carefully controlled experimental design allows us to infer about the cause
and effect between two variables. In an experiment, there are two types of
variables:
(i) The independent variable is the variable which causes changes in
another variable.
(ii) The dependent variable is the variable which is affected by the
independent variable.
To establish the cause and effect relationship, we manipulate the conditions

(independent variable) that the children are exposed to. We then compare
their performance of the dependent variable.
Confounding variables reduce the internal validity of our findings. A

random assignment, in which children of similar characteristics (such as
gender) are distributed equally across different treatment conditions, can be
used to control confounding variables. We can combine random assignment
with matching. In matching, we measure the childrenÊs performance based
on the independent variable ahead of time. For example, childrenÊs verbal
scores by gender, whereby male and female children with high and low

verbal scores are assigned in equal numbers to each treatment condition. In

doing so, we hope that our experimental groups are made comparable on
characteristics likely to distort the results.
(c) Modified Experimental Design

Most experiments are carried out in laboratories. This approach has strengths
as well as weaknesses. In a laboratory, we can accomplish excellent control
over treatment conditions. However, findings obtained in laboratories often
may not apply to everyday situations.
(i) Field experiments are experimental designs that have been adapted, in
which treatment conditions are randomly assigned to children in
natural settings.
(ii) Quasi or natural experiments compare treatment conditions such as
different family conditions, childcare centres and reading programmes
that already exist.
Field and quasi-experiments differ from correlational studies. Children in

experimental and control groups are closely matched to ensure that their
characteristics are as similar as possible. Using modified experimental
design, we can examine the impact of conditions that cannot be manipulated
for ethical reasons, for example, the effects of abuse on child psychology.
1.3.2 Designs for Studying Development

We need to observe how children change over time to appreciate their
development. To do so, we may select a longitudinal, a cross-sectional or a
sequential design, which merges the first two designs of study.
(a) Longitudinal Design

In a longitudinal design, children are studied repeatedly at different ages. It
tracks their performance over time. Changes in each child are documented
as they get older. A longitudinal design allows us to examine relationships
between early and later behaviours. For example, we can verify if children
who display difficult temperament continue to do so when they are adults.
Selective attrition may occur when participants move away or drop out from
the study. Practice effect is a common problem in longitudinal designs.
Practice effect results in test scores, which may increase due to familiarity
with the test or improved test-taking skills rather than factors associated with
development.

(b) Cross-sectional Design

In a cross-sectional design, groups of children from different ages are studied
at the same time. It is an efficient strategy for describing age-related trends.
Children are assessed only once. Thus, problems such as attrition and
practice effects do not crop up in cross-sectional designs. However, it does
not provide evidence about development at the individual level. Cohort
effects can be a problem. Comparing children born in different years may not
reveal age-related difference. Instead, they may reflect unique experiences
associated with the period in which these children grew up in.
(c) Sequential Design

Researchers have devised adapted developmental designs to make the most
of the strengths and minimise the weaknesses of the longitudinal and cross-
sectional designs. In a sequential design, we blend longitudinal and cross-
sectional strategies by tracking two or more age groups of children
repeatedly at the same points in time. Sequential design allows us to examine
cohort effects by comparing the development of children born in different
years efficiently by recording their development when they reach the same
ages of interest. It enables us to make both longitudinal and cross-sectional
comparisons simultaneously.
1.3.3 Research Methods

There are a number of research methods, each has its own strengths and
limitations. We may choose one or more research methods such as self-report,
systematic observation, psycho-physiological measures, clinical studies or
ethnography to use in our study.
(a) Systematic Observation

Systematic observations may occur in a natural or laboratory setting.
(i) A naturalistic observation is carried out in the field or the natural
environment and records all behaviours of interest. Naturalistic
observations allow us to observe the behaviours as they occur naturally
in its typical context. However, not every child has the same likelihood
of displaying a specific behaviour in their everyday life.
(ii) Structured observation is conducted in a laboratory situation in which
the behaviours of interest are induced. Thus, every child has an equal
opportunity to display their responses. It permits greater control over
the research situation compared to naturalistic observation. This
method is useful for studying behaviours that rarely surface in
everyday life.

A major problem of systematic observation is observer influence, the effects

of the observer on the behaviour studied. Another problem is observer bias.
Observers, who are aware of the purposes of a study tend to see and record
what is expected rather than what the participants actually do.
Behaviours for systematic observations may be selected using:

(i) Event sampling, in which we record all behaviours displayed by a child
during a selected event such as a tantrum session; or
(ii) Time sampling, in which we record occurrences of a specific behaviour
during a sample of short intervals such as 10-minute intervals.
(b) Self-report: Interviews and Questionnaires

Self-reports are used to obtain information about childrenÊs perceptions,
thoughts, abilities, feelings, attitudes, beliefs and experiences. They range
from unstructured clinical interviews to structured interviews,
questionnaires and tests.
(i) A clinical interview is a flexible, casual form of interview used to
understand the way children normally think in everyday situations.
However, children may not communicate their thoughts, feelings and
experiences accurately. It depends heavily on their verbal skills and
ability to process the questions correctly.
(ii) In a structured interview, each individual is asked the same set of
questions in the same way. This reduces the risk of prompting some
children more than others. It is more efficient than clinical interviews.
However, it yields less depth of information than clinical interviews.
(c) Psycho-physiological Method

To measure the biological bases of perceptual, cognitive and motor
responses, we use psycho-physiological methods. This involves measuring
the relationship between behaviours and physiological processes such as
heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupil dilation, electrical conductance
of the skin and stress hormone levels.
Psycho-physiological methods include electro-encephalogram (EEG) and

functional brain-imaging techniques as described in the following:
(i) EEG records the electrical activity of the brain. EEG patterns vary with
different states of arousal (deep sleep to wakefulness) and with
emotional states (happy to distressed). Event-related potentials (ERPs)
are EEG waves that occur with specific events such as an infantÊs
responses when he hears adults speaking in different languages.

(ii) Functional brain-imaging techniques produce three-dimensional

pictures of brain activity. One such technique, functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), detects changes in blood flow within the
brain when the child responses to a stimulus.
Psycho-physiological methods help investigators infer the perceptions and

emotions of young children who cannot give an account of their
psychological experiences clearly. Making sense of physiological records
involves a lot of inference. Responses may be due to unrelated factors such
as a fearful reaction to the equipment, hunger or sleepiness rather than the
stimulus.
(d) Clinical or Case Study Method

This method attempts to obtain a complete portrait of a childÊs psychological
functioning. It gathers a wide range of data about one child. It includes
detailed narratives, interviews and test scores. It is suitable for investigating
the development of rare individuals such as prodigies. However, data
collected is disorganised and subjective. It is therefore difficult to generalise
the findings to other children.
(e) Ethnographic Method

To study the impact of culture on childrenÊs behaviours, we use a method
called ethnography. Like the clinical method, ethnographic research is a
qualitative technique. It employs a technique called participant observation,
whereby we spend months or years in the cultural community, participating
in their daily life.
Ethnography allows us to understand parental beliefs and childrenÊs

behaviours in a way not possible through observation, interview or
questionnaires. However, we are often influenced by our own cultural values
and theoretical commitments, which lead us to observe selectively or
misinterpret what we see.
1.3.4 Reliability and Validity of Instruments

To be acceptable to the scientific community, research procedures (including self-
report, observations and physiological measures) must be both reliable and valid
– two key aspects to scientifically sound research.
(a) Reliability
An instrument is considered highly reliable if it is able to detect the
behaviour repeatedly every time it appears. Inter-rater reliability refers to
an agreement between different observers who are observing the same
behaviours. Test-retest reliability measures the consistency of self-report and

psycho-physiological data. It is determined by comparing childrenÊs
responses to the same measures on separate occasions.
(b) Validity
Validity refers to the extent our instrument accurately measures the
characteristics of the children we set out to measure. In conducting a study,
we must uphold two types of validity:
(i) Internal validity is the degree in which conditions in the design of the
study answer our hypotheses or questions accurately; and
(ii) External validity is the degree in which our findings can be applied to
other settings with different children.
1.3.5 Ethics in Research on Children

Ethical issues arise in all research on children who are extremely vulnerable to
physical and psychological injury. Parental consent is needed to protect the safety
of children who are not able to evaluate the risks of participation. They have a
right to know all aspects of the study that might affect their willingness to
participate. If there is any risk to the childrenÊs safety and welfare, priority is given
to their protection.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. What are the common research methods used to study children?

Explain the strengths and limitations of each method.
2. You would like to know whether children who are in childcare

centres excel better in school than those who are not in childcare
centres. What design is best suited to study their differences? Why?

Figure 1.1 summarises the process of research in child psychology.
Figure 1.1: Process of research in child psychology
1.4 APPLYING CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND

PERSPECTIVES IN EARLY CHILDCARE AND
EDUCATION PRACTICES
Research findings and theories on child development have been actively translated
into policies on childcare, education and psychology. They have been applied in
various contexts, especially in the home, childcare and school settings.
Understanding child psychology enables us to optimise childrenÊs development
more effectively (Parke & Gauvain, 2009; Bee & Boyd, 2012).

For centuries, theorists have pondered on the extent in which early training
influences a childÊs later development and success. Views on the stability of early
development vary across theories. If we believe that a childÊs development is pre-
set by his genes, then providing early experiences that tries to boost achievement
would seem worthless. If we are convinced that the profound impact of early
experiences on children persists till adulthood, then we should invest all efforts to
ensure that they receive high-quality care from conception.
Various programmes have emerged from the view that early experiences in
preschool education, childcare and home visiting programmes have a long-term
impact on child psychology. Such programmes include the Head Start
programme, Sure Start programme, Montessori education and Regio Emilia
approach. These programmes provide comprehensive early childhood education,
health, nutrition and parent involvement services to potentially high-risk, low-
income children and their families. The programme's services and resources are
designed to foster stable family relationships, enhance children's physical and
emotional well-being, and establish an environment to develop strong cognitive
skills.
The extent in which early childhood programmes produce long-term benefits in

children's cognitive development, socialisation and success at school has raised
some controversies. Results indicate that early childhood programmes can
produce long-term benefits on school achievement and social adjustment.
However, not all programmes produce these outcomes. It may be due to
differences in quality and funding across programmes.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Spend a day in an infant/toddler or preschool programme that is new to
you. Choose one particular child to focus on. Observe his/her interactions
with other children. As you observe the child in this new setting, write
down your observations and a page to summarise, and reflect upon the
experience.
(a) What did you learn? Identify which theories help you make sense of
your experience. How does each theory help you make sense of the
child?
(b) List the concepts and principles you find important and those you
believe to be inadequate. How would you improve them?
Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

learning forum and review each otherÊs work.

• Domains in child psychology comprise physical, emotional, social, moral,

cognitive and language development.
• Periods of development cover the prenatal period, infancy, early childhood,

middle childhood and adolescence.
• Major theoretical perspectives on child development include psychoanalytic

perspectives (psychosexual theory and psychosocial theory), behaviourism,
social learning theory, cognitive development theory, information processing
theory, ethological theory and ecological systems theory.
• The process of research in child psychology involves identifying the research

question or hypothesis, determining the research design, identifying the
research methods to be used, ensuring validity and reliability of the
instruments and reducing ethical issues that may crop up.

Attachment Naturalistic observation

Chronosystem Observer bias
Clinical studies Observer influence
Cohort effects Participant observation
Concrete operational stage Plasticity
Confounding variables Practice effect
Critical periods Preoperational stage
Cross-sectional design Psycho-physiological measures
Dependent variable Punishment
Ethnography Quasi-experiments
Event sampling Random assignment
Exosystem Reinforcements
External validity Selective attrition
Field experiments Self-efficacy
Formal operational stage Self-reports
Imprinting Sensitive periods
Independent variable Sensorimotor stage
Internal validity Sequential design
Inter-rater reliability Socially mediated process
Longitudinal design Structured interview
Macrosystem Systematic observation
Matching Test-retest reliability
Mesosystem Time sampling
Microsystem Vicarious reinforcement
Modelling

Bee, H. L., & Boyd, D. G. (2012). The developing child (13th ed.). Boston,
MA: Pearson.
Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Feldman, R. S. (2014). Child development: A topical approach. New York, NY:

Prentice Hall.
a changing society. New Jersey, NJ: Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Parke, R. D., & Gauvain, M. (2009). Child psychology: A contemporary viewpoint

(7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill Education.

Topic  Biological and
2 Environmental
Factors
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Compare the influence of nature and nurture on child psychology;
2. Describe the phases of prenatal development and the major
milestones of each phase;
3. Discuss maternal health, nutrition and the harmful impact of
teratogens on the baby in the womb;
4. Distinguish the stages of childbirth and the babyÊs adaptation to
labour and delivery;
5. Examine the effects of labour and delivery medication on a newborn
baby;
6. Analyse the purpose and main features of the Apgar scale; and
7. Appraise the risks associated with oxygen deprivation, preterm
births and small-for-date births.
 INTRODUCTION
January 2000 – my period was late. It was supposed to have arrived three weeks
ago. Could I be pregnant? I was too early to have menopause. Occasionally, I felt
so sleepy, even in the midst of eating or talking. My eyes refused to stay open. My
system just went into hibernate mode. It auto shut-downed against my will!
Another sign which alerted me that I might be pregnant was my morning sickness.

24  TOPIC 2 BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
I felt nauseated all the time, not just in the morning. I could not keep anything
down. As soon as I ate something, I threw up. Even drinking water made me threw
up. The only food I could take was delicious red apples! The apples smelled fresh
and tasted good. I bought bags and bags of apples. I survived only on apples until
I was seven months pregnant.
Compared to my other pregnancies, I had the worst morning sickness during this
pregnancy. With the other pregnancies, I was able to eat more food. I only had
problems with different types of food during each pregnancy. Most of the food I
had trouble with had strong smell such as those cooked with fried garlic, onion,
salted fish or even freshly cooked fragrant rice. Drinking water, except for coffee
and tea, was tolerable. My morning sickness during other pregnancies lasted
between four to five months and appeared in the evening, mainly because I was
tired after work.
This topic focuses on prenatal development and birth. Is it normal to have food
cravings during pregnancy? Why? What is going on in our womb when we are
pregnant? How do we know that the baby is growing well? How do we know if
the baby is at risk? Can we be sure that our babies will be born normal? Smart?
Studies have identified a number of teratogens that can harm our baby while in
the womb. Research has, however, led to the discovery of some clues on how to
reduce risks and potential harm to our babyÊs health.
Childbirth is another concern. How do we know when it is time to give birth? What
do we go through at each stage of childbirth? Why do we have to restrain ourselves
and wait for a full dilation before pushing? Why canÊt we push as soon as we have
the strong urge to do so? How does this affect our babyÊs development? How does
our baby adapt to labour and delivery? What is an Apgar score? What does it
indicate? We will find out all about these issues and factors that affect children in
this topic.
2.1 NATURE VERSUS NURTURE

Which influences a child more – nature or nurture? Nature refers to inborn genetic
traits, abilities and capacities that we receive from our parents from the moment
of conception. Nurture refers to environmental influences that shape behaviours.
It is the intricate forces of the physical and social world that modify our genetic
composition and psychological experiences, before and after birth. The
contributions of nature and nurture are tightly intertwined throughout
development - parenting style and the care-giving environment are combined in
complex ways with many other factors including temperament, heredity and peer
influences (Weinstein, 2016; Berk, 2013).

TOPIC 2 BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS  25
All theories of child psychology, to some extent, grant the role to both nature and
nurture but they vary in determining the emphasis of the various factors.
Researchers have become increasingly aware that children grow up in distinct
contexts. Each child is born within a unique blend of nature (genetic pool) and
nurture [both proximal surroundings (home, school, community) and more
distant settings (state resources and events)] that can result in divergent paths of
development. The output is a unique child with markedly different cognitive
capacities, social skills and feelings about the self and others.
Accumulating evidence reveals that the relationship between heredity and the
environment is bidirectional and that it changes with age. The success of efforts to
improve child psychology depends on the qualities we want to change, the childÊs
genetic makeup and the type and timing of the intervention.
2.1.1 Genetics and Child Psychology

Nature has prepared us for survival. All humans have certain features in common
while our unique features are influenced by our genotype. We are a blend of
genetic information and environmental influences that begin way before
conception.
A child is created when the male sperm and female ovum or the sex cells combined
to form a zygote. At conception, we inherit two sets of each gene, one from our
mother and one from our father. We have many deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
variants. Most of them are inherited from our predecessors but some are outcomes
from recent mutation. We pass our DNAs to our children. Some DNAs have good
effects; a few have „harmful‰ effects. Our dominant DNAs affect our
characteristics (hair and eye colour, height, personality and intelligence), can cause
various disorders (such as Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome and Turner
syndrome) and diseases (such as thalassaemia, haemophilia, cancer and sickle-cell
disease). Most DNA variants are recessive and do not effect us.
Prenatal diagnostic methods permit the detection of problems associated with a

childÊs genetic structure before birth. They are available to couples who might bear
an abnormal child. They include:
(a) Amniocentesis;
(b) Chorionic villus sampling;
(c) Ultrasound; and
(d) Maternal blood analysis.

Except for ultrasound and maternal blood analysis, prenatal diagnosis should not
be used routinely because they present risks of injuring the developing organism.
Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling are used for women of advanced age,
especially those with a family history of genetic irregularities.
2.1.2 Social Atmosphere and Child Psychology

A babyÊs psychological well-being is affected by its surrounding social
atmosphere. This includes early social interactions, touch, gestures and
vocalisations, parent-child relationship and the social support from family
members (Weinstein, 2016). An example of a social atmosphere is when our maid
goes on leave and our lives are in turmoil. We have to settle our babysitting issues.
We have to juggle our work schedule. On days when a babysitter is unavailable,
one of us has to take emergency leave. Our children, who are usually quite calm,
become more easily agitated. We may be at the verge of a mental breakdown. We
regain our family composure when our maid returns.
A rich, stimulating environment, promotes babiesÊ active exploration and earlier

attainment of developmental milestones. Early negative experiences, on the other
hand, have lasting impacts on childrenÊs psychology and competence. Parents who
are harsh, demanding and withdrawn tend to have children with lower levels of
social, emotional and academic competencies. Studies show that victims of
deprived early social environments endure profound and persistent deficits, even
when they are exposed to improved care later on in life. These children continue
to display emotional and behavioural problems throughout childhood and
adolescence.
Beyond the immediate family, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins and the larger
kin networks also form the childÊs social atmosphere. Outside the family and clan,
the forces that most strongly influence children and adolescents are peers, school,
neighbourhood and the media. Unstable inner-city neighbourhoods with high
crime rates and schools, parks and playgrounds that are in a mess and the lack of
community centres introduce stressors that can affect the childÊs psychological
well-being.

2.2 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH
Then We made the sperm-drop into a clinging clot, and We made the clot into
a lump [of flesh], and We made [from] the lump, bones, and We covered the
bones with flesh; then We developed him into another creation. So blessed is
Allah, the best of creators.
(Quran 23:14)
Prenatal development is the most rapid period of human growth – from a clinging
clot that is smaller than a punctuation mark (like that at the end of this sentence)
to a seven pound baby. Intricate interactions between nature and nurture shape
the course of prenatal development. The developing organism is vulnerable to the
harmful effects of environmental agents called teratogens and to other risk factors
present in the mother including diseases, stress and inadequate nutrition.
2.2.1 Prenatal Development

Sex cells, sperms and ovum are uniquely created for the task of reproduction. The
ovum is the largest cell in the human body, a perfect target for the tiny sperm. A
woman is born with all her ova already present in her ovaries. Two weeks before
menstruation, the ovary releases one mature ovum. The corpus luteum, the spot
where the ovum was released, secretes hormones that thicken the lining of the
uterus and prepares it to receive a fertilised ovum. The ovum, which survives for
only one day after being released, travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus.
If pregnancy does not occur at this time, the corpus luteum shrinks in 14 days and
the lining of the uterus is shredded along with menstruation. If pregnancy occurs,
the HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) from the embryo informs the corpus
luteum to keep producing progesterone, which is necessary to sustain a healthy
pregnancy. The progesterone production is taken over by the placenta after about
10 weeks of gestation.
A man produces an average of 300 million sperms a day. In the final process of
maturation, each sperm develops a tail that permits it to swim through the cervix,
upstream in the uterus and into the fallopian tube, where fertilisation usually takes
place. Sperms live for up to six days. Conception occurs when a sperm fertilises an
ovum. Upon conception, prenatal development begins. Prenatal development,
which lasts 38 weeks, evolves in three periods, namely zygote, embryo and foetus.

(a) The Period of the Zygote

The zygote period lasts for about two weeks, beginning with the fertilisation
in the fallopian tube until it attaches itself to the wall of the uterus. After the
30 hours of cell duplication, the zygote forms a hollow, fluid-filled ball called
a blastocyst. The inner cells become the embryonic disc, which develops into
a new organism. The outer ring of cells called the trophoblast, shields and
nourishes the zygote.
Between the seventh and ninth day, the blastocyst implants itself deep into
the uterine lining. The trophoblast forms a membrane, the amnion that
encloses the growing organism in amniotic fluid, which warms the zygote
and protects it against any shock. A yolk sac appears. It produces blood cells
until the developing liver, spleen and bone marrow can replace this function.
By the end of the second week, cells of the trophoblast form another
membrane, the chorion, which protects the amnion. Tiny hair-like villi (blood
vessels) surface from the chorion. As the villi burrow into the uterine wall, a
special organ called the placenta surfaces. The placenta is connected to the
embryo via the umbilical cord, one to three feet long. It contains a large vein
which delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two arteries, which remove
waste products.
(b) The Period of the Embryo

The embryonic period begins at implantation and ends in the eighth week of
gestation. It is the most critical stage of prenatal development, as the
foundation for all physical structures and organs is formed at this stage.
Thus, the growing organism is most exposed to physical harm during this
period.
Once implanted, the embryonic disc develops into three layers of cells:
(i) Ectoderm (outer layer) forms the nervous system and skin;
(ii) Mesoderm (middle layer) forms the muscles, skeleton, circulatory
system and other internal organs; and
(iii) Endoderm (inner layer) forms the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract
and glands.
The nervous system develops the fastest amongst all other functions. The
neural disc folds to form a neural tube (spinal cord). At three and a half
weeks, the top of the neural tube swells to form the brain. Neurons, which
are produced deep inside the neural tube, travel up to form the brain. About
the same time, the muscles, backbone, ribs and digestive tract appear.

At the end of the first month, the quarter-inch long embryo contains millions
of structured groups of cells with specific purposes. In the second month, the
eyes, ears, nose, jaw and neck appear. Tiny buds become arms, legs, fingers
and toes. The internal organs are more distinct; the intestines grow, the heart
develops separate chambers and the liver and spleen begin production of
blood cells.
A two-month-old embryo is one-inch-long and 1/7 ounce in weight. It can

respond to touch, especially in the mouth area and on the soles of the feet. It
can also move but is still too tiny and light to be felt by the mother.
(c) The Period of the Foetus

The foetus or the „growth and finishing‰ phase, is the longest of all the
prenatal periods. It lasts from the ninth week till birth. During this period,
the organism grows rapidly in size. In the third month, the organs, muscles
and nervous system become organised and connected. The foetus now kicks,
bends its arms, forms a fist and sucks its thumb. By week twelve, the external
genitals are well formed and the sex of the foetus can be detected with
ultrasound. The fingernails, toenails, tooth buds and eyelids complete their
finishing.
Between 17 and 20 weeks, the foetus is large enough for the mother to feel its
movements. The vernix covers the skin, protecting it from chapping during
the long months spent in the amniotic fluid. Lanugo, white, downy hair,
which covers the entire body, helps the vernix stick to the skin.
The twenty-week-old foetus responds to sounds and sight begins to function.

By the end of six months, many organs are well formed. All the neurons will
be in place at this point. The production of the glial cells remains prolific until
the end of gestation as well as after birth. They support and feed the neurons.
The foetus gains more than five pounds and grows seven inches in the third
trimester. At eighth month, a layer of fat is added to assist with temperature
regulation. The foetus also receives antibodies from the motherÊs blood as
protection against illnesses in the first months of life.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
Carefully read each development. Then, arrange the events in the order
in which they occur in a typical pregnancy.
(a) A blastocyst is formed.
(b) Vernix and lanugo appear.
(c) A protective membrane, called the amnion, is formed.
(d) The top of the neural tube swells to form the brain.
(e) Fertilisation takes place.
(f) The placenta starts to develop.
(g) Heart, muscles and the digestive tract start to form.
(h) The blastocyst implants itself to the uterine lining.
(i) External genitals are formed.
(j) The chorion is formed.
2.2.2 Prenatal Environment Influences

The prenatal environment is relatively tranquil, compared to the world outside the
womb. However, many environmental factors can still disrupt the babyÊs
development in the womb.
(a) Teratogens
A teratogen refers to any environmental agent that causes birth defects. The
harm produced depends on its doses over time, genetic makeup and age of
the organism at the time of exposure. The presence of several negative factors
at once such as poor nutrition, smoking and stress can worsen the impact of
a single teratogen. Teratogens cause major defects during the embryonic
period when the basics for organ and all body parts are being formed. It is
less detrimental in the foetal period, but organs such as the brain, eye and
genitals can still be seriously harmed.
(b) Prescription and Non-prescription Drugs

Research findings about the effects of some drugs are devastating while the
effects of many commonly used drugs are still uncertain. As with any
teratogen, it is wiser to adopt a philosophy of „better safe than sorry‰. To
ensure that the baby begins life with an advantage, the safest course for

pregnant women is to cut down on all drugs used or to avoid them totally.
The following are some examples of drugs and their possible detrimental
effects:
(i) Thalidomide
A drug prescribed as a sedative and is used to alleviate morning
sickness in pregnant women. A number of years after its release in
Germany in the sixties, more than 5,000 infants were born with severe
phocomelia. Its cause was traced to thalidomide. The most common
form of phocomelia includes malformation of nerves, limbs and bones
as well as other congenital defects affecting the face, limbs, ears, nose,
vessels, heart and other internal organs.
(ii) Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

DES was given to pregnant women to reduce the risk of pregnancy
complication and miscarriage. In 1971, it was revealed that baby girls
with a rare vaginal tumour and baby boys with testicular cancer,
infertility and urogenital abnormalities had been exposed to DES in the
utero.
(iii) Accutane or Isotretinoin

A vitamin A derivative found naturally in small quantities in the body.
Isotretinoin is used to treat severe acne as well as brain, pancreatic and
other cancers. Common birth defects caused by it are hearing and
visual impairment, missing or malformed earlobes, facial
dysmorphism and mental retardation.
(iv) Aspirin
Its regular use is linked to low birth weight, infant death around the
time of birth, poorer motor development and lower intelligence test
scores in early childhood.
Heavy intake of caffeine in the form of coffee, tea, cola or cocoa is

associated with low birth weight, miscarriage and newborn
withdrawal symptoms such as irritability and vomiting.
(c) Illegal Drugs

Exposure to cocaine, heroin or methadone is linked to a wide variety of
problems such as prematurity, low birth weight, physical defects, breathing
difficulties and death at or around the time of birth. Some babies are born
drug addicted. Heroin and methadone-exposed babies are less attentive to
the environment than non-exposed babies and their motor development is
slow. Cocaine-exposed babies have permanent eye, bone, genital, urinary

tract, kidney and heart defects; brain haemorrhages and seizures; and severe
growth retardation. These children also endure lasting perceptual, motor,
attention, memory and language problems.
(d) Smoking
Smoking harms the foetus through the effects of nicotine. It constricts blood
vessels, reduces blood flow to the uterus and produces atypical placenta
growth. It raises the amount of carbon monoxide in the mother and foetusÊ
blood. Carbon monoxide reduces physical growth and harms the central
nervous system. Smoking during pregnancy is associated with low birth
weight, infant death, miscarriage, prematurity, impaired heart rate and
breathing difficulties during sleep as well as asthma and cancer later in
childhood. Even when they seem to be in good physical condition, they
display shorter attention spans, weaker memories and there are possibilities
of developing long-term learning impairments.
(e) Alcohol
Alcohol produces devastating effects in two ways:
(i) The body uses a large amount of oxygen to break down alcohol,
drawing away oxygen that the growing organism needs for cell
growth; and
(ii) It obstructs cell duplication and migration in the neural tube, causing
cellular damage, poor brain growth and low brain functioning.
A baby born with foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is characterised by

permanent mental impairment, over-activity as well as impaired motor
coordination, attention, memory and language. Distinct physical symptoms
of FAS children include small head and brain, facial abnormalities and
defects of other organs. Their defects vary with the timing and length of
alcohol exposure during pregnancy.
(f) Radiation
Ionising radiation can cause mutation, damaging the DNA in the ova and
sperm. Low-level maternal exposure to radiation due to industrial leakage
or X-rays can increase the risk of childhood cancer, abnormal brain-wave
activity, lower intelligence and higher rates of language and emotional
disorders.

(g) Environmental Pollution

(i) Exposure to mercury disrupts production and migration of neurons,
causing widespread brain damage. This was seen in children born in
the 1950s in Minamata, Japan, where food and water were
contaminated by mercury-containing industrial waste.
(ii) Exposure to high levels of lead present in paint on walls or toys causes
prematurity, low birth weight, brain damage and physical defects.
Even low levels produce fairly inferior mental and motor development.
(iii) Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) is used to insulate electrical
equipment. Its exposure through consumption of PCB-contaminated
fish by pregnant mothers is associated with low birth weight, brain-
wave abnormalities and delayed cognitive development.
(h) Rhesus (Rh) Factor

The Rh factor is a protein located at the surface of red blood cells. Most of us
are Rh-positive. We have this protein. Those without this protein are called
Rh-negative. An Rh-negative mother and an Rh-positive father may conceive
an Rh-positive baby. When this occurs, some Rh-positive red blood cells from
the foetus may enter the motherÊs bloodstream during pregnancy, labour or
birth. Her body reacts by releasing antibodies against the Rh, a process called
sensitisation. Once her system is sensitised, her Rh antibodies can cross the
placenta and destroy the red blood cells of an Rh-positive foetus, causing
stillbirth (death of a baby in the womb after 20 weeks of pregnancy). In the
newborn, it causes jaundice, anaemia, brain damage, heart failure and death.
In the first pregnancy, an Rh-positive baby is quite safe because the baby is
born before the mother has produced many Rh antibodies. However, a
sensitised woman continues to produce Rh antibodies throughout her life.
This means that in later pregnancies, the risks for an Rh-positive baby is
higher. Fortunately, Rh immune globulin (RhIg) injections exist. RhIg is used
to prevent sensitisation against the Rh factor. If a baby is Rh-positive, the
mother is given RhIg shots at 28 weeks of pregnancy and again within 72
hours of giving birth. A RhIg shot is not needed if the baby is Rh-negative.

(i) Maternal Disease

Five per cent of pregnant women may catch an infectious disease such as the
common cold. Although most illnesses do not affect the embryo or foetus,
some diseases can cause massive damage.
(i) Viral Diseases
• Exposure to rubella (German measles) during the embryonic period

causes eye cataract, deafness, mental retardation as well as heart,
genital, urinary and intestinal defects. Infection during the foetal
period is less harmful but low birth weight, hearing loss and bone
defects may still occur.
• The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can lead to acquired

immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease that destroys the
immune system. Pregnant HIV-positive women pass the virus to
the foetus 20 to 30 per cent of the time. AIDS advances rapidly in
babies. By six months, weight loss, diarrhoea and recurrent
respiratory sickness are common. The virus also causes brain
damage. Most babies with prenatal AIDS survive for only five to
eight months after the onset of its symptoms.
• Cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex 2 are extremely treacherous.

Both viruses invade the motherÊs genital tract. Babies can be
infected either during pregnancy or at birth. Possible outcomes
include death, deafness, intellectual disability, cerebral palsy,
seizures, blindness, brain damage, autism and growth problems.
(ii) Bacterial and Parasitic Diseases

Toxoplasmosis is a bacterial disease caused by a parasite found in many
animals. It is usually transmitted via contact with the faeces of infected
cats or from eating undercooked meat. In the first trimester, it tends to
cause eye and brain damage. Later infection is linked to mild visual and
cognitive impairments. Infected newborns will show learning or visual
disabilities in later life.
(iii) Other Maternal Factors
• Gestational Diabetes (GD)

GD is a kind of diabetes that occurs during pregnancy. Like other
diabetes, GD is a condition in which your body has too much
glucose in the blood. Most GDs vanish after birth. GD can be
controlled and treated during pregnancy to protect both the baby

and the mother. If untreated, it can cause serious health problems

for both. Some GD babies are stillborn. Untreated GDs often
produce large babies, who need surgery at delivery.
In addition, high blood sugar from the mother causes high insulin
levels (hyper-insulinemia) in the baby. After birth, the baby's blood
sugar can drop very low because it stops receiving the high blood
sugar. A possible co-existence of high insulin and low blood sugar
soon after birth needs to be monitored closely to prevent
hypoglycaemia in the newborn. It may develop into severe jaundice,
brain damage and breathing problems in newborns.
• Nutrition
The most rapid rate of growth in human life occurs in the prenatal
period. Babies in the womb depend totally on the mother for
nutrients. Malnutrition in the first trimester causes miscarriage or
physical defects in babies. Although foetus usually survives when
exposed to later malnutrition, many are born underweight, have
small heads and may suffer from serious brain damage.
A poor diet during pregnancy also can distort the formation of

organs including the liver, kidneys and pancreas, leading to lifelong
health problems. Because poor nutrition suppresses the
development of the immune system, prenatally malnourished
babies frequently catch respiratory illnesses and are often irritable
and unresponsive to stimulation (Weinstein, 2016; Feldman, 2014).
Providing pregnant women with adequate nutrients has a

substantial impact on the health of their babies. The growth
demands of the prenatal period include vitamin and mineral
enrichment. Some examples of important nutrients are as follows:
− Consuming folic acid supplement at conception and during the

zygote stage remarkably lessens deformities of the neural tube
such as anencephaly and spina bifida.
− Calcium helps prevent maternal high blood pressure and low

birth weight.
− Iodine prevents cretinism, a disorder in which interrupted

growth of the thyroid gland causes stunted growth and mental
retardation.

− Vitamin C and iron in pregnancy promote placenta and

prenatal growth. Prolonged poor nutrition throughout
pregnancy causes babies to be lethargic and fidgety at birth.
• Food Craving and Pica

Food craving is when you want a certain food really, really badly
and you want it now! I normally do not care for roti canai but in my
first pregnancy, it tasted so good. I literally ate it for breakfast,
lunch, tea and dinner on the same day! It is usually fine to satisfy
food cravings as long as what is ingested is safe. Food cravings may
be related to certain hormones that are active during pregnancy.
These hormones can make our sense of smell stronger, which can
affect our sense of taste and make us want certain foods.
Some pregnant women crave things that are not food such as dirt,
clay, laundry starch, wax, coffee grounds. This kind of eating
problem is called pica. It may reflect a certain nutritional deficiency
that they will need to compensate. Eating non-foods during
pregnancy may not be safe and can cause problems for the baby.
• Food Aversion
Like food cravings, some pregnant women have food aversions.
Food aversion is the opposite of food craving. They make you
nauseous. Pregnant women are generally averse to foods with
really strong smells like onions, garlic, coffee, fried salted fish and
eggs. I was averse to garlic and rice in my first pregnancy. In my
fourth pregnancy, I found chocolate drinks, tea and coffee aversive.
Food aversion usually appears during early pregnancy along
with morning sickness. Some last till the birth of the child.
• Maternal Stress
Maternal stress, fear and anxiety inhibit blood flow to the uterus,
robbing the foetus of a full supply of oxygen and nutrients. Stress
hormones cross the placenta, causing a sudden surge in foetal heart
rate and activity level. They may alter foetal neurological
functioning, thereby heightening reactivity to stressors later in life.
Intense anxiety causes miscarriage, prematurity, low birth weight,
infant respiratory illnesses and digestive disturbances. It is also
related to prenatal growth delays and specific physical defects such
as cleft lips and palates, heart deformities and pyloric stenosis.
Maternal stress during pregnancy can lead to more moodiness,
poor motor and mental development as well as emotional and
behavioural problems during early childhood.

• Maternal Age and Previous Births

Women who delay having children face increased risk of infertility,
miscarriage and the birth of babies with chromosomal defects. Once
a girl is able to conceive, she is also physically ready to carry and
give birth to a baby. Complication rates are higher among teenagers
and women above forty.
2.2.3 Birth
Childbirth is divided into three stages, namely dilation and effacement of the
cervix, birth of the baby and delivery of the placenta. The use of analgesic or
anaesthetic medication in childbirth is common. Childbirth complications pose
serious risks to the newborn. Its development, however, is influenced by the
quality of the parent-child relationship (Bee & Boyd, 2012).
(a) The Birth Process

The birth process, which begins with labour and contractions, is divided into
three stages:
(i) Dilation and Effacement of the Cervix

This first stage is the longest stage of labour. It lasts about 12 to 14 hours
in first birth and four to six hours in later births. At this stage,
contractions of the uterus gradually cause the cervix to thin out and
open. Towards the end of this stage, labour undergoes a transition, in
which contractions become more intense (longer and stronger) until the
cervix is fully dilated to 10 centimetres. A clear opening is formed from
the uterus to the birth canal (vagina).
(ii) Birth of the Baby

The second stage (pushing stage) begins when the cervix is fully dilated
and ends with the birth of the baby. It lasts for only about 50 minutes
in the first birth and 20 minutes in later births. As the uterus contracts,
it exerts an overwhelming urge to push the abdominal muscles,
moving the baby down the birth canal. The baby's head appears first
and then the shoulders emerge, one at a time, followed by the body.
The child is born!
(iii) Delivery of the Placenta

The third stage lasts for about five to 10 minutes. A few final
contractions and pushes will cause the placenta to separate from the
wall of the uterus and be delivered.

(b) Labour and Delivery Medication

(i) Analgesics are painkillers used during labour to relieve pain.
(ii) Anaesthetics are painkillers used during labour to block sensation.
(iii) Epidural analgesia is a regional pain-relieving drug used to control
pain during labour. It is released steadily through a tube in the lower
spine, to reduce pain in the pelvic region.
Newborns exposed to painkillers tend to have lower Apgar scores. They are
sleepy, irritable when awake, withdrawn and suck poorly during feedings.
(c) Use of Instruments to Assist Birth

Occasionally, a baby needs help to be born. Two instruments normally used
to assist birth are:
(i) Ventouse
The ventouse (vacuum extractor) has a cup attached to a suction device.
Once the cup is fitted on the top of the baby's head, the air is sucked out
of it using a pump. The ventouse usually causes cephalhaematoma
(temporary swelling on the head) and retinal haemorrhage (bleeding
inside the eye) in the newborn.
(ii) Forceps
Forceps look a bit like two stainless steel salad servers, with a handle at
one end and two curves which cradle the baby's head on the other end.
The doctor will gently pull with the forceps while the mother pushes
during a contraction. Using forceps during delivery to help pull the
baby through most or all of the birth canal greatly increases the risk of
brain damage.
(d) BabyÊs Adaptation to Labour and Delivery

The strong contractions during birth subject the baby to a great deal of pressure.
Repeated squeezing of the placenta and umbilical cord periodically reduces the
babyÊs supply of oxygen. The force of the contractions causes the baby to
produce high levels of stress hormones, which is adaptive in several ways:
(i) It helps the baby to endure anoxia (oxygen deprivation) by supplying
blood to the brain and heart;
(ii) It prepares the baby to breathe by causing the lungs to absorb any
remaining fluid and opening up the bronchial tubes; and
(iii) It stirs the babyÊs alertness so that they are born ready to interact with
their new environment.

(e) NewbornÊs Appearance

The average newborn is 20 inches (51cm) long and weighs 7½ pounds (3.4kg).
Boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than girls. The head is large in
relation to the trunk and legs, which are short and bowed. Newborn babiesÊ
typical round faces, chubby cheeks, large foreheads and big eyes make them
appear attractive and cuddly to adults.
(f) Assessing NewbornÊs Physical Condition

The Apgar scale is used to assess a newbornÊs physical condition. A rating of
0, 1 or 2 on each of the five characteristics is made at the first minute of birth
and again at five minutes after birth. The following is the APGAR scale:
Sign 0 Point 1 Point 2 Points

A Appearance Blue all over Blue at extremities Pink all over the body
Pulse Absent Below 100 beats Above 100bpm
P
per minute (bpm)
Grimace No Response Grimace Sneeze, cough, pulls
G (Reflex away when excited
Irritability)
Activity Absent Some arm and leg Lively and energetic
A
flexions
R Respiration Absent Erratic breathing Robust cry
A score of seven to 10 is considered normal. A baby with a score of four to

seven may require some resuscitative measures. A baby with a score of three
and below is struggling to adapt to life outside the uterus and requires
incubation immediately.
(g) Birth Complications

Complications at childbirth including anoxia, a pregnancy that ends too early
and a baby who is born underweight pose serious risks to the childÊs
development.
(i) Anoxia
During the process of giving birth, some babies experience anoxia or
inadequate oxygen supply. The greater the oxygen deprivation during
childbirth, the poorer the childÊs cognitive and language skills will be
in early and middle childhood. Anoxia may be caused by the following
conditions:

• Failure to start breathing within a few minutes. Although healthy

newborns can survive periods of little or no oxygen longer than
adults can, brain damage is likely if regular breathing is delayed for
more than 10 minutes.
• Squeezing of the umbilical cord during labour, a condition that is
likely to happen when the foetus is in a breech position.
• Placental abruption or premature separation of the placenta, a
relatively rare, life-threatening event that requires immediate delivery.
• Rh incompatibility between the mother and the babyÊs blood types
that can lead to mental retardation, miscarriage, heart damage and
infant death.
• Respiratory distress syndrome, common among babies born more
than six weeks early. Their tiny lungs are so poorly developed that
the air sacs collapse, causing serious breathing difficulties.
Although mechanical respirators keep many such babies alive,
some suffer permanent brain damage from lack of oxygen.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Answer the questions below based on your understanding of prenatal
birth and development thus far.
1. The corpus lutem is ________

A. where fertilisation takes place.
B. the spot on the ovary from which the ovum is released.
C. a thin long structure that leads to the uterus.
2. The period of the ________ is the time when serious defects from
teratogens are most likely to occur because ________ this time.
A. zygote; implantation occurs during
B. foetus; the prenatal organism is developing most rapidly
during
C. embryo; the foundations for all body parts are laid down
during
3. The Apgar scale rates the characteristics of a newborn including the

newbornÊs _________
A. heart rate, colour and muscle tone.
B. vision, hearing and sense of touch.
C. reflexes, state changes and responsiveness to social stimuli.

(ii) Preterm and Low Birth Weight Babies

Babies born earlier than 36 weeks, or weigh less than 5½ pounds (2.5kg)
at birth are referred to as „premature‰. Premature babies weighing less
than 3½ pounds (1.6kg) tend to experience frequent illnesses,
inattention, over-activity, language delays, low intelligence test scores,
deficits in school learning and emotional and behavioural problems.
These conditions persist through childhood, adolescence and even into
adulthood.
Low birth weight babies can be categorised into two groups:
• Preterm babies are those born several weeks or more before their
due date. Although they are small, their weight may still be
appropriate, based on time spent in the uterus; and
• Small-for-date babies are below their expected weight considering

the length of the pregnancy. They may be either full-term babies or
preterm babies who are markedly underweight. Their conditions
may be brought about by exposure to teratogens such as smoking
or alcohol.
Preterm babies need special care in an isolette, where temperature is

carefully controlled because they cannot regulate their own body
temperature well. Air is filtered to protect these babies from infections.
They are fed through a stomach tube, breathe with the aid of a
respirator and receive medication through an intravenous needle.
Certain types of stimulation such as gliding in suspended hammocks

or lying on waterbeds designed to mimic the gentle motion within the
motherÊs uterus can promote faster weight gain, better sleep patterns
and more alertness in fragile preterm babies. Touching the skin is an
especially important form of stimulation. It releases brain chemicals
that support physical growth. Preterm babies, who are massaged every
day, gain weight faster and achieve greater mental and motor
development in the first year than preterm babies who are not.
Skin-to-skin „kangaroo care‰ in which the preterm baby is tucked close

to the chest and peers over the top of the caregiverÊs clothing, is
encouraged. Kangaroo care allows parents to interact more
affectionately with their babies. It fosters improved oxygenation of the
babyÊs body, temperature regulation, breathing, feeding and infant
survival.

ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Janet is five months pregnant. She believes that a few cigarettes and
a glass of wine a day will not harm her baby. Provide Janet with
research-based reasons for not smoking or drinking.
2. Only a few women know that taking daily folic acid supplement
around the time of conception reduces the incidence of neural tube
defects. Were you aware of the prenatal effects of folic acid? If you
could publicise five influences in a campaign aimed at safeguarding
prenatal development, which ones would you choose and why?
Team up with a coursemate to produce information leaflets that address

the two issues above. Share your leaflets in the myINSPIRE online forum.
• Complex interactions between nature and nurture during the nine months of
gestation will mould a childÊs development.
• The developing organism is extremely susceptible to the detrimental effects of

teratogens.
• Prenatal development is divided into three stages, namely zygote, embryo and
foetus.
• Childbirth is divided into three stages, namely dilation and effacement of the
cervix, birth of the baby and delivery of the placenta.
• Complications at childbirth pose serious risks to the babyÊs development.

Special care such as isollete or kangaroo care can boost the babyÊs adjustment
to the new environment outside the motherÊs womb.

Amniotic fluid Jaundice

Anaesthetics Kangaroo care
Analgesics Lanugo
Anencephaly Neural tube
Anoxia Pica
Apgar scale Placenta
Blastocyst Placental abruption
Cervix Premature
Conception Preterm
Dilation Progesterone
Effacement Pyloric stenosis
Embryo Respirator
Epidural analgesia Respiratory distress syndrome
Fallopian tubes Small-for-date
Foetal alcohol syndrome Teratogen
Foetus Umbilical cord
Folic acid Uterus
Gestational diabetes Vernix
Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) Zygote
Bee, H. L., & Boyd, D. G. (2012). The developing child (13th ed.). Boston, MA:
Pearson.


Prentice Hall.
Weinstein, A. D. (2016). Prenatal development and parentsÊ lived experiences:

How early events shape our psychophysiology and relationships. New York:
WW Norton & Co.

Topic  Early
3 Capacities in
Infancy
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the states of arousal and major reflexes of babies;
2. Explain babiesÊ sensitivity to touch, taste and smell;
3. Discuss the development of hearing and speech perception in babies;
4. Examine the development of vision in infancy – visual acuity, colour
perception, depth perception, pattern perception, face perception
and object perception;
5. Define the concept of intermodal perception; and
6. Appraise early learning and memory.
 INTRODUCTION
Three hours after Ainul was born, I held her in my arms. I smiled as I spoke to her
gently in a high pitched, expressive voice, „Ainul... Ainul... Ainul, there you are...
this is grandma...yes, this is your grandma!‰ She gazed at me attentively. She
seemed to listen to me, fascinated by my voice! Catherine Snow must be right!
Newborns like the sound of female voice, especially if their mother talked to them
often when they were in the womb. Hani talked to Ainul frequently when she was
carrying her. She also listened to MisharyÊs recitations of verses from the Quran

46  TOPIC 3 EARLY CAPACITIES IN INFANCY
constantly during pregnancy. After birth, Ainul seemed calm at the sound of the
familiar recitations as she slept or while she surveyed her surroundings when she
was awake.
From birth, Ainul has been an easy baby. She cried only when she was hungry,
wet or needed help. She conveyed her needs very distinctly. She stopped crying
as soon as her needs were met. When Ainul was merely a few days old, her parents
were very anxious each time she cried. They tried all sorts of remedies to relieve
her „pain‰. Eventually, they became more relaxed when they discovered that
Ainul was very explicit in expressing her needs. They realised that Ainul had
communication skills.
Newborns were once regarded as passive, incompetent beings. Recent research

on baby behaviours and more sophisticated tests of baby capacities confirm that
newborns are capable beings, able to demonstrate many complex abilities.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Pay a visit to someone who has just given birth. If you do not know anyone
who has just given birth, visit a nursery school or a maternity clinic.
Interview a mother on what her baby is like. How does she know what
her baby needs? Does her baby listen when she talks to him/her? Does
she think that her baby can see her? What are her hopes for her baby?
What kind of person does she want her baby to be when he/she grows up,
physically, socially and intellectually?
Share and discuss your encounter with the new mother during tutorial or
online through the myINSPIRE learning forum.
3.1 INFANT STATES AND BABY REFLEXES

Newborns shift between six states of arousal in a day. These states fluctuate from
degrees of sleepiness to wakefulness. Younger babies spend most of their time
sleeping. As they grow, their wakefulness begins to increase gradually and
conforms more to the circadian rhythm of day and night. Babies are born with
extraordinary reflexes, which are crucial for their survival and early learning.
Some reflexes such as rooting, sucking and swimming have survival values. Other
reflexes such as grasping and stepping form the basis for future motor skills.

TOPIC 3 EARLY CAPACITIES IN INFANCY  47
3.1.1 Infant States

An infantÊs state is the amount of awareness he displays to both internal and
external stimulations. States include varying degrees of alertness, fussiness and
sleepiness. Throughout the day and night, newborns (from birth to two weeks old)
move in and out of six states of arousal (between sleep and alertness) as described
in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Six States of Arousal in Infants
State of Arousal Description

Regular sleep Body is still and very relaxed; rhythmic breathing.
Irregular sleep Sucks, moves a bit, cries briefly and wakes easily.
Drowsiness Sleepy, tired, irregular breathing and startles now and then.
Quiet alertness Calm, still, very attentive and responsive to what he sees and hears.
Active alertness Less attentive, slightly fussy, either hungry, tired or has had too
much handling.
Crying Tears, muscle tense, rapid breathing, hungry, gassy, wet, cold or
warm, sick or over stimulated; needs feeding or comforting.
The sleep stages of newborns are fitful and appear in spurts of about two hours.
From one to eight months of age, the average sleep period is about three hours. By
the end of the first year, babiesÊ sleep-wake routine resembles those of adults and
most of them sleep through the night. Young babies have a cycle of active REM-
like sleep, associated with dreaming, which makes up half of their sleep. By six
months of age, it declines to one-third of total sleep time.
At birth, babiesÊ sleep-wake cycles are affected by their hunger–fullness level. By

the middle of the first year, the babiesÊ brains begin to produce melatonin, a
hormone in the brain that promotes drowsiness, more at night than during the
day. When this happens, their sleep-wake pattern changes and conforms to the
circadian rhythm or 24-hour schedule. The periods of sleep and wakefulness
become longer. On average, newborns sleep 16 to 18 hours daily. This duration
will reduce to12 hours a day by the time they are two.

(a) Sleep
Sleep consists of at least two states, namely rapid-eye-movement (REM)
sleep and non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep:
(i) In irregular or REM sleep, the electrical brain-wave activity is similar
to that of the waking state. The eyes dart beneath the lids; heart rate,
blood pressure and breathing are uneven; and slight body movements
occur. REMs ensure that the structures of the eye remain oxygenated
during sleep. REM sleep time is greater during the prenatal and
newborn periods than at any later age. It provides them with
stimulation vital for brain development.
(ii) In contrast, in regular NREM sleep, the body is almost motionless and
the heart rate, breathing and brain-wave activity are slow and regular.
Babies who are brain-damaged or have birth trauma often display disturbed
REM-NREM sleep cycles. Such cycles in newborns may indicate brain-
functioning problems. The underlying problems can lead to sudden infant
death syndrome (SIDS), a disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die in
their sleep. SIDS is a major cause of infant mortality for two to four-month-
olds.
(b) Crying
Crying is a way that babies convey their need for food, comfort and attention.
Young babies usually cry because of physical needs, a sudden noise or at the
sound of another crying baby. Crying usually increases during the early
weeks, peaks at about six weeks and then declines.
Through a study conducted, Harrison (2004) deduced that younger babies

(six-week-olds) cried more than older babies (nine to twelve-week-olds).
Babies who had high levels of evening crying also slept less at night. Their
total sleep declined between 6 and 12 weeks. Most of their sleep was at night.
Babies who were exposed to abundant early afternoon light with high levels
of activity during the day slept longer and more soundly at night than babies
with low activity levels.
Crying babies stir strong feelings of discomfort in adults. This response may
be instinctive in all humans. It ensures that babies receive immediate care
and protection. The intensity and context of the cries help us identify what
is wrong – whether our baby is hungry, tired or in pain. The way we respond
to the cries also differs. Some of us respond quickly, with empathy.
Newborns with colic problems tend to have unpleasant, piercing cries. They
are very difficult to soothe. Parents with such babies may become frustrated,
at times even lose control and harm the baby.

According to the ethological theory, our responsiveness to crying baby is

adaptive. It ensures that our babyÊs basic needs are met. It also brings the
baby into close contact with us. Ethological research reveals that prompt
responsiveness to babyÊs cries will result in a child who cries less over time.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. List and describe at least four infant states.
2. Compare between REM sleep and NREM sleep of newborns.
3. Why do older babies sleep longer than newborns?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Do babies dream? What do you think? Conduct a quick research on the

Internet, share and cross-check your findings with your coursemates in
the myINSPIRE online learning forum.
3.1.2 Baby Reflexes

A reflex (such as a blink) is an innate, automatic response to a specific form of
stimulus. It has an adaptive value. For example, the rooting and sucking reflex
which helps an infant find the motherÊs nipple is important for survival. Other
reflexes such as swimming, stepping and grasping form the basis for complex
motor skills that will develop later. Some reflexes stay throughout life, others
disappear over time. Refer to Table 3.2 for examples of baby reflexes.
Reflexes can serve as helpful diagnostic tools for paediatricians. Testing reflexes
carefully can reveal the health of a babyÊs nervous system. Reflexes that are weak
or absent, overly rigid or exaggerated, or persist beyond the developmental point
when they should normally disappear can signal damage to the cerebral cortex.

Table 3.2: Summary of Baby Reflexes
Age Reflex
Reflex Trigger Response Function
Disappears
Babinsky Stroke the sole or Foot turns in, Prepares One year
side of the foot toes spread and for later
from heel to toe big toe extends walking
Moro (startle) A loud noise, Cries and Protects Four to six
sudden movement extend legs, self from months
or sensation of arms and falling
falling fingers, arches
back, retract
arms and legs
Palmar grasp Pressing a finger or Spontaneous Prepares Three to
other object such as closing of the for later four
a rattle into the hand holding months
babyÊs palm
Plantar Rubbing the ball of Curling of the Prepares One year

the foot toes for later
walking
Rooting A gentle stroke on Baby turns Helps baby Three to
the babyÊs cheek or towards the find food four
mouth touch, with months
mouth open
Sucking Touching the roof Baby sucks on Helps baby Three to
of the babyÊs mouth nipple eat four
with something, for months
example, a nipple
Stepping Holding baby Baby lifts one Prepares Two

upright with his foot, then the for later months
feet on a flat other, as if walking
surface walking

Swimming Place baby in a pool Begins to Prepares Four to six

of water paddle and kick for survival months
in a swimming in water
motion
Tonic neck or Lying on his back One arm Prepares About four
fencing with head turned to extends as the for to six
one side opposite arm reaching months
bends at the
elbow
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Match each newborn reflex with its probable function.
Reflex: Function:
(a) Stepping (a) Helps infant survive if dropped in water
(b) Rooting (b) Helps infant find the nipple
(c) Palmar grasp (c) Permits feeding
(d) Sucking (d) Prepares infant for voluntary walking
(e) Swimming (e) Protects infant from strong stimulation
(f) Eye blink (f) Prepares infant for voluntary grasping
Did You Know?

Touch is the first sense to develop. The developing foetus responds to touch of
the lips and cheeks by 8 weeks and to other parts of its body at 14 weeks. The
sense of taste develops by 12 weeks and hearing by the 22nd to 24th week.
Source: Hepper, 2005

3.2 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL CAPACITIES

Sensation and perception are processes that help infants understand their
surroundings. Sensation involves the reception of stimulus through a sense organ
while perception is the analysis and integration of stimuli by the brain. BabiesÊ
sensory and perceptual capacities are gauged by means such as habituation
(become used to a given stimulus) or visual preference (favour one of two
alternative stimuli). Babies are physically equipped to pick up stimuli through
their senses and to perceive things around them.
The ability to touch, smell, see and hear permits babies to interact with others.
These abilities are crucial for the emotional and social development of babies
(Feldman, 2014). BabiesÊ preference for the human face supports their earliest
social relationships and helps to regulate exploration of their surroundings in
adaptive ways. Knowledge of the world grasped through the senses provides the
basis for cognitive development. Babies cannot describe their experiences, so
researchers use nonverbal responses that vary with stimulation such as looking,
habituation and psycho-physiological measures (Bee & Boyd, 2012; Berk, 2013).
3.2.1 Babies’ Sensitivity to Touch, Taste, Smell and

Balance
Studies on babiesÊ sensitivity to touch, taste, smell and sound have shown that
babies are programmed to receive information from their environment. They also
reveal that the brain readily transforms these sensory experiences into rich
perceptual information. Babies are born with a matured sense of smell, touch and
sounds. Their sense of taste and sight blossoms just about the time their physical
growth matures in time to require the need to use them. Babies perceive input
from various senses in a unified way, fostering optimal adaptation to their
environment.
(a) Touch
Touch is one of the most highly developed sensory systems in a newborn.
Sensitivity to touch, mainly at the mouth area and on the soles of the feet,
begins to function when the foetus is at two months in gestation. It responds
to pain at 23 weeks of gestation. It is well developed at birth. Touch is an
important means of gathering data about their surroundings. The large
number of nerve endings in the fingers, lips and tongue supply them
information about the objects in their grasp or mouth.

Being massaged, stroked, held, patted and swaddled help them to regulate
their states. Touching the skin releases brain chemicals that support physical
growth and endorphins that are pleasurable to the baby. Pleasurable touch
enhances babiesÊ receptiveness to the environment. It is a vital means of
interaction between parents and their baby. Newborns respond to gentle
touches and are calmed by them. Gentle touch also helps to stimulate early
physical growth and is crucial for emotional development. Preterm infants
who are massaged several times each day in the hospital gain weight faster
and achieve greater mental and motor development in the first year than
preterm infants who are not given this stimulation.
(b) Taste and Smell

During pregnancy, the amniotic fluid is rich in tastes and smells that vary
with the motherÊs diet. These early experiences may shape newbornsÊ taste
and odour preferences, which are present at birth. Facial expressions reveal
that newborns can distinguish between sweet, sour and bitter tastes.
Newborns are also able to discriminate different tastes and they display a
preference for sweet over sour or bitter. These abilities are important for
infant survival. Babies have a salty preference at four months, just about the
time the body is mature enough to release digestive enzymes to break down
food.
Newborns can discriminate among a variety of odours and by one week of

age, they are able to distinguish their mother's smell and breast milk from
those of other people. They have a dual attraction to the odours of their
mother and that of the lactating breast. This attraction helps them to locate
the correct food source. Soon after birth, babies intuitively latch on to their
motherÊs nipple and begin suckling within an hour. Bottle-fed babies prefer
the smell of breast milk compared to formula milk. The smell of bananas and
chocolate causes a relaxed facial expression while the odour of rotten eggs
makes newborns frown. They can also identify the location of an odour and
quickly turn to the opposite direction if the smell is unpleasant.
3.2.2 Development of Hearing and Speech Perception

Although infants can detect sound before birth, their hearing improves
tremendously after birth. Newborns can hear a wide variety of sounds. They
prefer complex sounds like human voices and sounds they have heard prenatally
compared to simple sounds like bells. They are more sensitive to high-pitched
sounds than low-pitched ones and a sound must be slightly louder for them to
detect it.

Adults tend to talk to young babies in a special way called motherese speech.
Motherese speech is generally slow, repetitive, high-pitched and expressive.
Babies are more attentive and responsive to them when adults speak in this way.
Babies can distinguish different kinds of sounds and tell from which direction a
sound comes from. However, they are less precise in locating the position of a
noise than children or adults. Babies are born with an innate capacity to detect and
process speech sounds. Babies below six months can distinguish the basic
phonemes (unique speech sounds) in any of the languages spoken around the
world. As young as one month, they can perceive many speech sounds. They can
detect differences between „ba‰ and „ga‰, „ma‰ and „na‰, „a‰ and „i‰ (Alin,
Pisoni, & Jusczyk, 1998). Two-month-olds begin to recognise changes in sound
patterns such as the duration of intervals between bursts of sounds. As their
auditory feedback loop develops, they enjoy hearing to their own sounds
(gurgling, laughing and babbling). By four months, they can recognise familiar
sounds and cry if the face seen does not match their mother's voice that they have
just heard. They also recognise familiar sounds for feeding (such as spoon in a
dish). Six-month-olds can distinguish more complex rhythms and melodies.
However, by ten months of age, babies who have not heard specific phonemes in
their language environment lose the ability to recognise them.
3.2.3 Development of Vision

Vision is the most underdeveloped sense at birth. Visual structures in the eye
continue to develop after birth. For example, the retina, optic nerve and other
pathways that relay visual messages and the visual centres in the brain that receive
them take several years after birth to reach maturity. The muscles of the lens, which
permit us to adjust our focus to varying distances are weak in newborns.
(a) Visual Acuity and Colour Perception

As a result of visual structures, the eyes of newborns are not able to
accommodate a wide range of distances. They cannot focus their eyes well
and their visual acuity is limited to about one foot away. Anything too close
or too far is a blur. Their eye movements are slow and inaccurate.
Nonetheless, babies can see from birth. They are able to actively scan their
environment. Babies are sensitive to brightness and movement, and can
track moving objects. Their sight will develop gradually over their first year
and by the age of one, they will see the world almost as well as adults do.

Although newborns prefer coloured over grey stimuli, they are not yet good
at separating colours. By three months, they can identify colours across the
entire spectrum and the ability to focus is comparable to that of an adult.
Their visual acuity improves steadily during the first three months of life.
During the same period, babies are better able to perceive patterns, mainly
those of human faces. Visual acuity reaches a near-adult level by six months.
Scanning and tracking improve over the first six months as they begin to see
more clearly and eye movements become more precise.
(b) Depth Perception

Depth perception is the ability to judge the distance of objects from one
another and from ourselves. It is important in understanding the layout of
the environment. The emergence of depth perception is influenced by the
babyÊs ability to appreciate kinetic depth cues, binocular depth cues and
pictorial depth cues, as explained in the following:
(i) Kinetic depth cues are created by movements of the body or of objects
in the environment. Babies who are carried around develop sensitivity
to kinetic depth cues by three or four weeks of age. By three months of
age, motion would have helped babies figure out that objects are not
flat but are three-dimensional.
(ii) Binocular depth cues occur because each of our eyes has slightly
different views of the visual field. The brain blends the two views in a
process called stereopsis, which results in the perception of depth.
Perception of binocular depth cues emerges between two and three
months, and improves rapidly over the first year.
(iii) Pictorial depth cues are the last to develop. They are the ones artists
use to make a painting look three-dimensional such as receding lines
that create the illusion of perspective, changes in texture (nearby
textures are more detailed than faraway ones) and overlapping objects
(an object partially hidden by another object is perceived as being more
distant).
Depth perception in babies was revealed by Eleanor Gibson and Richard

Walk (1960) using the visual cliff experiment. The cliff is a Plexiglas-covered
table that has a „shallow‰ side with a checkerboard pattern just under the
glass and a „deep‰ side with a checkerboard several feet below the glass
(Figure 3.1). Crawling babies, five to seven months of age, readily crossed
the shallow side of the visual cliff, but most reacted with fear towards the
deep side. They can detect pictorial depth cues (which can be perceived by
one eye) such as relative size, shadows, interposition of surfaces and linear
perspective.

Figure 3.1: Visual cliff experiment

Source: http://bedtiming.typepad.com/bed-timing/8-11-months/
Depth perception is linked to babiesÊ motor development. The control of the

head during the early weeks help babies notice motion and binocular cues.
At about five months of age, the ability to hold and feel the surface of objects
gives them knowledge about size, texture and shape. This experience
promotes the perception of pictorial cues. Crawling allows babies to move
on their own, instead of being carried. This experience promotes a new level
of brain organisation, including three-dimensional understanding. They also
reinforce neural connections related to vision and space awareness as well as
sensitivity to depth cues. From everyday experiences, babies will learn how
to use depth cues to evaluate the risks of falling.
(c) Pattern Perception

Pattern perception comprises the following abilities:
(i) Contrast sensitivity: Even newborns prefer to look at patterns

compared to plain stimuli. After about two months, babies are better at
adjusting their scanning. They can detect details and salient parts of a
pattern as well as contrasts in two or more patterns. As babies grow
older, they prefer more complex patterns. Three-week-olds prefer
black-and-white checkerboards with a few large squares. Two-month-
olds prefer those with more squares. Three-month-olds, on the other
hand, can distinguish between pictures of zebras and horses.

(ii) Scanning for dynamic stimuli: When exposed to dynamic stimuli such
as the motherÊs nodding and smiling face, six-week-olds focus more on
internal features (mouth and eyes) than on edges (hairline or chin). The
ability to inspect a stimulus in a thorough manner emerges after four
months of age.
(iii) Exploring complex moving patterns seems to be harder than exploring

stationary patterns. At four months, babies become very good at
detecting organisation in static patterns. At twelve months, they can
detect a familiar object in an unfinished drawing, even if two-thirds of
it is missing.
(d) Face Perception

Newborns prefer to look at simple, face-like stimuli with features arranged
normally rather than upside down or sideways. They track a face-like pattern
moving across their visual field longer than they track other objects.
Newborns prefer photos of faces with open eyes and a direct gaze. They look
longer at attractive faces compared to unattractive ones. Extensive face-to-
face interaction with their caregivers adds to the refinement of face
perception. Two-month-old babies prefer their motherÊs face, compared to
other adults. They also favour drawings of human faces to other objects. At
three months, they can perceive the fine features of different faces. At five
months, babies perceive emotional expressions as meaningful wholes.
(e) Object Perception

Perception of three-dimensional objects is essential for the baby to
differentiate between self, other people and things. Object perception
includes perception of size and shape constancy, object identity and object
unity.
(i) Perception of Size and Shape Constancy

Size and shape constancy are built-in capacities, evident from the first
week of life. Size constancy is the ability to perceive an objectÊs size as
stable despite changes in the size of its retinal image. Shape constancy
is the ability to perceive an objectÊs shape as stable despite changes in
the shape projected on the retina. Both size and shape constancy help
babies detect a coherent world of objects.

(ii) Perception of Object Unity

When they are carried around, newborns pick up a number of cues
which are later used to infer object unity. As they observe objects in
motion, they pick up extra information about the objectsÊ boundaries
such as shape, colour and texture. As babies become familiar with
many objects, they can integrate each objectÊs range of features into a
unified whole.
(ii) Perception of Object Identity

To perceive an objectÊs identity, babies must keep track of its movement
in and out of their line of sight. Between four and five months, they
would have gained enough practice in seeing objects move in and out
of view to track increasingly intricate paths of objects. Perception of
object unity is acquired before the perception of the continuity of an
objectÊs path of movement.
(f) Intermodal Perception

In intermodal perception, we make sense of simultaneous inputs combined
from various senses such as light, sound, tactile, odour and taste. For
example, babies know an object by seeing and touching it. Newborns turn
towards the direction of their motherÊs voice, gentle touch and smell of her
milk. They seem to expect certain sight, sound, touch, smell and taste to go
together.
Babies perceive input from different sensory systems in a unified way by

detecting amodal sensory properties – information that is not specific to a
single modality but that which overlaps two or more sensory systems. In the
early months, infants detect amodal properties only when they are exposed
to intermodal stimulation or simultaneous input from more than one sensory
system. Thus, intermodal sensitivity eases babiesÊ perception of the physical
world.
In addition, intermodal stimulation also eases social and language

processing. A motherÊs gentle touch induces the baby to attend to her face,
in other words, he gazes at her face. Initially, babies need both vocal and
visual input to identify positive from negative emotional expressions. The
synchrony between a speech sound and the motion of an object helps in their
language development. Intermodal perception can be more easily described
as the basic ability that fosters all aspects of psychological development.

Within the first half-year, babies can match the motions of a variety of objects
with their right sounds. For example, three-month-olds prefer watching films
with matching soundtracks compared to ones with non-matching
soundtracks. Five-month-olds can reach for an object in a room that has been
darkened during their reach. They also reach for an object with a sound in
the dark, displaying a union of sound and touch.
Table 3.3 provides a summary of the development of infant hearing and

vision.
Table 3.3: Development of Infant Hearing and Vision
Age Hearing Vision

Birth Babies are startled by loud At birth, babies can only see
sounds; they respond to sound; objects that are about eight to 12
prefer complex sounds (like inches away; when one is close to
voices) to simple sounds (like a baby, what it sees best is the face;
bells); are quiet or smile when sees bright colours or large black
spoken to; are awakened by and white pictures and toys.
loud sounds; can tell ascending
and descending sound
patterns.
1–3 Babies respond to vowels Babies are discovering their
months sounds better than to hands, and may spend time just
consonants sounds; by third looking at them; are able to follow
month, they recognise their moving objects better; can see
motherÊs voice and will be quiet close objects more clearly; sees a
if crying; listen to own sounds; smile and learns to smile back. By
start to look in the direction three months, they can identify the
where sounds are coming from. entire spectrum of colours and
their ability to focus attains adult
level. Perception of binocular
depth cues emerge at this stage.

4–6 Babies can now move their Babies like looking at their hands
months eyes in the direction of sounds; and feet; can look back and forth
respond to changes in the tone at two different things; can focus
of voices by babbling; notice on objects as far away as three feet;
toys that make sounds; pay can follow objects going across
attention to music; enjoy them and over-and-under then;
sounds of musical toys (rattles, begin to differentiate between
bells); can tell apart speech and objects that are close to them and
environmental sounds; recall objects that are far away; scanning
simple melody; can detect notes and tracking of intricate paths of
that are out of tune in a melody objects improve; develop depth
by six months. perception. Visual acuity reaches a
near-adult level by six months.
7–9 Babies enjoy games like peek-a- At this point a babiesÊ vision is
months boo and pat-a-cake; turn their almost like an adultÊs, they can see
eye/head/body to source of longer distance; can recognise
sound (sound localisation); people and objects across a room;
listen when spoken to; they are very curious and loves to
recognise words for common look and explore the
items (like "shoe"); begin to surroundings. Everything is
respond to simple requests (like interesting and they can now pick
"come here‰); modify speech to up those little things that they
match what was heard; imitate looked at before.
speech and non-speech sounds;
respond to names; attend to
music/singing.
9–12 Babies respond physically to BabiesÊ vision is becoming
months music; respond to questions sharper; can pick out an object the
with action; can look for named size of a crumb.
objects; understand some
common phrases.
12–24 Babies begin to show interest in By one year, a babyÊs vision has
months radio and television sounds; become as sharp as a normal
listen to simple stories, songs adultÊs; has depth perception, can
and rhymes; remember two tell the difference between near
items; respond when called and far; is able to recognise people
from another room; retain what it knows, approaching from a
was heard in the right order, distance; can detect a familiar
like "Put the cup on the table object in an unfinished drawing,
and the pencil in the bag" even if two-thirds of it is missing.
(auditory sequencing); follow a
dialogue; answer questions
about a picture or book.

ACTIVITY 3.3
Your sister, Annie and her husband do not speak Chinese but they want
their newborn baby to learn the language. They play audio recordings of
people speaking or singing songs in Chinese three hours daily. Their
friends think it is silly. The baby is too young to benefit from the activity.
What do you think? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE
online forum.
3.3 EARLY LEARNING AND MEMORY

Learning takes place when changes in behaviour occur as the result of experience.
Although newborns may not absorb everything in their daily lives, they do have
the capacity to learn. They learn best when they are in a quiet alert state. According
to learning theorists, babies are capable of two basic forms of learning, namely
classical and operant conditioning. They also learn through their natural
preference for novel experiences and by observing and imitating others. The
occurrence of habituation and imitation reveal their ability to learn and imply
memory retention.
3.3.1 Classical Conditioning

Newborn reflexes make classical conditioning possible in the young baby. In this
form of learning, a neutral stimulus (stoking the forehead) is paired with a
stimulus (milk) that leads to a reflexive response (sucking). Once the babyÊs
nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the new stimulus
will produce the behaviour by itself. We know that the baby has been classically
conditioned because stroking his forehead outside the feeding situation (CS) also
results in sucking (CR).
3.3.2 Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning, babies react to the environment. The stimulus that
precedes their behaviour changes the probability that the behaviour will occur
again. A stimulus that increases the occurrence of a response is called a reinforcer.
For example, sweet liquid reinforces the sucking response in newborns. Presenting
an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the occurrence of a response is called a
punishment.

Successful operant conditioning in the early weeks is limited to head-turning and

sucking responses. Many stimuli other than food can serve as reinforcers. Young
babies will suck faster to see visual designs or to hear music and human voices.
Operant conditioning has also been used to study babiesÊ ability to group similar
stimuli into categories. It plays a vital role in shaping interactions, relationships
and social communications.
3.3.3 Habituation
Habituation refers to the gradual decline of response to a repeated stimulus. It can
be displayed by a reduced gaze, heart rate and respiration, indicating a loss of
interest. Habituation occurs when babies remember an object and have acquired
„enough‰ knowledge about it. Presenting a new stimulus will cause the habituated
response to return to a high level, an increase called recovery. The rapid recovery
to a new stimulus is known as dishabituation.
Habituation is a window into early attention, memory and knowledge – in

learning a sequence, a baby first habituates to a visual pattern, then recovers to a
new one. He appears to remember the first stimulus and perceive the second one
as new and different from the first one. As the baby gets older, he shifts from a
novelty preference to a familiarity preference, that is, he reverts to the familiar
stimulus rather than to a novel stimulus. This shift allows us to use habituation to
assess remote memory or memory for stimuli in which babies were exposed to
weeks or months earlier.
Examples of babiesÊ detection of relationships include awareness of speech sounds

that often goes hand-in-hand and matches between an objectÊs rhythm and tempo
of movement to the sound it makes. Habituation and recovery to visual stimuli
are among the earliest available predictors of intelligence in childhood and
adolescence. The simplest form of memory is recognition - all the baby has to do
is to indicate whether a new stimulus is identical or similar to a previous one.
Recall is a more challenging form of memory in which the baby must remember
something that is not present at that exact moment.
3.3.4 Newborn Imitation

Newborns have a primitive ability to learn through imitation – by copying the
behaviour of another person. This ability improves greatly over the first two years.
Newborns imitate in the same way that older children and adults do - by keenly
trying to match body actions they see with ones they feel themselves making.
Imitation may reflect the babyÊs deep-seated need to communicate and is also a
powerful means of learning.

3.3.5 Early Memory

Babies have surprisingly good memories. Even newborns have memory capabilities
from their earliest days. They readily habituate repeated sights and sounds,
suggesting that they remember enough about a stimulus to perceive it as familiar.
The ability to habituate to stimuli implies the presence of memory. They quickly
learn to recognise their motherÊs voice, smell, face and even identify the sound
patterns that they heard while in their motherÊs womb.
Memory skills improve dramatically over the first two years. A babyÊs memory is
dependent upon the hippocampus. It improves with age and brain maturity. It is
influenced by environmental cues. At a later age, memory involves additional
structures of the brain. Two-month-olds retain their memory (kick to move a
mobile) for six to eight days. Six-month-olds remember a learnt action and exhibit
deferred imitation for 15 to 16 days and eighteen-month-olds are able to recall an
event that occurred three months earlier.
3.3.6 Newborn Behavioural Assessment

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioural Assessment Scale (NBAS) measures 27 categories
of infant neurological and behavioural responses to their environment (Brazelton
& Nugent, 2011). It assesses the babyÊs reflexes, state changes, responsiveness to
people and objects as well as other reactions. It supplements the Apgar scale. As
newborn behaviours and parenting styles combine to shape development, changes
in NBAS scores over the first two weeks of life provide the best estimate of the
babyÊs ability to recover from the stress of birth.
A newer test, called the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioural
Scale (NNNS) has been developed to assess high-risk babies (Lester & Tronick,
2004). It examines the babyÊs neurological and behavioural organisation,
arousability, habituation, reflexes, muscle tone, visual behaviour, crying and other
characteristics. It offers long-term tracking of infant development.
• Babies experience six states of arousal, namely regular sleep, irregular sleep,
drowsiness, quiet alertness, active alertness and crying.
• Some reflexes have adaptive value while others form the basis for complex
motor skills that will develop later. They are helpful diagnostic tools used to
assess the health of a babyÊs nervous system.

• Sensation and perception help babies to understand their surroundings.

Sensation involves the reception of stimulus through a sense organ while
perception includes the analysis and integration of stimuli by the brain.
• At birth, touch is extremely matured while sight is the most immature sense.
Newborns learn through classical and operant conditioning. Their natural
preference for novel experiences, habituation and imitation of others also
reveal their ability to learn and imply memory retention.
• Brazelton Neonatal Behavioural Assessment Scale (NBAS) and the Neonatal

Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioural Scale (NNNS) are used to
estimate babiesÊ health and readiness to learn.

Arousal Object perception

Auditory feedback loop Object unity
Babinsky reflex Palmar grasp reflex
Behavioural assessment Phonemes
Binocular depth cues Pictorial depth cues
Circadian rhythm Plantar reflex
Colic Plasticity
Colour perception Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Complex moving patterns Recall
Contrast sensitivity Recognition
Depth perception Recovery
Dynamic stimuli Rooting reflex
Early deprivation Scanning and tracking
Endorphins Sensation
Enrichment Sensitive period
Face perception Shape and size constancy
Habituation Stationary patterns
Imitation Stepping reflex
Infant states Stereopsis
Intermodal perception Sucking reflex
Kinetic depth cues Sudden infant death syndrome
Melatonin Swimming reflex
Moro reflex Tonic neck reflex
Motherese Visual acuity
Novelty to familiarity Visual cliff
Object identity Visual preference

Aslin, R. N., Jusczyk, P. W., & Pisoni, D. B. (1998). Speech and auditory processing
during infancy: Constraints on and precursors to language. In W. Damon
(Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and
language (pp. 147–198). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc
Pearson.
Brazelton, T. B. (2011). Neonatal behavioral assessment scale (4th ed). Cambridge:

Mac Keith Press.

Prentice Hall.
Gibson, E. J., & Walk, R. D. (1960). The "visual cliff". Scientific American, 202,
67–71.
Harrison, Y. (2004). The relationship between daytime exposure to light and

nightime sleep in 6-12-week-old infants. Journal of Sleep Research, 13 (4),
345–352.
Hepper, P. (2005). Unraveling our beginnings. The Psychologist, 18, 474-477.
Lester, B. M., & Tronic, E. Z. (2004). The neonatal intensive care unit network
neurobehavioral scale procedures. Pediatrics, 113 (2).

Topic  Physical
4 Development
and Health
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the brain and its development;
2. Discuss the course of physical growth, changes in body size, body
proportions and body composition;
3. Examine changes in gross and fine motor skills across childhood;
and
4. Evaluate the effects of hormones, nutrition, infectious diseases,
environment threats and childhood injuries on physical growth and
health.
 INTRODUCTION
The first five years of a child's life are important not only for his physical growth
but also for the growth of his nervous system and brain. It lays the foundation for
the childÊs future development, learning, achievement and long term well-being.
Several major principles of development that can be applied to physical growth as
well as to other domains include:
(a) The cephalocaudal principle or head-to-tail sequence. This principle states
that growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper body,
which then advances to the rest of the body;

68  TOPIC 4 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH
(b) The proximodistal principle or from the centre of the body outward trend.
This operates on the belief that development proceeds from the centre of the
body towards the tips of the fingers;
(c) The principle of differentiation, in which global, poorly defined skills
develop into a set of precise skills, each adapted to a specific function;
(d) The principle of hierarchical integration, in which simple skills initially
develop separately and independently. They are later integrated into more
complex skills;
(e) The principle of independence of systems states that different body systems
grow at different rates; and
(f) The principle of joint role of maturation and experience in the development
of all skills.
4.1 THE BRAIN

The impact we have on our childrenÊs brain in the first three years of their life is
critical to their physical, socio-emotional and cognitive development (Robokos,
2012). All the neurons our children will ever have in life are formed at the end of
the second trimester in the womb. At birth, the brain is a quarter of its adult
weight. By the second year, it triples in weight. The brain undergoes six main
processes of development:
(a) Neurogenesis and neuron migration;
(b) Structural elaboration and differentiation of neurons;
(c) Synaptogenesis;
(d) Synaptic pruning;
(e) Formation of glial cells and myelination; and
(f) Specialisation of regions in the brain.

TOPIC 4 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH  69
4.1.1 Neurons
The following are further explanations of the brain processes:
(a) Neurogenesis and Neuron Migration

Brain development begins with the formation of the neural plate at the
second week of gestation. The neural plate then forms into a neural groove.
By the third week of gestation, the edges of the neural groove join to create
a neural tube (see Figure 4.1). The front part of the neural tube develops into
the brain. The rest of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord. Neural crest
cells convert into the peripheral nervous system. The brain forms three major
areas, namely the forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon)
and hindbrain (rhombencephalon). This process is called encephalisation.
Figure 4.1: Formation of the neural tube
(b) Structural Elaboration and Differentiation of Neurons

By the fifth week after conception, the cells in the developing brain would
have begun dividing rapidly to create neurons. Soon after their formation,
neurons migrate to preset locations in the brain (Sprenger, 2013). Once
neurons are in place, they differentiate and establish their unique functions
by forming synaptic connections with neighbouring cells. At the end of six
monthsÊ gestation, all the neurons that our brain will ever have would have
developed. We are born with about 100 billion neurons · so many it would
take us over 3,000 years to count them all. Our neurons communicate with
each other by using dendrites at one end and an axon at the other end.
Dendrites receive messages from other neurons, while axons carry messages
to other neurons.
Our neurons must have a purpose to survive. Without a purpose, they die
through a process called apoptosis. Apoptosis happens when cells that do
not receive or transmit information „commit suicide‰. They break down into
smaller fragments and die. Apoptosis frees up space that active neurons need

for growth. As some neurons develop, 20 to 80 per cent of existing neurons

die, depending on which region of the brain they are in. Each of our neuron
finds its purpose when we use it. Speaking English seems impossible at first
to a newborn. But soon he masters it. How? As he listens to English words
and imitates them, his brain sends "speaking" messages along certain
pathways of neurons over and over again, forming new connections. His
neurons extend and myelinate their axons, dendrites become denser and
synapses increase. They differentiate and define their functions. The
structure of our brain changes every time we learn.
(c) Synaptogenesis
Many of our neurons are not connected at birth. When neurons are
stimulated by inputs from the surrounding, they form tiny gaps called
synapses between each other. Neurons communicate with each other by
releasing chemical messengers called neurotransmitters that cross our
synapses. Overproduction of neurons and synapses explains the plasticity of
the babyÊs brain. At birth, each neuron has about 2,500 synapses. By the end
of two years, babies have 15,000 synapses per neuron (Gopnick, Meltzoff &
Kuhl, 1999). This amount is twice than that contained within our adult brain.
(d) Synaptic Pruning

As babies get older, synaptic pruning occurs. Unproductive or weak
connections are "pruned" in the same way a gardener prunes a plant, giving
it the desired shape. Neurons that are seldom used soon lose their synapses.
Synaptic pruning removes weak synapses while strong links are kept and
reinforced. Experience decides which links will be reinforced and which will
be pruned. Links that have been activated most often are kept (see
Figure 4.2). A mature brain is formed as cell death and synaptic pruning
„chisel out‰ excess neurons in a process brought about by genetic
programming and experiences.

Figure 4.2: Synaptic growth and pruning
(e) Formation of Glial Cells and Myelination

A newbornÊs brain is about 25 per cent of its adult weight. As it increases in
size, almost half the volume will be made up of glial cells (see Figure 4.3).
Glial cells are responsible for the insulation of axon with myelin that
increases the speed of the transmission of message transfer. A myelinated
neuron transfers information to the brain at more than 200 miles (322
kilometres) per hour. For example, your hand touches a hot stove. Your
tactile neurons receive the data, send it to the brain, which is then processed
by your inter-neurons and sent to your motor neuron, telling you to
withdraw your hand within seconds.

Figure 4.3: A myelinated neuron
With myelination of the axons and dendritic formation, the brain triples its
weight in the first two years of life. By age two, the babyÊs brain is about 80
per cent of its adult size. The end product at adulthood is 3 pounds (1,400
grams).
Table 4.1: Brain Weight by Age
Brain Weight Percentage of

Age Adult Weight
Gram Pound (%)
20 weeks of gestation 100 0.22 7
Birth 350 0.78 25
18-month-old 800 1.8 57
3-year-old 1,100 2.4 80
Adult 1,400 3.1 100

4.1.2 Development of Regions in the Brain

As babies grow, their neurons become organised according to specific functions
(see Figure 4.4). Some develop into the cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain.
The outer layer controls thought, memory, attention, perceptual awareness and
language. The subcortical level (lower brain) just below the cerebral cortex controls
breathing, eating, sleeping and all the vital organs in the body. At birth, the lower
brain is more developed than the outer brain.
Figure 4.4: Regions in the brain

Source: http://brainwaves.com/images/brain-basic_and_limbic.gif
Let us now discuss in greater detail the areas of the human brain.
(a) Regions of the Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is the largest, most complex structure in the human brain.
It forms 85 per cent of the brainÊs weight. It contains the greatest number of
neurons and synapses, generating the unique intelligence of our species. The
cerebrum is assigned to thinking. The maturation of the „thinking‰ brain
requires more dendrite connections and myelin sheathing. Its growth
demands a huge amount of sleep and nutrients. The frontal lobe which is
responsible for thinking skills has the longest period of growth. It continues
to form synapses till mid-childhood.

Each region of the cerebral cortex has a specific function such as receiving
data from the senses, thinking as well as directing the body to execute
coordinated movements and language expressions. The order in which
cortical regions develop matches the emergence of certain capacities in the
child. The cerebral cortex has two hemispheres that differ in their functions.
The left hemisphere processes verbal abilities, logic, analytical thinking and
positive emotion. The right hemisphere handles spatial abilities, negative
emotion as well as expressive and creative tasks.
(b) Lateralisation of the Cerebral Cortex and Handedness

Lateralisation of the cerebral cortex is concerned with the following:
(i) Brain plasticity allows the brain to take on new functions and adapt to
the environment. The brain changes and adapts with experience.
Plasticity implies that if one part of the brain is damaged, other parts
can take over its tasks. The excess existence of synapses in the young
brain supports plasticity. It ensures that the child will be able to pick
up certain abilities even if some areas are damaged. At birth, the babyÊs
brain has a high level of plasticity. The brain loses its plasticity with
time when it lateralises.
(ii) Before lateralisation (specialisation of the two hemispheres), many

areas of the cerebral cortex are not yet committed to specific functions.
Thus, the cortex still has a high potential for learning. When it
lateralises, each hemisphere takes on specialised functions.
Lateralisation permits the brain to carry out specific functions more
efficiently than it would be if both sides process the information in
exactly the same way. A right/left hand preference is an indication of
brain lateralisation. Babies begin to show hand preference by the
second year. Handedness reflects the dominance of one side of the
brain to carry out skilled motor action with more competence than the
other side.
(iii) Lateralisation is possible when the corpus callosum, a band of neural

fibres that links the two hemispheres, has myelinated. Corpus callosum
supports the smooth coordination of movements on both sides of the
body and the synchrony of many aspects of thinking including
perception, attention, memory, language and problem-solving.

(c) Other Structures of the Brain

Some of the brain structures that are central to child psychology include the
following:
(i) The cerebellum, a structure at the rear and base of the brain, modulates
the outputs of other brain systems, producing precise and smooth
motor actions. It supports balance and control of body movement.
Increased links between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex
produces increased gains in visual-motor coordination and supports
higher cognitive processes such as memory, planning and language;
(ii) The hypothalamus at the base of the forebrain regulates sleep and
wake cycles, eating and drinking, hormone release and many other
critical biological functions;
(iii) The thalamus, next to the hypothalamus, relays data to and from the
cerebral hemispheres, is involved in motivation and develops our
ability to eat, drink, defecate and copulate;
(iv) The medulla, on the brainstem, is involved in a wide variety of sensory

and motor functions;
(v) The pons, directly above the medulla, control sleep, respiration,
swallowing, bladder function, equilibrium, eye movement, facial
expressions and posture;
(vi) The hippocampus in the medial cortex controls spatial awareness and
stores our memories;
(vii) The reticular formation, a structure in the brain stem that maintains
alertness and attention, produces synapses and myelinates throughout
early childhood;
(viii) The basal ganglia selects and inhibits motor behaviours; and
(ix) The amygdala processes emotional reactions and memory.

4.1.3 Brain Stimulation

Babies are born with tendencies to process information such as social stimuli,
movements and language. Their experiences, in turn, shape neural circuits in ways
that ensure adaptive specialisation of brain regions. Brain stimulation is essential
when it is at the peak of brain development (axon growth as well as dendritic and
synapse formation).
Early brain development relies on ordinary experiences (seeing, tasting, smelling

and touching objects, hearing language and sounds as well as experiencing
movements). Young children need interactions with supportive parents and
caregivers, objects to manipulate and require a supportive learning environment
for healthy brain development. Acute sensory deficit and severe malnutrition in
early childhood can cause permanent brain damage. Those who grow up in an
enhanced environment with lots of sensorial stimulation and exploration have
heavier brains than those who grow up in a deprived environment.
Overstimulation (rushing a child to handle tasks beyond his ability), on the other
hand, is counterproductive. It can overwhelm and harm the brain. An
overstimulated child becomes tired and tense, and eventually loses interest in the
daily experiences needed for a healthy start.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. What abilities or situations might stimulate the neural growth of
babiesÊ neurons? What situations or conditions might „prune‰
babiesÊ neurons?
2. Give an example of how overstimulation can harm the

development of a babyÊs brain.

4.2 PHYSICAL GROWTH

Physical growth affects childrenÊs psychological well-being. It involves changes in
body size, body proportion, muscle-fat proportions and skeletal growth. Physical
growth in foetus and children conforms to the cephalocaudal and proximodistal
trend, whereas in adolescence, it progresses in the reverse direction.
4.2.1 Changes in Body Size

During infancy, body size changes rapidly. Growth slows down in early and
middle childhood and then accelerates again at puberty. An average newbornÊs
weight is seven pounds (3.2 kg). By five months, babies double their birth weight.
By one year old, their birth weight would have tripled. By the end of the second
year, they weigh four times their birth weight. At birth, babies are 19 inches (48cm)
long. By one year, they add half their birth height. By the end of the second year,
they double their birth height, which is equal to half their adult height. Table 4.2
summarises childrenÊs average weight and height according to age and gender.
Table 4.2: ChildrenÊs Average Weight and Height According to Age and Gender
Boys Girls
Age Weight Height Weight Height
(Pounds) (Inches) (Pounds) (Inches)
Birth 7.4 19.6 7.3 19.4
5 months 16.6 26.0 15.8 25.3
1 year 21.3 29.8 20.4 29.2
2 years 27.5 34.2 26.5 33.5
3 years 31.0 37.5 31.5 37.0
4 years 36.0 40.3 34.0 39.5
5 years 40.5 43.0 39.5 42.5
6 years 45.5 45.5 44.0 45.5
Adult 155.0 69.7 128.0 64.2
Source: Height and Weight Charts for Children

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/height-and-weight-chart-for-children.html

4.2.2 Changes in Body Proportions

Changes in body proportions follow the cephalocaudal trend in which the head
and chest grow more advanced than the trunk and legs. At two months in
gestation, the head is half of the body. At birth, the head is a quarter of the body.
A two-year-old childÊs head is one-fifth of the body while an adultÊs head is one-
tenth of the body.
4.2.3 Changes in Muscle-fat Makeup

Body fat begins to accumulate during the last few weeks of gestation. It peaks
when the baby is nine months old. In the second year, toddlers shed their baby fat
and become more slender. This trend continues until adolescence. Girls have
slightly more fat than boys at birth, a difference that persists into childhood and
which magnifies during adolescence. Muscles slowly build up in infancy and
childhood, with a striking rise during adolescence, especially for boys.
4.2.4 Skeletal Growth

The best way of assessing a childÊs physical maturity is by their skeletal age. The
embryonic skeleton is made of soft, pliable tissues called cartilage. During
pregnancy, cartilage cells begin to harden into bone, a process that continues
through childhood and adolescence. At the extreme ends of the long bones of the
body are growth centres called epiphyses (see Figure 4.5). The epiphyses continue
to produce cartilage cells throughout childhood. They finally disappear as we age.
Their disappearance signals that we have stopped growing. The skeletal age and
growth of other organs in girls are very much ahead of boys.

Figure 4.5: Epiphyses or growth centres
4.3 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

The dynamic systems theory describes how motor behaviours are constructed.
Each motor skill does not develop in a vacuum; it progresses in the context of other
motor abilities. For example, a babyÊs ability to pick up a raisin and guide it to his
mouth requires the ability to reach out and lift the spoon. Each motor skill is a
product of prior motor accomplishments and a contributor to new ones.
The infantÊs motor achievements show a cephalocaudal trend. Motor control of the
head comes before control of the arms and trunk, which in turn comes before
motor control of the legs. A proximodistal trend, in which the head, trunk and
arms control progress over the coordination of the hands and fingers, is also
evident. Although the sequence of motor development is fairly uniform, the timing
within which children acquire specific motor skills differs.
4.3.1 Gross Motor Skills

Gross motor development refers to control over actions that help infants get
around in the environment, for example, crawling, standing and walking (Berk,
2013; Feldman, 2014). In the first six months, the baby learns to roll over, lifts his
head when on his stomach and possibly skirts around. Between 6 to 12 months,
the baby can move by himself. Most babies can sit unsupported. They can stand
up with the help of furniture support by nine months. Most babies can walk on
his own by the age of one year.

By age two, childrenÊs gaits become more smooth and rhythmic, enabling them to
run and jump. Between the age of three and six, they can hop, gallop and skip. By
age four, upper and lower body skills combine into more effective actions such as
throwing a ball. In school-age children, their improved balance, strength, agility and
flexibility support refinements in running, jumping, hopping and sports skills. In
childhood and adolescence, children integrate previously acquired motor skills into
more complex and dynamic systems of action, which they revise as their bodies,
central nervous systems and social environments continue to change.
Today, school-age children devote less time in outdoors and engaging in informal
physical play compared to children from previous generations. For most children,
participation in organised sports is associated with greater social competence. For
some children, criticisms from coaches and parental pressure to perform can lead
to anxiety and emotional difficulties. Adults tend to over-emphasise competition
and control play. Young athletes benefit most from organised sports when parents
and coaches emphasise effort, improvement and teamwork more than
performance.
4.3.2 Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills entail tinier, precise movements, which use the small muscles of
the body. They include fine motor control and dexterity. These movements enable
children to reach, grasp small objects, fasten clothing and write. Reaching
movement does not depend on vision. It is mainly controlled by proprioception,
our sense of movement and location in space. Reaching improves as depth
perception, body posture as well as arm and hand control advances. The ability to
reach opens up a whole new way of exploring for babies. It contributes extensively
to their cognitive development.
At birth, pre-reaching skills comprise of poorly coordinated swings towards a

dangled object. By three months, babies can coordinate movements of limbs. Their
newborn grasp reflex is replaced by the ulnar grasp in which their fingers close
against the palm voluntarily. Babies can voluntarily reach out by four months. By
eleven months, they can pick up an object using a well-coordinated pincer grip,
where the thumb and index finger meet to form a circle. By age two, babies can
drink from a cup without spilling. Table 4.3 provides a summary of the fine and
gross motor skills at different stages during early childhood.

Table 4.3: Fine and Gross Motor Skills in Early Childhood
Age Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills

Birth–6 months • Lifts head when on tummy • Changes from the grasping
or when held vertically. reflex to the ulnar palmar
grasp.
• Kicks legs rhythmically
when on back. • Reaches for objects.
• Rolls over. • Puts objects in mouth.
• Sits with support. • Pats an object.
• Moves on the stomach. • Holds two objects, one in
each hand.
6–12 months • Sits without support. • Points with index finger.
• Crawls. • Picks things up with a
pincer grasp (thumb and
• Pulls self to standing position.
one finger).
• Stands alone.
• Drops and picks up toys.
• Walks with help.
• Transfers object from one
• Rolls a ball in imitation. hand to the other.
12–18 months • Walks alone. • Claps hands together well.

• Walks backwards. • Puts three objects in a
container.
• Stoops to pick up toys from
the floor. • Stacks two to three blocks.
• Pulls and pushes toys. • Places five pegs in a
pegboard.
• Seats self in child-sized
chair. • Turns pages two to three at
a time.
• Moves to music.
• Turns knobs.
• Carries toy while walking.
• Brings spoon to mouth.
• Kicks ball.
• Throws small ball.

18–24 months • Walks backwards. • Stacks four to six blocks.

• Runs forward. • Scribbles, makes strokes.
• Walks while pulling a toy on • Paints with whole arm
a string. movement.
• Push „ride-on‰ toy without • Removes socks and shoes.
pedals.
• Puts toys away with
• Kicks a ball forward. assistance.
• Walks up and down the • Pushes a small car.
stairs with handheld.
• Imitates circular strokes.
• Jumps in place with two feet
• Holds crayon with thumb
together.
and fingers.
• Stands on one foot (with
• Turns single pages.
aid).
• Rolls, pounds and squeezes
• Walks on tiptoe.
clay.
• Uses dominant hand
consistently.
2–3 years • Walks upstairs with both • Strings one-inch beads.
feet on one step. • Holds small cup in one
• Walks downstairs with both hand.
feet on one step, hand on • Helps with simple
rail. household tasks.
• Throws small ball in the • Snips with scissors.
direction of the target.
• Imitates vertical, horizontal
• Jumps and lands on both strokes.
feet.
• Paints with some wrist
action; makes dots, lines and
circular strokes.
• Pulls pants down with
assistance.

3–4 years • Runs around obstacles. • Builds tower of nine to ten

blocks.
• Walks on a line.
• Drives nails and pegs.
• Stands on one foot for five
seconds. • Copies circles and crosses.
• Hops on one foot. • Places six pegs in a
pegboard.
• Pushes, pulls and steers
wheeled toys. • Cuts along a line.
• Uses slide independently. • Dresses self with assistance.
• Throws and catches a ball. • Puts together simple
puzzles.
• Walks upstairs with
alternate foot. • Self-feeds with spoon, some
spilling.
• Peddles a tricycle.
• Puts shoes/socks on.
• Catches ball with hands and
arms. • Brushes own hair.
• Climbs jungle gyms.
4–5 years • Walks backwards toe-heel. • Cuts on line continuously.
• Jumps forward 10 times. • Copies squares.
• Walks up and down • Prints capital letters.
staircase.
• Demonstrates hand
• Turns somersault. preference.
• Stands on one foot. • Holds crayon with thumb,
index and middle finger
• Hops forward on one foot.
(tripod grasp).
• Pedals tricycle well, able to
• Cuts out small
turn corners and make
squares/triangles.
u-turn.
• Buttons front-opening
• Gallops five feet.
clothing.
• Dresses self independently.

5–6 years • Runs lightly on toes. • Cuts out simple shapes.

• Walks on balance beam. • Copies triangles and
diamonds.
• Hops two meters.
• Copies own name.
• Skips on alternating feet.
• Prints numerals one to five.
• Jumps rope.
• Colours within lines.
• Somersaults well.
• Has adult grasp of pencil.
• Gallops 10 feet.
• Handedness well
• Hits a target with a ball 12
established.
feet away.
• Pastes and glues
• Catches a ball five feet away.
appropriately.
• Bounces tennis ball on floor
• Prints 10 to 25 letters per
and catches it with one
minute.
hand.
• Ties shoes.
• Zips and unzips.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
Below is a list of gross and fine motor skills milestones that develop
during the first two years of birth. Arrange them in the order in which
they typically occur:
(a) Rolls from side to back;
(b) Grasps a cube;
(c) When held upright, holds head erect and steady;
(d) Jumps in place;
(e) Pulls to a stand;
(f) Walks alone;
(g) Rolls from back to side;
(h) Scribbles vigorously;
(i) Stands alone;
(j) Walks on tiptoe;
(k) Walks upstairs with help; and
(l) Sits alone.

ACTIVITY 4.1
Arrange for three or four parents to bring their babies aged below six
months and between seven to 12 months to tutorial session for a
demonstration of infant development milestones.
Demonstrate the following capacities discussed in this topic:
(a) Below six months
(i) Gross motor development: Demonstrate the babyÊ ability to lift

its head, move on fours, sit with support and stand with
support. To demonstrate, place the infant on his or her stomach
and observe the babyÊs skills.
(ii) Fine motor development: Demonstrate the babyÊs ability to

grasp objects using a rattle or any other toy presented at the
midline and on the same side, or on the opposite side of the
reaching hand. Point out the use of the ulnar grasp, watch how
the baby passes objects from one hand to other hand and
attempt to pick a raisin.
(b) From 7 to 12 months
(i) Gross motor development: Demonstrate the babyÊs ability to

crawl, sit, stand alone and walk.
(ii) Fine motor development: Place a raisin before the infant to show
learners the well-coordinated pincer grip. Babies of this age can
put objects in and dump them out of containers. Some babies
may even build a tower of two cubes with blocks.
Note the age and individual differences in their motor abilities.

4.4 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL GROWTH

Physical health and well-being is regulated by the bodyÊs endocrine glands. The
glands secrete hormones in one part of the body that pass to and influence cells in
another. Poor diet reduces the bodyÊs immune system, making children far more
susceptible to diseases. Disease, in turn, is a major contributor to malnutrition. It
reduces appetite and limits the bodyÊs ability to absorb nutrients. A balanced diet
in early childhood promotes optimal health and physical growth. It prevents
health problems such as iron deficiency anaemia and common colds. However,
good health involves more than adequate nutrition and freedom from diseases. It
also involves freedom from environmental threats and protection from injuries.
Many health and physical problems that young children encounter can be prevented
by paying close attention to their health.
4.4.1 Hormonal Influences on Physical Growth

The most important hormones for human growth are released by the pituitary
gland, located at the base of the brain near the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland
initiates and regulates the secretion of growth hormone that controls growth. The
pituitary gland also secretes sex hormones known as oestrogens and androgens.
Although oestrogens are thought of as female hormones and androgens as male
hormones, both are present in each sex but in different amounts.
(a) Growth Hormone (GH) is the only secretion that is produced throughout life.
It affects the life of all cells except the central nervous system and the genitals.
GH is necessary for physical development from birth onwards. Children
who lack GH can grow at a normal rate if they are treated early with synthetic
GH.
(b) Together, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland instruct the thyroid gland
to release thyroxin. Thyroxin is vital for brain development and for GH to
have its full impact on body size.
(c) Androgens, mainly testosterone for boys, exert a GH-enhancing effect,

causing increases in body size. Adrenal androgen is released by the adrenal
glands located on top of each kidney. It promotes girlsÊ height spurt and
growth of underarm and pubic hair. However, it has little impact on boys,
whose physical characteristics are influenced mainly by androgen and
oestrogen secretions from the testes.

(d) Oestrogens, released by girlsÊ ovaries, cause the breasts, uterus and vagina
to mature and the body to take on feminine proportions and fat to
accumulate. They also contribute to the regulation of the menstrual cycle. In
both sexes, oestrogens increase GH secretion, adding to the growth spurt.
Combined with androgens, oestrogens spur gains in bone density that
continue into adulthood. The testes also secrete small amounts of oestrogens,
causing brief breast enlargement in 50 per cent of boys.
4.4.2 Nutrition
Nutrition is especially crucial during the first two years of early childhood. As the
brain and body grow so rapidly, babies need extra calories for their maturing
organs. Without proper nutrition, babies cannot reach their physical potential.
For the first six months of life, there is no better food for baby than breast milk.
Breast milk has all the essential nutrients and is more easily digested than cowÊs
milk. It boosts the babyÊs natural immunity against childhood diseases. Most
babies can eat solid foods by six months, although solid foods are not needed until
9 to 12 months of age. One-year-old babies should have diets that include all the
basic food groups. As children age, they tend to imitate the food choices and eating
practices of their culture. However, nutrition should still be an important focus
despite of this.
(a) Malnutrition is a state of having an improper amount and the lack of balance
of nutrients. It results in slower growth, susceptibility to disease and lower
IQ scores. The most serious kinds of dietary diseases that children suffer
from as a result of malnutrition are marasmus and kwashiorkor, as explained
in the following:
(i) Marasmus is a wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all
essential nutrients. It typically emerges in the first year of life when a
mother cannot produce enough breast milk for her baby and bottle
feeding is also insufficient. Marasmus babies cease to grow.
(ii) Kwashiorkor is caused by a diet that is very low in protein.

Kwashiorkor babies appear malnourished even though they have been
receiving sufficient supply of nutrients. Their stomach, limbs and face
typically swell with water. This condition usually occurs after weaning,
between ages one and three. In most cases, the affected children get
only enough calories from starchy foods but too little protein. The body
responds by using up its own protein reserves.

Children who survive these extreme forms of malnutrition have stunted

growth. When their diets improve, they often gain excessive weight. Their
bodies have established a low basal metabolic rate due to their earlier
malnutrition. Malnutrition also has acute effects on their neural growth and
myelination of the brain, learning as well as behaviour.
Even when protein-calorie deprivation is only mild to moderate,

malnourished children may still appear passive and irritable. These effects
are also seen in iron deficiency anaemia and poverty-stricken babies and
children. These conditions may also interfere with many central nervous
system processes.
(b) Obesity refers to a bodyweight that is 20 per cent greater than the average
children based on the childÊs age, sex and physical build. Childhood obesity
is the result of eating too many calories and not getting enough physical
activity. Most obesity begins at preschool age or during adolescence. Obesity
is brought about by several factors:
(i) Genetic factor is an important determinant of obesity. Heredity
accounts for a tendency to gain weight. When both parents are obese,
their children have an 80 per cent chance of being obese;
(ii) Overfeeding during infancy may lead to unnecessary fat cells, which
remain in the body throughout life; and
(iii) Parental eating practices and lack of physical activity play major roles
in childhood obesity. Family dinners should include a healthy
consumption of substantially more fruits and vegetables, dietary fibre,
vitamins, calcium, folate and iron. Children with regular family
dinners are less likely to consume fried foods and soda.
Obese children are at risk for lifelong health problems such as heart disease,
high blood pressure, diabetes and breathing problems. They may also suffer
from serious emotional and social difficulties. The most effective
interventions for obesity are family-based solutions focussed on changing
attitudes and behaviours. Schools can help reduce obesity by ensuring
regular physical education and serving healthier meals.
(c) Non-organic failure to thrive is a growth disorder that results from a lack of
parental love. It is usually present in babies by 18 months of age. These babies
fail to grow even though they are given sufficient nourishment. Their non-
organic failure to thrive is due to a lack of stimulation, attention, love and
emotional support. Extreme emotional deprivation can interfere with the
production of GH, leading to psychosocial dwarfism, a growth disorder that
usually appears between 2 and 15 years of age.
4.4.3 Childhood Diseases and Immunisations

Many of the major diseases that once threatened a childÊs health such as polio,
smallpox and measles have reduced immensely as a result of immunisation. Many
childhood deaths are caused by diarrhoea, measles, pneumonia or malnutrition.
Diarrhoea is often a result of the consumption of unsafe water and contaminated
foods. Most growth retardation and deaths due to diarrhoea can be prevented with
oral rehydration therapy (ORT) in which sick children are given a solution of
glucose, salt and water to replace loss fluids. Infections such as common colds and
otitis media are frequent in infancy and early childhood. Immunisation of babies
and young children has since led to a dramatic decline in childhood diseases.
4.4.4 Environmental Threats to Children’s Health

ChildrenÊs tissues and organs are still growing and their immune systems are still
immature. As such, they are extremely vulnerable to threats from the environment.
ChildrenÊs exposures to environmental threats include lead, pesticides and toxic
air pollutants like DDT, PCBs and chlorinated pesticides. They are exposed to
pesticides from playgrounds, yards, fruits and vegetables that are chemically
treated. Some people use pesticides in their homes, spraying chemicals to kill
cockroaches and other pests. The toxic effects of pesticides on children are severe
and can damage their developing brain. Children who are heavily exposed to
environmental toxins are more susceptible to asthma, lead poisoning, cancer, brain
tumour and endocrine disruptions, leading to lifelong physical and mental
dysfunctions.
4.4.5 Childhood Injuries

Unintentional injuries are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among
children between aged 5 to 14 years. This form of injury includes drowning, falls,
suffocation, burns, poisoning and transportation-related injuries. Childhood
injuries may be reduced using the following strategies:
(a) Education and Behavioural Change

Education and behaviour-change strategies are designed to reduce risky
behaviours, provide early detection of potential harm and eliminate
exposure to environmental hazards. Efforts are usually directed to adult
caregivers, parents and the child but can also be targeted to legislators and
engineers with the goal of improving environmental and product safety.

(b) Technology and Engineering

Technology and engineering contribute to the safety of consumer goods,
residential homes, neighbourhoods, playgrounds and automobiles. Better
product design and performance can prevent many injuries. Smoke alarms,
automatic sprinkler systems, smart airbags, lightweight knee and elbow
pads and wrist guards are some examples of protection technology.
(c) Legislation and Enforcement

Legislation and enforcement strategies require child safety seats, child-
resistant closures on medications and household cleaning agents, fire-
retardant clothing and the use of bicycle helmets, among others.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Reflect on your own family meal experiences. How many of you usually
ate meals together when you were in primary school? How about
during your secondary school? Did family meals (either the regularity
or the absence of it) contribute to your nutritional intake? What other
benefits might result from frequent family meals?
Compare and discuss your experiences with your coursemates in the

myINSPIRE online learning forum.
• The course of physical growth including changes in the brain, body size, body
proportion, body composition and motor development are predictable based
on certain major principles of development.
• Neuron development undergoes neurogenesis, migration, structural

elaboration and differentiation of neurons, synaptogenesis, synaptic pruning
and myelination.
• At birth, the lower brain which controls breathing, eating, sleeping and all vital
organs are more developed than the outer brain which controls thinking.
• Physical growth includes body size, body proportion and body composition.

• Motor development comprises gross and fine motor skills.
• Physical health and well-being is regulated by hormones. It also includes

receiving adequate nutrition and being free from diseases and environmental
threats as well as protection from injuries.
Androgens Hypothalamus
Apoptosis Immunisation
Axons Lateralisation
Brain hemispheres Malnutrition
Brain plasticity Maturation
Cartilage cells Myelination
Cephalocaudal principle Neurogenesis
Cerebral cortex Neurons
Childhood deaths Oestrogens
Childhood obesity Overstimulation
Dendrites Pituitary gland
Differentiation of neurons Proximodistal principle
Dynamic systems theory Skeletal age and growth
Environmental hazards Synapses
Epiphyses Synaptic pruning
Fine motor Synaptogenesis
Glial cells Thalamus
Gross motor Thyroxin
Growth hormone


Prentice Hall.
Gopnick, A., Meltzoff, A.N., & Kuhl, P.K. (1999). The scientist in the crib: Minds,
brains and how children learn. New York: William Morrow & Company.
Robokos, D. (2012). Cognitive, language, and social-emotional development:

Among infants and toddlers in early Head Start - An examination of the
impact of cumulative risk. AV AkademikerVerlag.
Sprenger, M. B. (2013). The developing brain: Building language, reading,

physical, social and cognitive skills from birth to age eight. New York:
Skyhorse Publishing.

Topic  The Social and
5 Emotional
World of
Children
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe basic emotions, self-conscious emotions, emotional self-
regulation, emotional display rules, emotional understanding and
empathy change that occur with age;
2. Explain the ethological theory;
3. Discuss the security of attachment and its development;
4. Distinguish between self-awareness, self-concept, self-esteem and
social problem-solving skills;
5. Examine identity development; and
6. Appraise gender roles and gender differences.
 INTRODUCTION
Five bites on the back! Ryan was almost two years old. He sank his teeth into BobÊs
back repeatedly, without any provocation. We were perplexed. What happened?
Was he angry about something? BobÊs parents, though fuming with anger, listened
calmly as RyanÊs mother explained the situation. When she arrived in the nursery
school, she popped in to check on Ryan in the toddlerÊs room before stopping by
the babyÊs room. Apparently, Ryan had followed her to the babyÊs room. She was

94  TOPIC 5 THE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WORLD OF CHILDREN
engrossed with breastfeeding her six-month-old baby when she suddenly heard
Bob screaming in pain. She looked up, to discover Ryan pinning Bob to the floor.
He was about to take another bite! She jumped and quickly pulled Ryan
backwards to break his bite. She added that it was normal for kids this age to bite
others. RyanÊs father laughed flippantly, supporting the „fact‰ that kids at that age
bite all the time. At that point, BobÊs mother lost her control, threatening to sue
RyanÊs parents for their negligence. She was extremely exasperated by RyanÊs
parentsÊ attitude.
This topic describes the emotional development, emotional regulation, formation

of attachment as well as the development of self-awareness, self-concept, self-
esteem and social problem-solving skills from early childhood through
adolescence. It also discusses the formation of identity, gender stereotyping,
gender roles and gender differences. Hopefully, by the end of the topic we can
reflect on and explain why Ryan did what he did, the dynamics that lead to the
event and how we might possibly prevent such a disaster from ever happening at
home and in nursery schools again.
5.1 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND

ATTACHMENT
Emotion prepares us for action and plays a dominant role in any accomplishment.
The functionalist approach to emotion highlights that emotion increases
behaviours aimed at realising personal goals. Emotional self-regulation helps a
child adapt to his environment. A child learns skills that help him survive from his
emotional reactions, for example, the fear of falling will make a child more careful.
The emotional reactions of children inculcate responses from others. In turn,
caregiversÊ responses influence childrenÊs behaviours.
5.1.1 Emotional Development

Happy, sad, angry and fear are all emotions displayed by everybody including
children. How do these emotions come about? How does a person as young as one
year old know which emotion to express for a certain situation? How does the
child know he is supposed to be happy and contented in a certain situation and be
angry and sad in another situation? Let us find out more about emotional
development by reading the following.

TOPIC 5 THE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL WORLD OF CHILDREN  95
(a) Basic Emotions

Newborns are generally more incline towards pleasurable experiences and
will withdraw from aversive experiences. With age and experience, these
early emotional expressions gradually become well-organised responses. In
the first years of their lives, they increasingly experience basic human
emotions such as pleasure, interest, awe, unhappiness, fear, pain and
frustration.
(i) Pleasure is initially conveyed through smiles. These smiles bind

parents and babies into a warm, reciprocal relationship that nurtures
the babyÊs emerging competencies. BabiesÊ smiles urge parents to be
stimulating and interactive, to which babies respond with more smiles.
Newborns smile in their sleep. Between one to three months, parentsÊ
interactions draw smiles from their babies. At about three months old,
laughter appears. By one year, babiesÊ smiles, which have grown into
intentional social signals, vary with context.
(ii) Sadness and Anger

Newborns cry in response to a range of unpleasant situations such as
hunger, pain or chills. They show distress when their usual caregivers
are not in sight. Between the ages of four months to two years, babiesÊ
expressions of anger become more frequent and intense. As they grow
older, they become more capable of doing things deliberately. They
want to regulate their own actions and the activities around them. They
are capable of intentionally modifying an adverse situation into a
favourable one. Older babies have better skills of detecting their source
of pain or deprivation. Their anger protests help communicate their
needs and compel caregivers to ease their distress.
(iii) Fear
Fear, which is initially expressed as stranger anxiety, increases when a
baby is 6 to 12 months of age. It is a reaction of wariness towards
strangers. Stranger anxiety response depends on the babyÊs disposition,
his earlier experiences with unfamiliar people and the setting he is in.
In cultures that practise collective care-giving system, infants show less
stranger anxiety. The rise in fear after the age of six months makes them
cautious, thereby curbing any potentially harmful explorations.
(b) Self-conscious Emotions

In addition to basic emotions, babies also experience self-conscious emotions
such as shame, jealousy, pride and guilt. These emotions increase or reduce
their view of the self. They emerge by the third year when childrenÊs sense
of self-awareness is firmly established. As childrenÊs self-concept matures,
they become more sensitive to their parentsÊ positive and negative feedback.
Personal inadequacy brings about feelings of disgrace. Guilt can be viewed

as a good trait when it occurs under the right conditions and in moderation.
Adults shape their childrenÊs self-conscious emotions. As an example,
American adults encourage children to feel proud of their achievements,
whereas in Malaysia, highlighting personal success evokes embarrassment.
(c) Emotional Self-regulation

Self-regulation is the ability to vary emotion to a level of intensity which
allows us to achieve our goals. It involves conscious effortful control, which
improves gradually with brain maturity, with the aid of caregivers. Young
babies have limited ability to control their emotions. Between two to four
months, caregivers expand their babiesÊ tolerance for stimulation by
initiating interactions that arouse pleasure without overwhelming them. By
four to six months, the ability to reduce stimulation (look away) and self-
soothe (suck fist) helps babies stabilise their emotions. By the beginning of
the second year, the ability to crawl and walk permits babies to regulate their
emotions by moving towards or away from the stimuli. When parents react
contingently to babiesÊ signals, these babies are less fussy and easier to pacify.
Parents who are negligent or over-stimulate their baby intensify the babyÊs
distress.
Improvements in verbal skills among toddlers make it possible for them to

regulate their emotions by expressing their feelings verbally. When parents
are emotionally empathetic, set boundaries and offer suitable substitutes for
prohibited activities, toddlers are seen to display better social skills and
strategies in regulating their anger during their preschool years. Three-year-
olds have acquired a number of strategies to regulate their emotions verbally.
Sensitive parents who guide their children using verbal strategies, such as
clarifying, foster their childrenÊs ability to use speech to regulate emotions.
The emotional regulation strategies of older children improve in flexibility,

variety and sophistication. Between the ages of six and eight, they become
progressively competent in expressing their emotions verbally. By age ten,
most children alternate adaptively between two emotional regulation
strategies:
(i) Problem-centred coping strategy which assesses the problem as being
changeable, ascertains the problem and leads to the adoption of a
solution; and
(ii) Emotion-centred coping strategy which aims at curbing distress when
the situation cannot be changed.

A well-developed emotional self-regulation will instil emotional

self-efficacy, a sense of being in control of oneÊs emotions.
(d) Conformity to Emotional Display Rules

Besides emotional regulation, children also acquire the ability to convey their
emotions to others. Each culture has its unique emotional display rules,
which determine when and how emotions may be revealed. Parents
discourage babiesÊ display of negative emotions by ignoring them. Boys get
more of such training in emotional control than girls, who are allowed to be
more emotionally expressive. Most societies teach children to display
positive emotions and restrain negative ones in order to preserve cordial
relationships. Children eventually learn how to display negative emotions
in socially acceptable ways.
(e) Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others

Newborns sense and respond to the othersÊ emotions intuitively. By three
months, babies learn to anticipate othersÊ reactions to their gaze, smile or
vocalisation. From five months onwards, they view facial expressions as
structured patterns. They are able to match the emotion in a voice with the
right face of a speaker. Between seven months to one year, the way babies
attend to facial expressions and process emotional cues resemble those of
adults.
(f) Social Referencing

Social referencing is when babies rely on the caregiverÊs emotional response
to assess an unclear situation, which usually emerges at eight to ten months.
A voice combined with facial expression is more effective as it communicates
both emotional and verbal information. Social referencing helps toddlers to
use emotional indications from trusted caregivers to determine the situation
and to regulate their own behaviour.
PreschoolersÊ emotional understanding expands quickly. They begin

referring to emotional cues as well as causes and effects early in preschool
years. By age four, they can accurately evaluate the reasons for certain
emotions. Children aged five years and older recognise that behaviours are
influenced by needs and beliefs. They can also predict what others might do
next when they show a specific emotion. They are able to suggest a useful
solution to ease their negative emotions.

As metacognition (thinking about thought) advances, children in middle

childhood are better able to understand mixed emotions. When caregivers
identify emotions, clarify them, show affection and interest in
communicating with the preschoolers, these children use more „emotion
words‰ and develop a more matured emotional understanding.
Understanding of emotions will benefit children immensely in their
interactions with others.
(g) Temperament and Emotional Development

Temperament refers to the way in which a child approaches and reacts to the
world. It affects a childÊs speed and intensity of emotional arousal, attention
and motor action. Thomas and Chess (1956) classified three types of children
based on their parentsÊ accounts of their behaviours on nine dimensions of
temperament (see Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1: The nine dimensions of temperament identified by

Thomas Chess & Birch (1968)
Source: http://00.edu-cdn.com/files/static/g/pcl_0001_0002_0_img0142.jpg

The three types of children according to their parentsÊ accounts of their

behaviours based on nine dimensions of temperament are as follows:
(i) The easy child easily forms consistent behaviour as an infant, is usually
happy and adjusts effortlessly to new situations;
(ii) The difficult child has unpredictable reactions to routines, usually
responds adversely and protests intensely to new situations; and
(iii) The slow-to-warm-up child is sluggish, cautious and shows gradual,
vigilant adjustment to new situations.
About one-third of all children, however, do not fall within the three
categories.
Difficult children tend to have difficulties adjusting and making friends

during early and middle childhood. Slow-to-warm-up children are likely to
display anxiety and sedentary inhibited behaviour in new situations.
However, once they have formed friendships and familiarise themselves
with the situation, they become very attached to familiar people or places.
A more recent model of temperament is that of RothbartÊs (1998). It combines

related traits proposed by others, yielding six dimensions:
(i) Activity level – Amount of movement;
(ii) Attention span/persistence – Length of time or interest shown on an
object or activity;
(iii) Fearful distress – Caution, worry and concern regarding a potent or
new stimulus;
(iv) Irritable distress – Amount of fretting, screaming and anguish when
needs are not met;
(v) Positive affect – Amount of joy and contentment displayed; and
(vi) Effortful control - Ability to control a forceful, hasty reaction in order
to organise and perform a more adaptive one.
Rothbart (1998)Ês dimensions embody three fundamental components

included in the classification of temperament, namely emotion, attention and
action. Rothbart found that children vary widely in dimensions of reactivity,
self-regulatory and effortful control.

Most neurobiological research has concentrated on the extremes of positive-

affect and fearful-distress dimensions of temperament:
(i) Inhibited children who respond negatively to and retreat from new
experiences; and
(ii) Uninhibited children who respond positively to and embrace new
Thomas and Chess (1956) suggested a goodness-of-fit model which clarifies

why the recognition of childrenÊs temperament and a nurturing child-rearing
environment create well-adjusted children. It also clarifies why difficult
children who receive insensitive care that does not fit with their
temperament tend to develop adjustment problems later in life. Parental
sensitivity, positivity, support and clear expectations foster effortful control
and reduce difficult behaviours by the of age two.
(h) Personality and Emotional Development

Sigmund Freud defined five crucial stages in the formation of personality.
Each stage is associated to a specific centre of pleasure. At each stage, the
child faces a conflict between his biological drive and social expectations. His
capability to resolve each internal conflict determines his coping and
functioning ability as an adult:
(i) Oral Stage (Birth to 18 Months)

Babies first experience the physical world through their mouths. At
this stage, babies need to receive the appropriate amount of oral
gratification through activities such as sucking or talking. Failure to
master this stage will produce an oral fixation that might lead to adult
drinking, smoking and nail-biting or other mouth-based aggressive
behaviours.
(ii) Anal Stage (18 Months to 3 Years)

Toddlers at this stage must learn to control their anal cavity, which
leads to proper toilet training. Toddlers who are severely disciplined
during the toilet training process tend to develop an anal fixation,
which produces anal retentive or anal expulsive personalities in which
they become over-tidy or over-messy adults.
(iii) Phallic Stage (3 to 5 Years)

The preschoolersÊ major pleasure centres in the genital organ. Boys
with Oedipal complex develop affection for their mothers, while girls
with Elektra complex develop affection for their fathers. The goal is to

master this internal conflict and move towards more appropriate

sexual desires. Failure to master this stage results in phallic fixations,
which affect preschoolersÊ relationships with their parents adversely.
(iv) Latency Stage (5 to 12 Years)

At this stage, school-aged children consolidate character habits
developed in the previous three stages. Successful mastery in each of
these stages is necessary for a mature, adult personality to develop
before puberty. A child who does not gain pleasure from
external sources such as schooling may develop fixations on socially
unacceptable activities.
(v) Genital Stage (12 Years to Adulthood)

Adolescents experience a surge of sexual hormones in the body during
puberty. They must form positive relationships with peers in order to
master this stage. Those who do not move to consensual mature
sexuality will develop sexual fixations.
5.1.2 Attachment
Attachment is the warm, loving connection between babies and the adults who
care for them. This connection produces a feeling of pleasure when they are in
interaction with them and are comforted by their presence when stressed.
Attachment is influenced by several factors including the presence of a dependable
caregiver, quality of childcare, babiesÊ temperament and the parentsÊ perception of
their role as caregiver.
(a) Ethological Theory of Attachment

John BowlbyÊs ethological theory of attachment suggests that the emotional
connection that evolves between a baby and his caregiver promotes his
survival. As attachment develops, babies show anxiety when they are
separated from their main caregivers. As they mature, they gradually
become less dependent on the physical proximity of caregivers. As a
substitute, the mental picture of the caregiver functions as an internal
working model which guides future close relationships.
(b) Development of Attachment

Attachment develops in four phases:
(i) Pre-attachment Phase (birth to 6 weeks): Babies identify their motherÊs
presence but they have formed an attachment to her and do not protest
when they are placed with a stranger.

(ii) Attachment-in-the-making Phase (6 weeks to 8 months): Babies start to

trust the caregiver, believing they will return when needed. They still
do not mind parting with the caregiver.
(iii) Clear-cut attachment Phase (6 months to 18 months): Babies begin to
show separation anxiety, protesting when the familiar caregiver
departs.
(iv) Formation of a Reciprocal Relationship (18 months to 2 years onwards):
Rapid language development enables toddlers to grasp what makes
their parents come and go, and are thus able to predict their return.
Objection to separation reduces.
From their experiences throughout the four phases, babies build a stable
loving bond with their familiar caregivers, which become a secure base when
they are absent. This picture functions as an internal working model, a set of
beliefs about the accessibility of the attachment figures and their interactions
with them. It serves as a model for all future relationships.
(c) Measuring the Security of Attachment

Mary Ainsworth and her colleague (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970) designed the
Strange Situation as an instrument to determine babiesÊ quality of
attachment. Using this instrument, researchers have detected a secure
attachment pattern and identified four forms of insecurity:
(i) Secure Attachment: Babies in this category view their familiar
caregivers as a secure base. They tend to protest (usually by crying)
when their caregivers depart. They stop protesting and seek proximity
with the caregivers when they come back.
(ii) Avoidant Attachment: These babies appear indifferent to the caregivers
when they are around and are not upset when they depart. They ignore
or delay meeting the caregivers when they come back.
(iii) Resistant Attachment: Babies in this category stay close to their
caregivers when they are around. They are upset when their caregivers
depart. Upon their return, they combine clinginess with anger and an
attacking behaviour.
(iv) Disorganised or Disoriented Attachment: Babies in this category show
the most insecure attachment. Upon reunion, they display mixed-up,
incongruous behaviours.

The Attachment Q-Sort is used to assess children between one to four years
of age through home observations. Attachment Q-Sort is an assessment
method in which a caregiver or observer judges the quality of a childÊs
behaviour in naturalistic situations, often including brief separations from
parents.
(d) Formation of Multiple Attachments

Besides mothers, sensitive caregiving by fathers, grandparents and other
caregivers also contribute to secure attachment. Babies are capable of
developing attachments to various primary caregivers:
(i) Fathers – Mothers and fathers interact differently with their babies.
Mothers focus on giving care and emotional gratification while fathers
focus on playful stimulation. Play is an important context in which
fathers build secure attachments.
(ii) Grandparents largely step in when the parentsÊ troubled lives threaten
their childrenÊs well-being, adopting „parenting‰ role under stressful
life circumstances. The bonds that emerge between grandparents and
their grandchildren shield the children from the enveloping
environmental challenges.
(e) Role of Early Attachment Quality in Later Development

ChildrenÊs feelings of security due to a warm and supportive relationship
with familiar caregivers foster psychological well-being. Children with
loving ties outside the family are able to compensate for their needs, thus
inculcating resilience and the capacity to recover from adversity. Conversely,
when the warm, nurturing environment of well-cared babies is interrupted,
they are at risk of developing behavioural problems later on in life.

ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Reflect on how your genes and environment work together to

influence your temperament. Which characteristics have you
acquired from your mother and your father?
2. Describe your temperament as a preschooler.
3. Which part of your childhood temperament persists? Which part

of you has transformed in adolescence? Why?
Share your self-assessment with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE

forum and review each otherÊs work.
5.2 SELF AND IDENTITY

The development of the self includes self-awareness, self-concept, self-esteem and
self-attribute. Self-awareness is a sense of physical separateness that begins at
birth. By the time babies reach one year old, they become aware of and recognise
their own physical appearance. Preschoolers construct a self-concept based on age,
physical characteristics and competencies (Bee & Boyd, 2012; Feldman, 2014).
When children begin to wonder about themselves and the people around them,
they form a naive theory of mind about their lives. School-aged children view the
self through general dispositions and social comparisons. Adolescents can
generalise about the self in more abstract terms and social virtues. Self-esteem or
the judgement about the value of oneÊs self is constructed from the feedback
children receive from their social environment.
5.2.1 Development of Self

The following will further explain the different elements involved in the
development of self.
(a) Self-awareness
Newborns are aware that they are not part of their environment. Their
amazing intermodular perceptual ability facilitates their early development
of self-awareness. Babies begin to differentiate their image from other objects
in their environment after the first year. However, their sense of self-
awareness is still immature. Four-month-olds perceive others as potential
partners for interaction.

One-year-olds start to be conscious of their own physical traits. Self-

recognition, perception of the self as a distinct individual, begins to take
shape at this point. As self-recognition takes shape, older toddlers also build
accurate body self-awareness. By the third year, they realise that their own
body can serve as an obstacle. However, toddlers do not grasp their own
body dimensions. They make mistakes trying to do things that do not match
their body size.
Self-awareness also supports childrenÊs understanding of others. Mirror self-

awareness precedes prolonged imitation of friends. The ability to recognise
oneÊs self is related to their awareness of possession for two-year-olds,
making it difficult for them to share their belongings.
(b) Self-concept
ChildrenÊs self-concept, which includes their traits, capabilities, attitudes and
beliefs, are shaped in early childhood. The acquisition of language enables
them to portray the self more vividly and increases their sense of self-
awareness. Children aged 18 to 30 months develop a categorical self based
on visible attributes, behaviours and physical characteristics. Three-year-
olds view the self in relation to their emotions and attitudes. Five-year-oldsÊ
self-concepts match the maternal reports of their personality traits.
School children merge usual experiences and behaviours into general

psychological dispositions. They understand that behaviours are caused by
personal traits. When 11-year-olds describe themselves, they highlight
competencies and traits. Self-appraisal includes appraisals of their own
looks, behaviours and capabilities in comparison to those of their peers.
Young adolescents view the self in abstract terms, focussing on social virtues.
Their view of the self becomes less fragmented, a precursor to identity
development. The changing content of the self is influenced by their maturity
and feedback from others.
(c) The Inner Self: ChildrenÊs Theory of Mind

When children begin to reflect about themselves and their peers, they form a
naïve theory of mind, a logical view of their own and othersÊ mental states.
Their emerging theory of mind affects their perspective-taking, the ability to
visualise the thoughts and emotions of others and to separate the views of
others from their own. In the first twelve months after birth, babies begin to
grasp the fact that people in their environment are alive.

By the end of the second year, they show a better understanding of othersÊ
feelings but their theory of mind is still immature. They begin to realise that
people differ from one another. They become more conscious of their own
thinking and beliefs, and those of others. Four-year-olds and older children
display a belief-desire theory of mind, a more advanced view in which both
beliefs and desires affect actions. An appreciation of false-belief improves
progressively for three-year-olds and becomes more consistent between the
ages four and six.
At the end of five years, children realise that people have beliefs about the
beliefs of othersÊ and that their beliefs may also be incorrect. In order to form
this awareness, the child must be conscious of at least two perspectives and
view simultaneously the thinking of two or more people. This kind of
perspective-taking is known as recursive thought. At around age seven to
eight, children are able to grasp that two people interpret the same event
differently. Their ability to appreciate false-belief is linked with their quality
of socio-dramatic play, experiences in debating thoughts and feelings with
friends and their maturity in displaying social skills.
(d) Self-esteem
Self-esteem refers to our decisions about our own value and the feelings
connected with these decisions. Self-esteem affects our sentiments,
behaviours and psychological well-being. Preschoolers cannot discriminate
between desired and true capability. They often judge themselves very
capable and misjudge the complexity of tasks. At the end of preschool years,
at least four broad self-evaluations would have taken shape – academic
competence, social competence, physical competence and physical
appearance.
School-age children have formed a general sense of self-esteem by this time.

Perceived physical appearance affects childrenÊs and adolescentsÊ global self-
esteem. Self-esteem declines in lower primary school as children assess
themselves in numerous situations and begin to compare themselves with
their peers. Most children defend their self-esteem by offsetting these social
comparisons with their achievements. After the third grade, self-esteem
surges and remains high for most young people. AdolescentsÊ self-esteem
includes comradeship, romantic appeal and job competence, reflecting issues
that are central to adolescents.

Loving, reasonable and patient parents foster high self-esteem. Restrictive

and irrational parents convey a sense of incompetence to their children,
degrading their self-esteem while over-indulgent parents endorse
narcissistic self-esteem. A healthy self-esteem may be nurtured by
reassuring children to make efforts to achieve meaningful goals.
(e) Achievement-related Attributions

Attributions are our ordinary justifications for our own and othersÊ
behaviours. There are two general categories of attributions – external
environmental causes and internal psychological causes. Psychological
causes can be further broken down into two general categories, namely
ability and effort.
Achievement motivation involves the tendency to persevere at difficult tasks

and is often used to predict school achievement. Attribution training is most
effective when begun early. Forming attributions about their successes and
failures begins at age three. Most children overvalue their own ability and
often underrate task difficulty. Persistent children, whose parents patiently
support their initiatives, have a high achievement motivation. Their elevated
hopes of success encourage them to try hard in future tasks. Unfortunately,
some three-year-olds become non-persisters, as a result of constant parental
criticism and excessive control. They abandon difficult tasks instantly. They
feel ashamed and dejected when they fail.
Based on their own decision of their performance as caused by their ability,

effort and/or external factors, these children can be categorised as:
(i) Mastery-oriented children who are high in achievement motivation.

They credit their success to their abilities. They believe they can do
better if they work harder. This incremental view of ability elicits a
positive view that both failure and success are associated with factors
they can change or control.
(ii) Learned-helpless children who are low in achievement motivation.

They blame their failures on their lack of ability and credit success to
external events such as luck. They believe that they have a low level of
and fixed ability. They will not be able to do better even if they work
harder. Such children eventually conclude that mastering a difficult
task is not worth the immense amount of effort they have to put in.

Communication amplifies these attributions in children, regardless of

whether they develop mastery-oriented or learned-helpless attributions.
Teachers who are caring, helpful and attribute childrenÊs failures to lack of
effort create mastery-oriented students. Learned-helpless students, on the
other hand, need to be encouraged to reorient their focus to pay less attention
on grades and more on improving their skills on the tasks.
(f) Development of Social Problem-solving Skills

The following details the important factors involved in the development of
social problem-solving skills.
(i) Understanding Conflict

Conflicts among children shift from material objects during the
preschool years to psychological and social issues during their school
years. The process of resolving the conflict, rather than the conflict in
itself, promotes development. The occurrence of conflict provides
children with the occasional opportunity to solve problems, generate
and apply strategies to prevent impending conflicts or settle ones that
have cropped up by producing solutions that are pleasing to others and
the self.
(ii) The Social Problem-solving Process

Children who can interpret social cues accurately and have a range of
effective problem-solving strategies tend to get along well with those
of the same age. Children who have problems with their peers often
have misguided social expectations. Their skills in solving social
problems progress noticeably in preschool and school, mainly due to
advances in recursive thought. Practice in enacting suitable responses
can also strengthen their skills in understanding othersÊ thoughts and
emotions, in selecting suitable solutions to social conflicts and in
communicating verbally with their peers.

SELF-CHECK 5.1
Match the following concepts to their definitions:
_____ 1. Belief-desire theory of mind
_____ 2. Social comparisons
_____ 3. Categorical self
_____ 4. Self-concept
_____ 5. Self-recognition
A. Attributes that are categorised based on physical and

psychological qualities.
B. A set of attributes, views and beliefs which we think characterises
who we are.
C. A child assesses her own looks and talents in comparison with
others.
D. A more matured outlook in which actions are influenced by
beliefs and desires.
E. A childÊs view of the physical self as a person who is distinct from
others.
5.2.2 Development of Identity

Forming an identity is an essential achievement in personality development. It is
one of the keys to becoming a confident, accomplished adult. ChildrenÊs identity
formation comprises identifying the self, what they cherish and what they want to
become.
(a) Constructing an Identity: Who Should I Become?

Two theories explain identity formation, namely Erik Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development (Munley, 1975) and James Marcia's identity status
theory (Marcia, 1993).
(i) Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson describes how children learn to relate to others and how this
affects the development of the self. He suggested that positive
psychosocial outcomes in early childhood determine a healthy,
self-assured identity later in life. Identity development generally

begins with the process of exploring varied identity, culminating in a

commitment towards a final identity. Adolescents may develop
identity confusion, which comes about when earlier conflicts were not
resolved or their choices do not agree with their desires. Erikson
identified eight stages of psychosocial development, five of which
applies to children and adolescents:
• Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to 1 Year)

Babies are helpless in the first year of life. They learn to trust their
caregivers who give them consistent, loving care. Caregivers who
are affectionate and reliable generate feelings of trust and security
in the babies they care for. Caregivers who are unreliable and
insensitive create feelings of mistrust in these babies.
Unpredictable, inattentive caregivers create feelings of mistrust,
anxiety and insecurities in the babies they cared for.
• Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 Years)

Toddlers assert their autonomy when they are apart from their
caregiver, exploring and making choices about what they like to do,
play with or eat. If their autonomy is encouraged, they become
more self-reliant. Toddlers who are frequently criticised, restricted
or not permitted to assert themselves will feel incompetent,
helpless, lack self-esteem, feel ashamed and doubt their own
competencies.
• Initiative versus Guilt (3 to 6 Years)

Preschoolers assert themselves by planning activities, inventing
games and initiating activities with others. This possibility allows
them to cultivate their initiative and confidence in their capacity to
make decisions. In contrast, children whose assertiveness is stifled
by criticisms or restrictions acquire a sense of guilt and loss of
initiative.
• Industry versus Inferiority (6 Years to Puberty)

Achievement instils a sense of pride in school-aged children. They
initiate projects and complete them. If they are reinforced for their
diligence, they become industrious and motivated to achieve goals.
If this initiative is suppressed by parents or teachers, they will feel
inferior, doubt their own abilities and inhibit their potential.

• Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence)

As children transit into adolescence, they experiment with various
potentials as their identity takes shape as a result of their
experiments. Hindrance to this process will result in a sense of
confusion about their identity.
(ii) James Marcia's Identity Status Theory

James Marcia expands EriksonÊs work and identifies four identity
status, which are determined by exploration and commitment to
personal and social traits:
• Identity Achievement – A period of experimentation which

culminates in a commitment to ideals, attitudes and purposes;
• Identity Moratorium – A period of experimentation which does not

conclude in a commitment;
• Identity foreclosure – A commitment without any experimentation;

and
• Identity Diffusion – A state in which there is neither

experimentation nor commitment.
5.3 GENDER ROLES AND GENDER

DIFFERENCES
The social learning theory and cognitive-developmental theory are two major
theories which explain the development of gender roles. Children acquire many
gender-related values and mingle more with same-sex peers from a young age.
Gender stereotypes are values about traits that are typical of males and females.
Gender roles reflect these stereotypes in daily behaviours. Gender identity is the
perception of the self as being either masculine or feminine. Gender typing
signifies any connection to things, activities or attributes with the respective
genders in culturally appropriate ways.
5.3.1 Gender Roles and Gender Stereotyping

Gender stereotypes of a wide range of roles possible for each gender has persisted
for decades. Men are innately thought to be programmed for authority and women
for affection. Instrumental traits such as strength, steadiness and level-headedness
are viewed as masculine. Expressive traits such as comforting, compassion and

affectionate are considered feminine. Other gender stereotypes include

professions and activities. We tend to apply these gender stereotypes to children
earnestly.
(a) Development of Gender Stereotyping

Children aged 18 months to 3 years begin to develop an awareness of gender
differences. They can identify whether they or their peers are boys or girls.
Two-year-olds have already acquired commonly subtle links with gender –
men as tough and muscular, women as soft and gentle. Gender stereotyping
of jobs and activities is well-formed by age five. Preschoolers, especially
boys, have acquired gender-stereotypes tastes and behaviours. During late
childhood, knowledge of stereotypes on personality traits and achievement
surges. Skills such as art, language and reading are viewed as more for
feminine while mathematics and sciences as masculine.
(b) Sex Hormones and Gender Stereotyping

Studies have shown that androgens incite masculine sexual behaviour and
aggression while stifling nurturing behaviours. Girls with congenital adrenal
hyperplasia (CAH) syndrome have high levels of androgen. They tend to
display masculine gender-role behaviour. Boys with androgen insensitivity
syndrome, the impairment of androgen receptors, tend to display feminine
gender-typed behaviour.
(c) Adult Influences on Gender Roles

Adults provide a powerful influence on gender-role development:
(i) Treatment by Parents

Parents have dissimilar beliefs about the abilities and characteristics of
their sons and daughters. As early as infancy, their child-rearing
behaviours differ for sons and daughters. They actively support
individuality in boys and proximity and dependence in girls. They use
language that stresses gender differences and that alerts children about
traditional gender roles. During the school years, their expectations of
self-reliance and higher academic competencies from sons compared to
daughters remain.
(ii) Treatment by Teachers

Teachers, however, tend to reinforce feminine rather than masculine
behaviours, valuing obedience and undermining boldness. Girls are
encouraged to participate in compliant and supportive activities rather
than assertive ones. As early as preschool, teachers give more attention
to boys than to girls. Their settings have many gender-typed models,
for example, women as nurses.

5.3.2 Gender Differences

The study of gender differences is mainly concerned with gender identity and
whether there are significant differences in the development of cognitive abilities
and personality traits between boys and girls.
(a) Gender Identity

Gender identity, the perception of the self as male or female, begins in middle
childhood. The social learning theory suggests that preschoolers learn
gender-typed behaviours through modelling and reinforcement. These
behaviours later establish themselves as being part of gender identity.
Cognitive-developmental theory, on the other hand, supports that self-
perception comes before behaviour. Preschoolers develop gender constancy,
a grasp that their gender will not change. Knowledge of gender constancy is
combined with gender labelling, gender stability and gender consistency to
guide their behaviours.
(i) Gender Labelling – Three-year-olds can identify sex correctly and
determine if they and their peers are boys or girls. However, they do
not realise that oneÊs sex is permanent.
(ii) Gender Stability – Older preschoolers begin to realise that oneÊs sex is
permanent.
(iii) Gender Consistency – Six-year-olds realise that sex is a physical trait
and stays the same even if they dress in opposite-sex clothes or engage
in their activities. Mastery of gender constancy is associated with
attainment of conservation.
School-aged boysÊ connection with the masculine role strengthens while

girlsÊ link with feminine characteristics declines. ChildrenÊs identity at this
point expands to include several self-evaluations:
(i) Gender Typicality – The extent in which children feel the same way as
their same-gender peers.
(ii) Gender Contentedness – The extent in which children accept their
gender.
(iii) Felt Pressure to Conform to Gender Roles – The extent in which
children sense that their parents and peers reject their gender-related
traits.

Gender intensification, gender stereotyping of attitudes, behaviours and

identity, are formed during adolescence. Gender intensification seems
greater for girls than for boys. Puberty magnifies the physical disparities,
causing adolescents to perceive themselves in gender-related ways. When
they start to date, they become focused on boosting their attractiveness to the
other gender.
(b) Do Boys and Girls Really Differ in Gender-Stereotyped Attributes?

Research on gender differences reveal that differences in gender account for
a small proportion of cognitive and personality traits. Even though girls and
boys differ, their potential for development is more alike than different.
(i) Mental Abilities – Boys and girls differ in specific mental abilities but
they have similar general intelligence.
(ii) Verbal Abilities – Young girls have more advance language processors,
reading and writing skills than boys. Boys tend to do poorly in writing.
(iii) Mathematical Abilities – Slight differences in mathematical abilities

exist, depending on the skills assessed. Girls tend to be better in
counting, arithmetic computation and in the mastery of basic concepts.
By late childhood and early adolescence, however, boys outperform
girls on more abstract and spatial concepts, complex reasoning and
geometry. BoysÊ advantage stems from their superior numerical
memory and spatial reasoning.
(iv) Personality Traits – Young girls are emotionally more sensitive than
boys. They are better at reading emotional states. Except for anger, girls
are more expressive in ordinary interactions. They are also better at
recognising feelings. Boys aged two are more physically aggressive
than girls. Girls tend to use relational aggression while boys use diverse
ways of causing harm. Relational aggression is spiteful to girls because
they rate relationships highly. Girls are twice as more likely to
experience a persistent depressed mood than boys.

SELF-CHECK 5.2
Identify if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Explain your
decisions.
(a) Six-year-old boys believe that they become girls when they dress
in feminine clothes and engage in feminine activities.
(b) Research showed that boys have higher reading and writing
achievement while girls excel in mathematics such as geometry.
(c) Girls tend to use relational aggression while boys apply a variety
of aggression in problem-solving strategy.
(d) Parents more often use physical punishment with girls, which
encourages them to engage in aggressive behaviours.
(e) Adolescent boys have higher levels of depression than girls.
• The functionalist theory stresses that emotions increase behaviours that are
useful in realising personal goals.
• Emotional self-regulation supports the childÊs adjustment to his environment.
• ChildrenÊs emotional signals influence the behaviours of others while othersÊ

reactions modify the childrenÊs behaviours.
• Attachment is the sturdy, loving connection that exists between babies and
caregivers who fulfil their needs. This connection produces a feeling of
pleasure when they are in interaction with them and they are comforted by
their presence when stressed.
• Self-awareness begins at birth. Preschoolers construct a self-concept based on

age, physical characteristics and competencies. School-aged children view the
self by general dispositions and social comparisons. Adolescents can generalise
about the self in more abstract terms and based on social virtues.
• Social problem-solving skills require the ability to use strategies to avert or

settle conflicts in ways that satisfy both parties. It improves over early and
middle childhood and is often used to predict socially competent behaviour at
later stages of life.

• Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development and James Marcia's identity

status theory are often used to explain identity formation. Identity formation
is vital in personality development. The search for identity entails self-
recognition, value-clarification and selection of lifeÊs preference and direction.
A matured identity creates a contented, industrious adult.
• Major theories clarifying gender roles are social learning theory and cognitive-
developmental theory. Young children tend to accept gender roles set by their
culture. They are more likely to have same-sex playmates in their daily
interactions.
• Gender stereotypes represent attitudes about what is considered proper for

each sex. Gender roles echo behaviours typical of gender stereotypes in
everyday situations. Gender identity is the extent in which a child identifies
the self as male or female. The perception of mannerisms, functions, activities
or things associated with a specific gender to match a cultureÊs gender
stereotypes is known as gender typing.

Achievement motivation Learned-helpless

Anal stage Mastery-oriented
Attachment phase Oedipal complex
Attributions Oral stage
Avoidant attachment Phallic stage
Disorganised or disoriented Problem-centred coping
attachment
Psychosocial development
Effortful control
Reciprocal relationship
Elektra complex
Recursive thought
Emotional contagion
Resistant attachment
Emotional display rules
Secure attachment
Emotional self-regulation
Self-awareness
Emotion-centred coping
Self-concept
Empathy
Self-conscious
Ethological theory
Self-esteem
Fixations
Sex hormones
Gender identity
Social referencing
Gender typing
Social virtues
Genital stage
Temperament
Identity formation
Theory of mind
Latency stage

Ainsworth, M. D., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation:

Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child
Development, 41(1), 49-67.
Pearson.

Prentice Hall.
Marcia J.E. (1993) Ego identity. Springer, New York, NY.
Munley, P. H. (1975). Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development and

vocational behavior. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 22(4), 314-319
Parke, R. D., & Gauvain, M. (2009). Child psychology: A Contemporary viewpoint

(7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill Education.
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon (Series Ed.), &
N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social,
emotional and personality development, (5th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1956). An approach to the study of sources of individual
difference in child behavior. Journal of Clinical and Experimental
Psychopathol, 18: 347-357.
Thomas, A., Chess, S., & Birch, H. (1968). Temperament and behaviour disorders
in children. New York University Press.

Topic  Context of
6 Moral
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss theories of moral development;
2. Compare and contrast the relationship between moral judgment and
moral behaviour;
3. Examine prosocial behaviour, responsibility, role-taking empathy
and altruism;
4. Distinguish between different kinds of aggression; and
5. Evaluate methods of reducing aggression in children.
 INTRODUCTION
Annie and Julie, both five-year-olds, are poles apart in temperament. Annie is so
helpful. She helps her mother with everything. She cleans up after playing with
the toys and washes up after meals. She packs her clothes neatly in her bag after
changing. Julie, on the other hand, is strong-willed and feisty. Her room always
appears as though it has been hit by a typhoon. She rarely cleans up after playing,
her shoes are always missing and her papers are often crumpled in her bag.
However, she is fantastic at comforting her friends when they cry.

120  TOPIC 6 CONTEXT OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Some children are just „born‰ orderly and dependable while others lack these
traits. As parents, we may have both types of children and how they become that
way simply baffles us. Fortunately, no matter what temperament our children
have, their moral values, responsibility, role-taking and prosocial behaviours can
be nurtured through mindful parental practices. Remember that every child is
unique. Children learn to be trustworthy in their own style and at their own pace.
6.1 THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Four theories of moral development will be discussed in this topic including
PiagetÊs, KohlbergÊs, FreudÊs and social learning. Piaget recognised two stages of
moral understanding based on the flexibility of rules and the power of authorities.
Kohlberg classified six stages of moral reasoning based on how we reason with
regard to a dilemma rather than our reactions. Both psychoanalytic and social
learning theories view moral development as an internalisation process in which
children learn to accept cultural values as their own. In contrast, Freud believed
that the conscience is a powerful driver of moral action. From the social learning
perspective, morality is thought to be acquired through reward and modelling.
Children love to mimic models who are caring, approachable, competent,
consistent and powerful.
6.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

Jean Piaget based his theory of moral reasoning and immoral acts from his
observations of children's understanding of rules about what is right and wrong
when they play games. When asked why they should not lie, younger children
thought it was because they were not allowed to do so. Older children, on the other
hand, showed an awareness of intention and thought that it was wrong to do so.
From his observations, Piaget identified the following stages of moral
understanding:
(a) Heteronomous Morality (About 5 to 8 Years Old)

Children adhere strictly to regulations which are set by the authorities
(parents) and therefore, are not changeable. They believe that these
regulations demand strict compliance. They are egocentric and unable to
view beyond their own thoughts and needs. Thus, in judging injustice, they
focus on salient effects rather than intention.

TOPIC 6 CONTEXT OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT  121
(b) Autonomous Morality of Cooperation (About 9 to 10 Years and Older)

Rules are not viewed as being fixed anymore. Rather, they are seen as
negotiable and may be modified to fit everyoneÊs needs. Peers interactions
allow children to settle conflicts in mutually beneficial ways. They learn to
reciprocate, showing the same concern for the welfare of others as they do
for themselves.
(c) Intentions and Moral Judgments

Preschoolers and school-aged children can differentiate people with bad
intentions from those with good intentions. They agree that those with bad
intentions should be punished. By age four, they favour honesty and dislike
lying. By age seven, they judge adversely certain types of honesty such as
frank statements that tend to have harmful social effects.
(d) Reasoning about Authority

Preschoolers and young school-aged children place greater stress on power,
status and consequences for disobedience than older children do.
6.1.2 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg (1969) organised and expanded Piaget's work into three general levels
with six stages. In KohlbergÊs theory, moral judgement maturity is based on our
reasoning ability when faced with a moral dilemma and not according to our
reactions. Subsequent stages are built upon the moral reasoning of the earlier
stages. Children in earlier stages focus more on outcomes. As they mature, the
moral reasoning become more focused on reciprocity. KohlbergÊs stages of three
levels (pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional) and six stages of
moral development can be seen in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
Level Stage Moral Understanding

Pre-conventional 1: Punishment What must I do to evade punishment? The
and obedience result ascertains if an action is good or bad.
orientation The right thing to do is to obey authority and
avoid punishment.
2: Instrumental What must I do to avoid pain and gain
purpose pleasure? Self-interest and reciprocity are
orientation reasons for behaving morally. Reciprocity is
seen as a right action which fulfils personal
needs. Moral duty is "An eye for an eye."
Conventional 3: „Good boy- What must I do to be a good boy/girl? It
good girl‰ stresses on being a good person, who is loyal
orientation to a group, compliant to the cultural
expectations and those approved by peers.
Good behaviour is what pleases or helps others
within the group.
4: Social-order- Right behaviour consists of obeying rules,
maintaining laws, authority and the maintenance of social
orientation order. A law-abiding citizen does not question
authority figures (God or the boss).
Post-conventional 5: Social- What brings the most good to the most number
contract of people? Laws and rules are viewed as tools
orientation for upholding a good society. Right actions
improve the individual, prevent crime and
protect future victims.
6: Universal What will foster life for all living beings? What
ethical principle is justice for all? Right action is based on oneÊs
orientation conscience. An individual acts out of
universal principles, based on equality for all.
EveryoneÊs interests in every situation must be
respected.
Source: Kohlberg (1969)

6.1.3 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and the Role of

Guilt
Sigmund Freud believed that morality develops between three to six years of age,
during the period of the Oedipus and Electra conflicts. They begin to form a
conscience and connect with the same-sex parent, whose moral values they
eventually accept as their own. Guilt is a powerful influence of moral action.
Adults can persuade children to feel empathy-based guilt by clarifying that their
behaviours can hurt others.
Aside from FreudÊs concept of guilt, conscience also shapes induction in which the
adult induces the child to become aware of othersÊ feelings and effects of their
misconduct on others. Inductive discipline promotes conscience development.
Induction is effective as early as age two and continues to remain valuable at older
ages. Adolescents, whose mothers use induction, have stronger moral identity and
values (such as fairness, kindness and generosity). Induction promotes childrenÊs
commitment to moral norms. By highlighting the effects of the childrenÊs conduct
on others, induction fosters empathy and sympathetic concern, which in turn
triggers prosocial behaviour.
6.1.4 Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory suggests that moral values are learnt through
reinforcement and imitation. Children tend to mimic adults who are caring,
accessible and influential. Severe punishment has detrimental consequences on
moral development while positive discipline is recognised to be more useful in
fostering moral values.
(a) Modelling
Operant conditioning is insufficient to ensure that children attain moral
responses. Most of childrenÊs moral responses are acquired through
modelling (observing and copying others who exhibit suitable behaviour).
Children are more inclined to imitate models who have the following
qualities:
(i) Warmth and Responsiveness: Children prefer to mimic the prosocial
behaviours of kind, friendly caregivers rather than aloof, withdrawn
ones.
(ii) Competence and Power: Children are more likely to imitate capable,
influential models.

(iii) Consistency between Assertion and Behaviour: When models are not
consistent in what they say and do, children usually choose their most
indulgent behaviour.
Children who received loving care from consistent adults are more likely to
behave in a prosocial behaviour manner by school-age, even in the absence
of the model.
(b) Effects of Punishment

Disciplinary tactic involving spanking or screaming at children is futile.
Most parents depend on affection and reasoning to foster positive
behaviours such as helping behaviours. Regular punishment compels
instant, short-lived compliance and severe punishment has adverse
outcomes. Parents who react to their childrenÊs aggression by striking them
is modelling aggression. Severely treated children react with resentment and
tend to focus on their own misery rather than feel empathy for the needs of
others.
(c) Alternatives to Harsh Punishment

One alternative is a technique called time out in which the child leaves the
immediate setting briefly and returns when they have calmed down.
Another involves the withdrawal of privileges such as playing a favourite
computer game. Parents increase the effectiveness of punishment through
consistency in disciplinary responses by maintaining a generally warm
parent-child relationship and by offering explanations that will help the child
relate the misdeed to expectations for future behaviour.
(d) Positive Discipline

Effective discipline encourages good behaviour by establishing a reciprocal,
respectful connection with the child, discussing acceptable behaviours in
advance with the child and expressing approval for good behaviours.
Children display stable conscience development when positive emotions
exist between parents and their child. Parents who use positive parenting
strategies such as providing reasons for rules are able to focus on nurturing
long-term social and life skills in their child.
6.1.5 Moral Reasoning and Behaviour

Moral behaviour is induced by many factors such as affect, temperament and
reasoning. Moral identity also affects moral behaviour. When moral goals are
personally vital, we feel more compelled to act on our moral judgements.
Parenting strategies that focus on conscience development and empathy may

contribute to moral identity and action. Environments which guide children in

decision-making, rule setting and taking responsibility for othersÊ welfare boost
moral commitment.
(a) Moral Understanding

ChildrenÊs moral understanding entails the ability to discriminate moral
obligations from social rules, personal preferences and their views about
fairness. Moral imperatives guard oneÊs privileges and well-being. Preschool
and young elementary school children are able to discriminate between
moral imperatives prompted by social rules and those of personal
preferences.
(b) Moral and Social-conventional Transgressions

Three and four-year-olds consider moral transgressions as being more wrong
than transgressions of social rules. They think that a moral transgression is
definitely wrong regardless of the situation and if it is spotted by an adult.
Their experiences teach them that peers respond to moral offence with
aversion, withdrawal, hurt or retaliation.
Although they realise that moral transgressions are more wrong than
transgressions of social rules, young children give rigid, immature reasons
for their views. For example, stealing is wrong at all times even if it is a matter
of life and death. As children mature and develop a more flexible
understanding of moral conventions, they refine and link moral duties with
social rules.
School-age children identify violations of meaningful social conventions

with a clear purpose that is similar to that of moral transgressions, compared
to those without obvious reasons. As children mature, they realise that
intentions and situations also affect the moral effects of social-conventional
transgressions.
(c) Personal Choices and Moral Imperatives

As childrenÊs understanding of moral imperatives and social conventions
improves, they begin to realise that certain alternatives such as hobbies are
personal. Children discover that adults are more prepared to negotiate on
personal issues. Older preschoolers understand that freedom of speech and
religion are personal rights. Older school-age children understand that
personal rights are important in a just society. When they are faced with
conflicting moral and personal issues, they normally choose justice. By
adolescence, they begin to deliberate about conflicts between personal choice
and public responsibility.

(d) Moral, Social-conventional and Personal Values

Children and adolescents across different cultures use the same criteria to
reason about moral, social convention and personal issues. They all agree
that adults should not intervene in childrenÊs personal matters. Children
from varied cultures agree that behaviours which harm or violate rights are
morally wrong.
(e) Distributive Justice

Children often face circumstances entailing distributive justice, opinions
about how things are shared fairly. ChildrenÊs understanding of distributive
justice matures with age. Young children have an egocentric sense of
distributive justice. Their view of distributive justice becomes more matured
as they enter middle childhood. ChildrenÊs views of distributive justice
develop in the following order:
(i) Strict Equality (five to six-year-olds) – Everyone gets an equal share of
the wealth.
(ii) Merit (six to seven-year-olds) – Those who are more deserving such as
those who are qualified or more hardworking should get a bigger share
of the wealth.
(iii) Equity and Benevolence (around eight years) – It is up to the owner to
distribute any amount of his wealth to whoever he wants to distribute
to.
Parental guidance and negotiations that occur during peer interactions foster
childrenÊs understanding of distributive justice. Advanced reasoning of
distributive justice is linked to more effective problem-solving skills,
altruism and generosity.
6.1.6 Development of Morally Relevant Self-control

Self-control determines whether children behave according to their beliefs and
good intentions. Whether children can manage their reactivity and resist
temptation is dependent on their effortful control. According to cognitive-
developmental theorists, the advancement of self-control evolves through active
reasoning regarding the circumstances in which social conflicts occur (Bee & Boyd,
2012; Berk, 2013; Feldman, 2014).
(a) Toddlerhood
By the second year, children perceive the self as a detached entity who can
control his own actions. By this time, they have also acquired emotional self-
regulation and cognitive inhibition. They have attained some ability to

remember their caregiverÊs instructions and relate it to their behaviour. As

these abilities emerge at the beginning of the second year, initial sparks of
self-control surface in the form of compliance. Toddlers start to show definite
consciousness of their caregiversÊ expectations and can follow simple
requests and directives.
Compliance rapidly develops in the toddlersÊ primitive conscience. Delay of

gratification, that is, the ability to wait will begin to strengthen around one
to three years of age. Children who have good self-control are also more
advanced in language development. Regardless of their temperament,
toddlers who experience warm parental support are more likely to comply
willingly and to delay gratification. As self-control improves, toddlers are
able to follow all kinds of rules, ranging from safety to routines and conduct.
(b) Childhood and Adolescence

By three years old, children have formed the competency for self-control.
This competency continues to improve through adolescence. Cognitive
advancement and improved ability to use self-regulatory strategies such as
self-talk increases childrenÊs and adolescentsÊ capacity to resist temptation
and delay gratification:
(i) Able to divert attention from the desired objects;
(ii) Mentally represent an enticing but prohibited goal;
(iii) Transform the object to minimise its provoking features, restraining
arousal;
(iv) Do something interesting and pleasurable while waiting;
(v) Use moral self-regulation to control behaviour since by continually
modifying the conditions, there are temptations to violate personal
ethics; and
(vi) Possessing metacognitive awareness of self-regulatory techniques.
Toddlers who can distract themselves and tolerate temporary separation

from their familiar caregiver are more capable of delaying gratification at five
years of age. Preschoolers with better-delayed gratification have better
metacognitive skills at adolescence.

6.1.7 Domain Approach to Moral Understanding

Domain approach to moral understanding tends to centre on childrenÊs emerging
ability to set apart moral imperatives from social conventions and individual
preferences. Children are capable of showing more superior moral reasoning than
expected according to KohlbergÊs pre-conventional morality.
(a) Morality Imperatives

Does the act affect the welfare of others? If yes, then the act is likely to be
moral. Would an offence still be wrong if there were no rules or norms about
the act? If yes (because it affects othersÊ welfare), the act is an issue of
morality.
(b) Social Convention

If there were no rules or norms about the act, would the act still be considered
an offence? If no, then the act is a matter of convention. Is the main purpose
of the norm to organise the interactions of people? For example, we walk on
the right-hand side to allow ease of movement through the hallway. If yes,
the norm is a convention.
(c) Personal Choice

Do the acts chiefly affect the actor? Are the effects on the actor benign? If yes
to both, then the issue is personal. If yes to the first question and no to the
second, then the act is a matter of prudence. Is the act an aspect of
constructing autonomy and a unique sense of identity? If yes to this question
and to the first question above, then the act is personal.
(d) Distinction between Moral Imperatives and Social Conventions

Preschoolers are able to ascertain moral transgressions as being more wrong
than social-conventional transgressions, no matter what the reasons for
transgressing are. As their understanding of moral conventions mature,
children are able to explain and differentiate moral imperatives from social
conventions. School-age children realise that the purpose and circumstance
in which the violation of social convention occurs influence its moral
implications.
(e) Moral Domains and Personal Choices

Increased understanding of moral and social conventions promotes
childrenÊs awareness that some decisions are personal. Concerns over
matters of personal choice intensify during the adolescent years and young
people increasingly insist that parents should not encroach on their personal

arena (such as dressing). In contrast, adolescents typically say that parents

have a right to tell them what to do in situations concerning moral and social
conventions.
Six-year-olds begin to regard certain preferences such as religion as being a

personal choice. School-age children understand that personal choices vary
according to situations. Adolescents, on the other hand, recognise that moral
imperatives, social conventions and personal choices do overlap.
(g) Culture and Moral, Social-conventional and Personal Distinctions

Children and adolescents across different cultures use the same rationale to
distinguish moral imperatives, social conventions and personal choices,
particularly on actions that harm or violate rights.
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Highlight the key characteristics of Piaget and KohlbergÊs theories
on moral development.
2. How do these theories contribute to our understanding of moral

behaviours? Discuss with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
6.2 PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOURS

Prosocial behaviours are actions that benefit others, for example, helping
behaviours. These actions are triggered by thoughtfulness about othersÊ well-
being, feelings of empathy for othersÊ problems and altruism, a noble concern to
ease othersÊ hardships. Altruistic prosocial behaviours are often compelled by the
norm of reciprocity, a commitment to return a favour with a favour or establish a
close relationship with the beneficiary (Kelso, 2010).
ChildrenÊs prosocial behaviour begins with the concept of sharing and fairness.
Two-year-olds can share their toys with their parents and others without expecting
rewards. Their prosocial behaviours increase as they become more aware of the
value of compliance to social rule. With development, their motivation for
prosocial behaviour changes from being needs-oriented to a concern for social
approval. Children's prosocial behaviour is typically more centred on friendship
and their concern for approval. AdolescentsÊ prosocial behaviours, on the other
hand, are more motivated by abstract values such as conscience and concern.

6.2.1 Responsibility
The act of responsibility involves making choices as well as being dependable and
accountable. Lessons in responsibility should begin early and remain throughout
childhood and adolescence. A good way to instil a sense of responsibility is to allot
tasks to children. Rules and consequences should be set so that they are allowed
to be responsible and are expected to act responsibly. These tasks are instances to
help, not to punish. Children may be allowed to display responsibility in age-
appropriate daily routines such as chores, schoolwork and relationships. They
need to be informed of the purpose and time limit for their responsibilities as well
as the outcomes if the tasks are not completed. A sense of responsibility is securely
imparted when they show intrinsic satisfaction (pride, pleasure and joy) rather
than extrinsic rewards (money, objects, or sweets) for responsible behaviours.
(a) Skills Children Need to Develop Responsibility

(i) Perseverance – skills required to finish the chore.
(ii) Task Commitment – ability to persist until a task is completed.
(iii) Decision-making – capacity to appraise the task and make thoughtful
decisions.
(iv) Motivation – internally motivated to finish a task without being urged
to. Those who are externally motivated will finish a task to obtain
material rewards and will stop working when the incentives are taken
away.
(v) Time Management – children need to learn to plan and manage their
time, chores and assignments efficiently.
(vi) Communication – children need to learn to discuss their tasks,
accomplishments and mistakes as well as communicate the ways that
they have demonstrated responsibility.
(b) Development of Responsibility

ChildrenÊs ability to reason improves as they get older. Children are capable
of demonstrating responsibility when parents give them age-appropriate
tasks. Too many tasks can discourage children when they cannot finish all of
them well. Tasks which are too difficult will impart the feeling of
incompetence and uselessness in the child. Children who are not given
responsibilities may feel worthless and have low opinions of their own
ability. Self-esteem may be fostered by gradually expanding the tasks as the
children grow.

Toddlers can undertake responsibilities such as washing their hands or

putting away their belongings. Very young children may be allowed to make
their own choices. Preschoolers can be involved in short-term tasks. Large
tasks can be broken into smaller ones, which they can manage in a day or
two.
School-age children can be responsible for household chores such as cleaning

up after meals, sweeping the floor and hanging the clothes. They should be
able to manage personal tasks such as making their own beds and getting
ready for school without being reminded to do so. They can be expected to
follow rules set for completion of tasks and to be prepared to face
consequences for incomplete tasks. At this stage, they can also begin to
handle some cash and save up for things that they may want to buy.
Older children and adolescents can perform many household chores such as
preparing simple meals, gardening and taking care of their younger siblings.
They can volunteer to help in teaching younger siblings or running errands
for elderly neighbours. High school children can take charge of many things
at home and at school. They can manage routine chores at home such as help
prepare meals, take care of siblings, run errands for the family, shop for
groceries and manage their own bank account.
6.2.2 Development of Empathy

Empathy is the ability to identify with the feelings borne by others. It includes
experiencing similar sentiments of other people and appreciating their thoughts,
feelings and perspectives.
Newborns express rudimentary empathy by crying in response to sounds of

another baby crying. One-year-olds are already showing signs of empathy. They
are able to link with their caregiversÊ feelings when interacting with them. Two-
year-olds display empathic concerns by expressing emotions that match the
emotional state of others and attempt to comfort them. Older toddlers seem to be
able to engage in basic affective perspective-taking, guessing how another feels by
picturing themselves in that personÊs place.
ChildrenÊs onset of empathy coincides with the advancement of self-awareness

and theory of mind, at about age four. An understanding of the theory of mind in
which children realise that othersÊ beliefs are not like theirs involves the cognitive
component of empathy. Children usually pass "false belief" tasks used to
investigate the theory of mind, around the age of four. By preschool years,
empathy becomes the main reason for prosocial behaviours, helping others
without anticipating rewards. Between seven and twelve years of age, children
become increasingly aware of an array of emotions and show empathy for others
in pain. Progress in perspective-taking among older children and adolescents
permits them to react empathically to othersÊ suffering and their living conditions.
Children who have excellent emotional regulation show more empathy than those
with poor emotion regulation. Parenting strongly affects empathy. Children who
are brought up by attentive, forgiving parents tend to show more empathy than
those who are brought up by ruthless parents who ignore them.
6.2.3 Role-taking
Role-taking is the ability to visualise the perspective, thinking and feelings of
others. This ability emerges due to cognitive progress when children begin to be
aware that the views of others may not be the same as theirs. Role-taking capacity
includes appreciating othersÊ mental and emotional perspectives. Two-year-olds
display some rudimentary perspective capacity almost immediately after
acquiring self-conscious awareness.
Robert SelmanÊs five-stage sequence of perspective-taking skill is based on

reactions to social dilemmas in which individuals have varied information and
views about an event. Selman argued that role-taking ability enables us to sense
the impact of our actions on others. Explanation of SelmanÊs theory of role-taking
is as follows:
(a) Level 0: Egocentric Role-taking (3 to 6 Years Old)

Children at this stage lack two capacities:
(i) Failure to differentiate between their perspective and that of others
(including why a social action occurred); and
(ii) Inability to relate the perspectives (lack integration).
Children younger than age six do not realise that peopleÊs capacity to
comprehend new information depends on their existing knowledge of
related matters.
(b) Level 1: Subjective Role-taking (6 to 8 Years Old)

Children realise that the facts they have may vary from those available to
others, thus resulting in divergent views. However, at this stage, they still
lack integration abilities. They believe that divergent social perspectives may
be caused only by divergent facts and nothing else.

(c) Level 2: Self-reflective Role-taking (8 to 10 Years Old)

Children grasp that people vary in their social perspectives due to different
values and purposes. They can place themselves in the position of another
person and are aware that others also reflect on their perspectives, enabling
them to predict how others may respond to their actions.
(d) Level 3: Mutual Role-taking (10 to 12 Years Old)

Children at this level are able to separate their own perspectives from that of
the average view of the group members. They can imagine the perspectives
of a detached third-person and regard the circumstances from that position.
They can also integrate their view of others and othersÊ views of them
simultaneously.
(e) Level 4: Societal Role-taking (12 to 15+ Years Old)

Adolescents can view othersÊ perspectives in terms of their social
environment and culture. They believe that the way others think and behave
will concur with their societyÊs principles and moral values. Perspective-
taking among older children and adolescents is influenced by recursive
thought, which provides them the ability to visualise what others are feeling.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Directions: Read each of the following statements and determine

whether it is TRUE or FALSE.
(a) Regular punishment instils enduring changes in childrenÊs
behaviours. _____
(b) Children who constantly experience induction show profound
guilt. _____
(c) Using severe punishment such as caning is more effective in
reducing misconducts in plucky, reckless children. _____
(d) Behaviour modifications and gentle discipline foster more
empathy and altruistic behaviours in young children. _____
(e) Freud believes that morality appears at the same stage as the
Oedipal complex. _____

6.2.4 Altruism
Empathy is an essential precursor to altruistic behaviour. Altruism is a sincere
concern for the welfare of others. It consists of foregoing something (such as time,
energy or belongings) for others without any expected return (such as credit,
respect or thanks) for the act of giving.
It is induced by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. It is shown

through prosocial behaviours such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation,
charity and community service. Altruism can be seen from as young as two-year-
olds onwards when toddlers first begin to understand subtle emotional cues.
6.3 AGGRESSION
All children occasionally exhibit aggression when they interact with their
playmates. Some preschoolers are exceptionally aggressive in their daily
interactions. There are three types of aggression – physical, verbal and relational.
Physical aggression, in which a child harms others physically, is the first form of
aggression expressed by young children. It decreases as children enter preschool
age and improve their language competency, bringing about a surge in verbal
aggression instead. Boys tend to be more physically aggressive than girls. In
contrast, relational aggression destroys otherÊs peer relationships through social
segregation or spiteful rumours. The variation in verbal and relational aggression
between boys and girls is small. In adolescence, delinquent acts increase,
especially for boys.
Children who are reckless and energetic have higher incidences of aggression.
However, the probability that they become aggressive is determined by the
environment they grow up in. Hostile upbringing, antagonistic peers and
telecasted violence provoke antisocial, self-centred behaviours and insensitivity to
the affliction of others. Children who are exposed to punitive, erratic discipline are
less matured and develop distorted views of aggression. This leads to long-term
recurrence of aggressive behaviours among these children. Efforts to reduce
aggression in children must include positive child-rearing techniques for parents
and effective conflict resolution strategies for children.

6.3.1 Development of Aggression

Aggression develops in various stages as children move from one age group to the
next. The following details the different stages and provides an explanation for
each one:
(a) Emergence of Aggression – All children begin to show occasional aggressive

behaviours before they enter toddlerhood. Bouts of aggression occur more
often when they interact with their siblings and playmates. Some
preschoolers begin showing frequent aggression which can escalate to
inadequate self-control, disruptive behaviours and delayed moral
development.
(b) By 6 to 12 months, babies are able to recognise their causes of annoyance and
have the motor skills to fight back. Two types of aggression surface by
toddlerhood:
(i) Proactive (or instrumental) Aggression – an emotionless assault
intended to fulfil a need. For example, children shove or harm those
who block their target (object, privilege, or space).
(ii) Reactive (or hostile) Aggression – an enraged reaction meant to hurt
others in order to guard the self from a provocation.
Proactive and reactive aggression comes in three forms:

(i) Physical Aggression – injure others by means of physical harm.
(ii) Verbal Aggression – injure others using verbal threats such as abusive
words or by mocking.
(iii) Relational Aggression – destroy othersÊ peer relationships through
social segregation or by spiteful rumours.
(c) Proactive or instrumental aggression decreases when preschoolers have

learnt to delay gratification and refrain from snatching objects belonging to
others. Reactive or hostile aggression increases among older preschoolers
and school-age children. As children improve their ability to identify spiteful
intentions, they tend to react through hostile means. Girls are noted for
verbal and relational aggression while boys tend to cause injuries in varied
ways. However, gender differences in the preferred type of aggression are
minimal. Girls prefer using relational aggression that disrupts the cherished
friendships valued by girls. Physical aggression is often fleeting but
relational aggression may drag on for days or months.

Toddler and preschool boys tend to use physical aggression more often than
girls. Girls tend to use verbal and relational aggression more often than boys.
This change is brought about by improvement in language skills and adultsÊ
and peersÊ fervent negative responses to physical outbreaks.
(d) Relationship between Aggression and Delinquency

Most adolescentsÊ aggression and delinquency rise over early and middle
adolescence and then decreases. Over time, their decision-making, emotional
self-regulation and moral reasoning progress, friends become less impressive
and they move into settings that are unfavourable to law-breaking such as
higher education. Most of the delinquent offences of adolescents do not
predict lifelong antisocial behaviour. Only a minor proportion of them grow
into chronic offenders or become lasting criminals.
6.3.2 Does Childhood Aggression Last?

Children who are exceptionally aggressive for their age remain so over time.
Physical aggression that diminished over the school years is often replaced with
indirect relational aggression. Girls display relational aggression more often than
boys. Continually elevated aggression is associated with internalising and
externalising problems later in life. Aggressive behaviours that begin in childhood
and that lasts throughout childhood tend to transform into enduring adjustment
problems, compared to those that only begin to emerge during adolescence.
(a) Parenting Behaviours and Aggressive Behaviour

Parenting behaviours such as love withdrawal, power assertion and erratic
discipline promote aggression in children and adolescents across various
cultures. Fury and violence produce an out-of-control child. Preschool
children raised by reproachful, ruthless parents are more aggressive towards
their siblings and peers. Parents tend to be more inconsistent and
unforgiving of sons who are more spirited and less restrained compared to
daughters. These sonsÊ activities outside the home with antisocial comrades
are usually poorly monitored. Such parenting behaviours inadvertently
reinforce aggression in these children.
(b) Social-cognitive Deficits and Distortions

Children who are high in reactive aggression often read ordinary intent as
hostile. When threatened, these children are prone to read unintended
disasters as threatening, thus leading to baseless assaults. Compared with
non-aggressive age-mates, children high in proactive aggression believe they
gain from being aggressive. When involved in aggression, these children are
more anxious to gain control rather than worry about the preyÊs distress or
their impending unpopularity among peers.
Some aggressive children are bistrategic controllers who combine hostility

with positive social tactics to get what they want. They maximise their
perspective-taking and social problem-solving skills to influence peers to
relinquish the desired object whilst disguising their aggression from grown-
ups.
6.3.3 Treatment of Aggressive Behaviours

In order to rid children of their aggressive tendencies, we must restore kind,
respectful interactions between family members whilst terminating punitive,
aggressive behaviours between them. Treatments with younger children tend to
be more fruitful compared to those with older adolescents. Once antisocial habits
endure till adolescence, it is harder to eliminate them.
(a) Parent Training

Parent training programmes based on the social learning theory have been
formulated to terminate damaging family interactions and improve parental
skills of raising children with conduct problems. In some parent training
programmes, a counsellor will take note of damaging parenting habits,
demonstrate substitutes and parents are expected to rehearse them. Parents
learn to refrain from yielding to the childÊs tantrums. They are taught to
combine directives with explanations and to replace abuses and hurtful
physical punishments with behaviour modification approaches such as
removal of favours.
Children are taught non-aggressive techniques for resolving conflict. They

enact teamwork and sharing, and observe that these conducts produce
gratifying consequences. They learn to control intense negative urges and
adopt internalised self-restraints. As these children improve, parents are
reminded to be attentive and show appreciation towards their prosocial acts.
(b) Social-cognitive Interventions

The social-cognitive misrepresentations of aggressive children block them
from empathising with othersÊ anguish. Since aggressive children have few
models of benevolence, they lack experiences needed for fostering prosocial
behaviours. In such children, such responses may have to be directly taught.
Social-cognitive interventions focus on correcting faulty information

processing in aggressive youths. Training includes paying attention to
pertinent, non-threatening signals and to generate beneficial social problem-
solving solutions. These interventions reduce confirmation of beliefs in
sustaining aggression and antagonistic behaviours whilst enhancing

interactions with friends. Training also includes self-discipline as well as

perspective-taking skills, which promotes correct interpretation of social
signals, social understanding, social relations and empathy for others.
(c) Comprehensive Approaches

Successful treatment for aggression must be multifaceted and incorporate
parent training and social-cognitive intervention. A programme called
EQUIP combines groups of different behavioural problems. In other words,
the affirmative peer culture is intended to generate a prosocial environment,
thereby enhancing social competencies and behaviours. EQUIP is a small
group training, which is managed by adolescents and guided by adults. Such
training seems to have a positive long-term impact in converting antisocial
adolescents to law-abiding adults as the training focuses on superior moral
reasoning.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Match each of the following terms with its correct description.

_____ 1. Proactive aggression
_____ 2. Reactive aggression
_____ 3. Physical aggression
_____ 4. Verbal aggression
_____ 5. Relational aggression
Descriptions:
A. An injury to friendship by means of hurtful gossip or deceit.
B. Injuries to others by slapping or beating them, or damaging their
possessions.
C. A furious reaction to a frustration that is intended to injure others.
D. Injure others by means of name calling or hostile teasing.
E. Display tantrum and attack others in order to fulfil a need such as
to get hold of an object or space.

• Piaget identified two broad stages of moral understanding based on

compliance to authorities and moral rules.
• Kohlberg identified three levels (pre-conventional, conventional and post-

conventional) and six stages of moral reasoning in which moral judgement
maturity is based on our reasoning ability when faced with a moral dilemma,
not by our reactions.
• Freud believed guilt plays a significant role in moral action.
• Social learning theories suggest that morality is acquired through

reinforcement and modelling.
• Prosocial behaviours are behaviours intended to benefit others such as

empathy and helping behaviour. The conditions which tend to arouse
prosocial behaviours are people in need, ties with the beneficiary and a norm
of reciprocity.
• ChildrenÊs aggression comes in three forms, namely physical, verbal and

relational. Physical aggression causes injury unto others by means of physical
harm. Verbal aggression causes injury to others using verbal threats such as
abusive words or mocking. Relational aggression destroys otherÊs peer
relationships through social segregation or spiteful rumours.

„Good boy-good girl‰ orientation Obedience orientation

Acting-out Perspective-taking
Altruism Physically aggressive
Autonomous morality Post-conventional level
Bistrategic controller Pre-conventional level
Compliance Proactive/instrumental aggression
Conventional level Problem-solving strategy
Delinquency Prosocial behaviour
Distributive justice Punishment orientation
Effortful control Reactive/hostile aggression
Empathy Reinforcement
Heteronomous morality Relational aggression
Hostile intent Social conventions
Inductive discipline Social-contract orientation
Instrumental orientation Social-order-maintaining orientation
Metacognitive knowledge Task commitment
Modelling Time management
Moral imperatives Time out
Moral obligations Universal ethical principle orientation
Moral reasoning Verbal aggression
Moral self-regulation Withdrawal of privileges
Moral violation

Pearson.

Prentice Hall.
Kelso, K. (2010) Measuring children's prosocial skills, behavior, and values:

understanding how children care, share, help, give, and cooperate. Lambert
Academic Publishing.
Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach

to socialization. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and
research (pp. 347–480). Chicago: Rand McNally.

Topic  Context of
7 Cognitive
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Compare and contrast PiagetÊs cognitive development and
VygotskyÊs sociocultural theories of intellectual development;
2. Describe the major cognitive abilities of PiagetÊs four stages of
development;
3. Explain VygotskyÊs sociocultural theory;
4. Discuss information processing and core knowledge approaches;
5. Describe the developmental changes in the process of encoding,
representation, strategy, memory and generalisation;
6. Analyse the abilities and skills children use to solve problems; and
7. Explain intelligence, achievement and schooling.
 INTRODUCTION
Raising gifted children is a mission for most parents. Most of us view giftedness in
terms of academic excellence and exceptional attainment on intelligence quotient
(IQ) tests. We feel proud, successful and effective as parents when our children
excel academically. Only a small number of us recognise other gifts that our
children might be endowed with; gifts such as interpersonal, intrapersonal, spatial,
bodily-kinaesthetic or spiritual talents as identified by Howard Gardner.
Ironically, these are the talents that boost our childrenÊs actual success and sense
of fulfilment later on in life and in their career.

TOPIC 7 CONTEXT OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT  143
This topic presents an extensive discussion on the various aspects of cognitive

development. Cognitive development that is deliberated here refers to the process
in which the mental abilities of babies transform into those of a child and
adolescent. Cognition refers to the inner mental processes and outcomes that result
in knowledge. It includes processes such as focusing, memory retention,
representing, classifying, organising, analysing, problem solving and generating
ideas, all of which make their way into virtually everything we do.
7.1 OVERVIEW OF PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY’S

THEORIES
Two theories of cognitive development discussed in this topic are PiagetÊs theory
of cognitive development and VygotskyÊs sociocultural theories (Harwood, Miller
& Vasta, 2008). Piaget suggested four stages of cognitive development in which
children progress from the exploratory actions of babies and to the abstract, logical
cognition of adolescents and adults.
The four stages of cognitive development suggested by Piaget are:

(a) The sensorimotor of babies;
(b) Preoperational stage of preschoolers;
(c) Concrete operation of school-age children; and
(d) Formal operation stage of adolescents and adults.
Vygotsky, on the other hand, highlights the sociocultural contexts in which

children acquire cognition. He believed that the process of acquiring cognition
occurs when expert adults and peers scaffold children within their zone of
proximal development.
7.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

According to Jean Piaget, children build knowledge about the environment by
means of sensory and motor activities. Children make sense of experiences
through organised psychological structures called schemas. Schemas are the
building blocks of intelligence which increase with age. BabiesÊ initial schemas are
constructed from recurring sensory and motor experiences. ToddlersÊ transit from
schemas built from sensorimotor experiences to those based on symbols and
images.

144  TOPIC 7 CONTEXT OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Adaptation consists of constructing schemas by means of immediate interactions

with the surroundings. It entails two actions, namely assimilation and
accommodation:
(a) In assimilation, existing schemas are used to understand new objects or
situations; and
(b) In accommodation, new schemas are formed or existing ones are modified to
fit in new objects or situations.
Equilibrium is achieved when children do not change much as their existing

schemas can understand all the new information received. Disequilibrium occurs
when cognitive change occurs too quickly and new information cannot be fitted
into existing schemas. Once new schemas have been constructed, children
restructure these schemas and connect them with other schemas to form an
interrelated cognitive system, a process known as organisation.
Piaget suggested the following four stages of cognitive development:
(a) The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 Years

Newborns build their first schema through circular reaction. This entails
stumbling onto a discovery, resulting from their unrestrained motor actions.
Once discovered, the baby will repeat the incident over and over until it
becomes an established schema. Piaget divided this stage into six substages,
covering development during the first two years.
(i) Substage 1: Reflexive Schema (Birth to 1 Month)

Sensorimotor cognition is constructed based on a newbornÊs reflexes.
Using reflexes such as grasping, stepping and sucking, children learn
more about objects in their immediate environment. For example, a
babyÊs reflex to suck from her motherÊs breast when the nipple touches
the side of her mouth.
(ii) Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 Months)

Accidental behaviours, mostly driven by basic needs, are repeated over
and over until they become deliberate actions. For example, babies suck
objects and their own hands. They begin to vary their behaviour in
response to environmental demands.
(iii) Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 Months)

InfantsÊ ability to sit enables them to acquire skills in reaching for and
manoeuvring objects. At this stage, babies focus on repeating incidents
caused by their own actions which fascinate them. They are also able to

mimic the behaviours of others well. For example, the baby copies
another baby banging a spoon.
(iv) Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8 to 12

Months)
Babies can participate in intentional behaviour, coordinating a number
of schemas purposefully to solve easy tasks such as finding hidden
objects. Babies at this stage develop grasp object permanence, an
awareness that things continue to exist even though they are out of
sight. They can anticipate events and may use their capacity to try to
alter these events.
(v) Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 Months)

Toddlers repeat actions with some variation, triggering new outcomes.
Toddlers develop the capacity to experiment, which expands their
ability to solve problems. The ability to utilise more flexible action
patterns increases their ability to mimic behaviours. For example, a
toddler can put a shape puzzle correctly into the slot by trying several
ways of positioning the puzzle.
(vi) Substage 6: Mental Representation (18 Months to 2 Years)

By the end of the sensorimotor development, toddlers acquire the
capacity for mental representation and delayed imitation in which they
are able to recall and replicate the behaviour of models that are not
present. They can also engage in role-play and imaginary activities. For
example, toddlers can pretend to be a mother or father in a house play.
(b) The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

In PiagetÊs preoperational stage, children show an extraordinary increase in
symbolic actions:
(i) Progress in Mental Representation

With the acquisition of language, children are able to communicate
their mental processes in symbolic form. Sensorimotor activity leads to
inner understanding, depicted with words and statements. An example
of progress in mental representation is a child who is able to sort few
items according to her own criteria, for example, „Things that I like.‰

(ii) Imaginary Play

Children rehearse and reinforce their recently attained schemas in their
imaginary play, which develops in the following sequence:
• Play is isolated from the everyday situation it represents;
• Play becomes less egocentric; and
• Play contains more intricate mixes of schemas.
In socio-dramatic play, children begin to merge their invented schemas

with that of their playmates. This form of socio-dramatic play begins in
the third year and becomes more advanced during preschool.
(iii) Drawings
Younger children tend to portray their thoughts in their actions rather
than in recognisable scribbles. At three years old, their scribbles begin
to look more like pictures - the childÊs first representational forms.
When children begin using lines to signify the edges of objects at
around age four, they can illustrate their first portrait. PreschoolersÊ
drawings are less realistic than those of older children. Children create
more accurate drawings as their perceptual, language, mental and
physical development progresses.
(iv) Egocentric and Animistic Thinking

A major shortcoming of preoperational thought is egocentrism, an
inability to understand that others have different views from oneself.
Piaget was of the opinion that egocentrism leads to childrenÊs animistic
conviction that non-living things are alive. He argued that young
childrenÊs egocentric tendency blocks their ability to revise flawed logic
when exploring their physical and social environments.
(v) Inability to Conserve

Children are able to conserve when they understand that the qualities
of objects do not change even though their appearance might change.
For example, the amount of water from a short, wide glass is the same
when it is transferred into a tall, narrow glass. Preoperational children
cannot conserve due to centration, a tendency to centre only on one
facet of a condition. Their thinking also lacks reversibility, the capacity
to follow through all the steps in an activity, then mentally inverse the
track and go back to the beginning.

(vii) Categorisation
Two to five-year-olds can easily make sense of hidden features of
objects within the same category. During the second year, children
form numerous fundamental categories. By the third year, preschoolers
can easily reshuffle between fundamental and common categories. As
preschoolers understand their environment better, they create
principles about basic features that are shared by objects from the same
group, thus enabling them to recognise new cases. AdultsÊ clarifications
benefit young children immensely in the process of acquiring
classification skills.
(c) The Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 Years

The concrete operational stage is a key landmark in cognitive development
when thinking becomes far more rational, flexible and systematic.
(i) Conservation
Children at this stage are able to conserve tasks. This ability involves
their ability to think rationally about the functions of objects in their
environment. Older children can use decentration, which is the ability
to pay attention to several aspects of a task at the same time and then
link them together, instead of focusing only on one aspect at a time. For
example, children already know that the amount of water in a tall and
narrow glass is the same even when poured into a short and wide glass.
(ii) Classification
They can categorise a number of objects within the same class. This
indicates that they are conscious of objects within the same hierarchical
classification. This ability enables them to arrange objects into classes
and subclasses based on resemblances and disparities. For example,
children can categorise cats and dogs as animals and roses and
sunflowers as flowers.
(iii) Seriation
Six to seven-year-olds are able to arrange objects along a measurable
feature such as length or amount. Concrete operational children are
able to conduct transitive inference, which is an ability to quantitatively
arrange objects in their minds. An example of seriation is when children
are able to arrange the children in their class according to their height,
from shortest to the tallest.

(iv) Spatial Reasoning

School-age children have a better appreciation of space than
preschoolers. Preschoolers and young school-age childrenÊs cognitive
maps or mental representations of familiar spaces include landmarks.
However, the arrangement of these landmarks on their maps is often
incorrect. Children aged 8 to 10 years old are able to organise their
maps better. They are able to use a mental walk strategy, a clear
systematic direction to get to a familiar place. Towards the beginning
of adolescence, they are able to merge landmarks and routes into their
cognitive maps.
(d) The Formal Operational Stage: 11 Years and Older

By 11 years, adolescents arrive at the formal operational stage. During this
stage, they acquire the competence to think in abstract, orderly and logical
ways.
(i) Hypothetico-deductive Reasoning

Adolescents are able to rationalise postulations and analyses. When
confronted with a predicament, they begin with a premise about
possible factors that may influence the result from which they infer
rational deductions that they can examine. Next, they logically isolate
and merge possible factors to establish which inferences are confirmed
in the real world.
(ii) Propositional Thought

Propositional thought refers to their capability to assess the soundness
of proposals, short of checking with actual situations.
(iii) Consequences of Adolescent Cognitive Changes

In adolescence, a different type of egocentrism emerges. At this stage,
they struggle with separating their own views from those of others.
Thus they develop two warped notions of the association between self
and others:
• Imaginary audience is the adolescentsÊ conviction that they are the

centre of everybodyÊs interest, which makes them extremely self-
conscious.
• The personal fable is their belief that others are watching and
judging them, which leads to an exaggerated view of their self-
worth.

Imaginary audience and personal fable ideation are partly an extension

of progress in perspective-taking. As a result of the imaginary audience
and personal fable, adolescents tend to become more worried about
peopleÊs views.
(iv) Idealism and Criticism

With the capacity for abstract thinking, teenagers become more
uncompromising with their standards. Their perfectionism and
critique causes them to work harder to bring about social change which
benefits everyone.
(v) Decision-making
Adolescents do not perform as well as adults in planning and decision-
making. They need to inhibit their impulses and think more rationally.
Over time, adolescents mature as they reflect on their attainments,
obstacles, reactions to decisions and deliberate on decision-making
process.
7.1.2 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Semanovich Vygotsky highlighted the effects of social and cultural contexts
on childrenÊs thinking. Vygotsky believed that babies are bestowed with
underlying perception, interest and memory capabilities that progress during the
first two years as they interact with their surroundings. Rapid increase in language
skills brings about a radical improvement in thinking and an increased
preschoolersÊ involvement in social discourses with proficient individuals who
nurture their skills in culturally essential tasks. Through this process, the babyÊs
simple thinking skills are transformed into complex cognitive processes.
(a) ChildrenÊs Private Speech

As children play, they talk aloud to themselves using private speech. During
a demanding activity, they use private speech for self-guidance, better
attention and involvement in the activity.
(b) Social Origins of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky believed that childrenÊs learning takes place within the zone of
proximal development, a variety of tasks they cannot do on their own but
can succeed in with the assistance of others who are more skilled. To foster
cognitive development, social relationships must have the following
characteristics:

(i) Intersubjectivity is the process in which two children who start a task
with divergent perceptions reach a shared understanding, which
allows them to exchange thoughts.
(ii) Scaffolding means changing the support given throughout an activity
to match the childÊs current zone of proximal development.
(iii) Guided participation is a mutual effort between more skilled and less
skilled children towards completing a task.
(iv) In reciprocal teaching, a collaborative group comprising a teacher and
a few children will take turns speaking. Within the turn-taking, group
members use four cognitive strategies, namely inquiring, reviewing,
explaining and forecasting. Reciprocal teaching generates a zone of
proximal development in which children progressively learn to
scaffold each otherÊs advancement.
(v) Cooperative learning occurs when teachers stimulate, clarify,
exemplify and encourage children to imagine how to work well in a
group and to collaborate. This will help children to achieve the set
learning outcomes across varied school subjects. More skilled children
can also accelerate their peersÊ progress as long as they fine-tune their
assistance to suit the peersÊ less advanced zone of proximal
development.
Research indicates that when grown-ups scaffold effectively by being

encouraging, caring and sensitive to childrenÊs development, they cultivate
many skills in them. These children tend to use more private speech, are
more fruitful in solving challenging tasks on their own and have superior
cognitive capacities.
(c) VygotskyÊs Views of Make-believe Play

Vygotsky believed that make-believe play involves a valuable zone of
proximal development which provides children with opportunities to
experiment with an array of difficult tasks. Vygotsky saw make-believe as
the main activity in expanding achievement in preschool as it supports their
ability to think before they act. Make-believe enriches a variety of
communication, mental and social competencies.

ACTIVITY 7.1
Natasha notices her three-year-old daughter, Sue chattering aloud as she
plays with her dolls. She wonders if it is healthy for young children to
do so. Apply Piaget and VygotskyÊs theories to clarify why Sue self-talks
every time she plays. What advice would you give to Natasha regarding
this matter?
Share your thoughts with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
7.2 INFORMATION PROCESSING AND CORE

KNOWLEDGE APPROACHES
The information processing approach views the brain as an intricate structure
which processes information, just as a computer uses specified steps to solve
problems. It encodes data from its surroundings, takes it in and retains it in
symbolic form. From the time the senses receive the data and react to it in the form
of behaviour, it is actively encrypted, modified and organised. A variety of
internal processes organise the data, recode it and then decode it, making sense of
it by linking and merging it with other data in the system.
7.2.1 The Store Model

The store model assumes that we store knowledge in three aspects of the
intellectual system - the sensory register, working or short-term memory and long-
term memory. Using mental strategies, we will organise and modify knowledge
in ways that will increase the possibilities that we remember it, apply it effectively
and modify it flexibly to varied situations.
Components of the store model includes the following:

(a) Information is received through the sensory register, where sights, sounds,
smells, tastes and textures are retained briefly;
(b) In working or short-term memory, we actively use intellectual strategies as
we „function‰ on a restricted amount of knowledge. The central executive
chooses what to focus on, synchronises knowledge and selects, operates and
monitors strategies; and

(c) The major storage space is the long-term memory, our established
information centre, which is limitless. Because abundant information is
stored in the long-term memory, we need an effective strategy to retrieve the
information from the store whenever we want to use it.
Two broad aspects of the cognitive system in the store model increases with age:
(a) Children gradually acquire more effective strategies for retaining
information with advancing age; and
(b) Basic capacity of the working memory and speed of information processing
increases with age.
7.2.2 Attention
Attention is vital as it restricts the information that is being deliberated during any
task. As babies transit into toddlerhood, attraction to novelty weakens while
sustained attention heightens. They become more capable of goal-directed
behaviour. Many abilities including discovering, problem solving, social
interaction and communication benefit from this enhanced capacity to focus.
As sustained attention increases, children develop greater selectivity of attention,

an ability to focus on relevant aspects. Older children easily adjust their interest to
the demands of an activity. Children acquire these attention strategies through
gains in two factors:
(a) Cognitive Inhibition

Selective attention depends on cognitive inhibition, the skill to regulate inner
and outer stimuli that interrupt their attention. By removing extra stimuli
from working memory, cognitive inhibition enhances the childÊs capacity to
process information.
(b) Attentional Strategies

Development of childrenÊs selective attentional strategy occurs in four
phases:
(i) Production Deficiency – Preschoolers rarely engage in attention
strategies that are effective.
(ii) Control Deficiency – Slightly older children occasionally generate
strategies but they do not carry them out competently.

(iii) Utilisation Deficiency – Lower elementary school children complete

strategies reliably but their execution progresses slower than that of
older children.
(iv) Effective Strategy Use – Older children apply strategies reliably and
their accomplishment enhances.
One way to tackle the development of children's selective attentional strategy is

through planning.
Planning requires anticipating a series of possible activities and giving each

activity due focus in order to attain a target. The seeds of planning begin with the
ability of very young infants to anticipate routine events. Preschoolers can follow
a plan involving tasks that are familiar and not too complex. Planning helps
children to gain insight on the different elements required and apply them to other
situations. Insufficient executive processing and inhibition may bring about severe
attention and impulse-control problems in children with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
7.2.3 Memory
Memory strategies are conscious mental activities that are used to hold data in our
short-term memory and then transfer them to our permanent memory. Strategies
for storing information include the following:
(a) Rehearsal
(i) Maintenance rehearsal is a memory strategy that involves repeating

information over and over without thinking about its meaning. It is
stored in the short-term memory up to the intended time of use,
without transferring it to the long-term memory. When the rehearsal
is stopped, it disappears from memory completely.
(ii) Elaborative rehearsal is suitable when we want to move data from our
short-term memory into our permanent memory. This form of practice
is efficient as it engages the mind to reflect on the value of the data and
link it to other existing data in the memory.
(b) Organisation involves grouping related items. Young children tend to show
control and utilisation deficiencies in using this strategy. The ability to group
items into more abstract categories improves recall dramatically because
more items can be placed into fewer categories. Older school-age children
are more skilful in applying organisation as a memory strategy.

(c) Elaboration
By late childhood, children begin to apply elaboration, a memory strategy in
which a relationship between two or more unconnected data is constructed.
Elaboration is prevalent among teenagers, who are proficient at retaining
more items in mind while generating meaningful associations between them.
To use information that has entered our long-term memory, we need to recover it.
Retrieval strategies include the following:
(a) Recognition, detecting that a stimulus is similar to one that has been
experienced before, is the most basic form of retrieval. Even young babies
are good at recognition.
(b) Recall, producing a mental image of an absent stimulus, begins before one
year of age. However, the recall of younger children is quite flawed
compared to that of older children. Older children apply a broader variety
of retrieval cues.
(c) To reconstruct or remember complex, meaningful material, we need to

interpret the information based on our existing knowledge. Children
reconstruct stored information, revising it in meaningful ways to ease their
recall. As time passes, children create more conjectures about past events.
This process magnifies the complexity of recreated data, reducing the
accuracy of the recalled information.
(d) Scripts are broad descriptions of what normally happens in a certain

situation such as a birthday party. Scripts are a special form of reconstructive
memory. It is a way in which children structure everyday experiences. By
age seven, children clearly use scripts and taxonomic categories for different
purposes. They use scripts to group items based on routine situations and
taxonomic categories to group items based on shared properties.
(e) Autobiographical memories are representations of past events with personal

meaning. To form an autobiographical memory, children must have a self-
image to be able to encode episodes as „incidents in my life,‰ a milestone
reached at age two and the ability to integrate incidents into a cohesive life
narrative. Infantile amnesia, an inability to recall incidents that occurred to
us when we were younger than three, may reflect the nonverbal nature of
infants and toddlersÊ memory processing.
(f) Eyewitness Memory – Compared to older children, preschoolers are more

prone to memory errors when they describe past experiences because their
verbal skills are still underdeveloped. Younger children may agree with
adults just to gratify them. Preschool children are weak at source-monitoring,

knowing where their information comes from, even within minutes after
obtaining it. Their dependence on total representations leads them to forget
more easily than older children. Nonetheless, even three-year-olds can
precisely remember incidents directly related to them when they are probed
using the right technique.
7.2.4 Metacognition
Metacognition refers to the awareness and appreciation of various components of
thinking. Throughout the early and middle childhood years, metacognition
strengthens as children form a simple theory of mind, a cohesive appreciation of
people as rational beings, which they modify as they gather fresh information. A
second facet of metacognitive research concerns childrenÊs knowledge of mental
activity or „what it means to think.‰ Metacognitive knowledge includes the
following:
(a) Knowledge of Cognitive Capacities

Preschoolers appreciate that people have their own thoughts and feelings but
they misjudge how much they think. School-age children have a more
insightful, process-oriented view of the mind. Ten-year-olds are able to
differentiate mental activities and grasp the interrelatedness of memory and
understanding.
(b) Knowledge of Strategies

Compared to preschoolers, school children are much more aware of various
memory strategies, such as rehearsing and organising. This gradually
improves their understanding of how and why strategies succeed. By late
childhood, children consider connections between factors, how learnerÊs age,
incentive, effective use of strategies and type of task influences intellectual
attainment.
(c) Cognitive Self-regulation

School children are still immature at cognitive self-regulation, the process of
continually checking advancement towards a goal, verifying results and
redirecting ineffective attempts. We can promote self-regulation by telling
children what to do and why as well as by clarifying the usefulness of
strategies, thereby providing a basis for future action.

7.3 INTELLIGENCE, ACHIEVEMENT AND

SCHOOLING
Intelligence is viewed as a multifaceted blend of skills including communication
skills, problem-solving skills and interactive skills. SternbergÊs triarchic theory of
intelligence classifies three general intelligences, namely analytical, creative and
practical. GardnerÊs theory of multiple intelligences suggests nine discrete
intelligences. Intelligence tests were initially constructed to determine the extent
in which children function in schools. The realisation that an intelligence score
does not encompass all intellectual skills has since resulted in the notion of
giftedness, which embraces creativity – the talent to generate unique and
remarkable work. Creativity is determined by the individualÊs disposition,
incentives and intellectual endowments.
7.3.1 Definitions of Intelligence

Intelligence has been viewed as an intricate blend of abilities such as linguistic
proficiency, communication skills, problem-solving skills and interactive ability.
However, professionals in the field do not agree on what constitutes intelligence
and have varied views such as the following:
(a) Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon: First Intelligence Test

Testing mental ability developed in response to educatorsÊ interests to detect
children who might have problems keeping up with the standard
educational practice. The first intelligence test was initiated by French
psychologists, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in 1905. The Binet test
became the foundation for other intelligence tests that exist today.
(b) Raymond Cattell: Crystallised versus Fluid Intelligence

According to Raymond Cattell, intelligence also includes crystallised and
fluid intelligence. Crystallised intelligence comprises skills based on stored
information and skills, wisdom and mastery of traditions. Fluid intelligence
comprises simple information-processing skills, which are thought to be
caused more by the brain than by traditions.
(c) Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory

Robert SternbergÊs triarchic theory of intelligence comprises three general
intelligences which work together:
(i) Analytical intelligence, which consists of information-processing
components;
(ii) Creative intelligence is the aptitude to unravel new challenges; and

(iii) Practical intelligence is the ability to use cognitive competencies in

ordinary circumstances.
Intelligent behaviours involve coordinating the three intelligences to attain

success in life, based on our individual goals and our cultural demands.
(d) Howard Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Gardner proposed nine intelligences:
(i) Verbal-linguistic Intelligence – the ability to use languages well. These

children have extremely advanced auditory abilities and think in
words. They enjoy reading, telling and writing stories, memorising
words as well as playing word games. They learn best by talking,
seeing words and reading.
(ii) Logical-mathematical Intelligence – the ability to think conceptually,

abstractly and investigate patterns and associations. These children
enjoy investigating, inquiring and problem solving. They learn best
through reasoning and numerical games, research as well as logical
and critical thinking.
(iii) Musical Intelligence – a remarkable sensitivity to sounds, rhythms,

tones and music. These children love the sound of music and other
sounds around them. They learn best by using songs or rhythms and
when they are in a musical surrounding.
(iv) Visual-spatial Intelligence – advanced spatial judgement and the ability

to visualise. Children are very aware of space and their environment.
They learn best through illustrations, replicas, visuals, diagrams,
pictures and multimedia.
(v) Bodily-kinaesthetic Intelligence – a profound consciousness of physical

skills and adept body control. These children are good at physical
activities such as sports, dance, acting and constructing things. They
communicate well through body language and learn best through
physical activity, practical experience, play-acting and performing.
(vi) Interpersonal Intelligence – the ability to understand and interact with

others. These children are street smart and highly sensitive to others'
moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations. They have many
friends. They are very empathic and work well in a team. They learn
best through group work and discussions.

(vii) Intrapersonal Intelligence – introspective and self-reflective capacities.

These children understand their own interests, goals and
strengths/weaknesses. They are very sensitive to their innermost
feelings. They are wise, perceptive, inspired, determined and
confident. They learn best through meditation and self-reflection tasks.
(viii) Naturalistic Intelligence – nature-smart with a flair to sense patterns in

the environment and are keenly aware of their surroundings. These are
due to their superior sensory perception. These children have a strong
affinity to nature, animals and natural phenomena, an interest that
often begins at an early age. These children normally like to gather,
categorise or read about natural objects such as stones, shells and
plants.
(ix) Existential (Spirituality) Intelligence – the capacity to engage in deeper

questions about human existence, the spiritual world and issues such
as the meaning of life or why we are born. These children appear to
have a sixth sense. They are highly intuitive, insightful and even
psychic. They exude an inner peace and a sense of knowing and
wisdom that far exceeds those of everyone elseÊs.
7.3.2 Measuring Intelligence

Intelligence tests appraise only a limited array of our intellectual abilities.
Nonetheless, they may be used to predict school achievement, job accomplishment
and other aspects of life. Group administered tests are useful for educational
planning and for classifying students who need further assessment. Individually
administered tests are used to evaluate children who need more extensive
assessment. Compared to group tests, individual tests require proper training and
experience in order to administer it well.
The following are some tests to measure intelligence:
(a) Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley-III)

BabiesÊ intelligence is difficult to assess precisely because they are unable to
reply and obey instructions. Most infant scales focus on sensory and motor
capacities. Bayley-III, which is suitable for children between 1 and 42 months,
taps early language, cognition, motor, social and adaptive behaviours. It has
three main subtests, namely cognitive scale, language scale and motor scale.
Two additional scales, the adaptive behaviour scale and the social-emotional
scale, rely on parentsÊ reports. Infant tests are labelled as developmental
quotients (DQs) instead of intellectual quotients (IQ). They are used for

detecting babies who are at risk of developmental delays. Speed of

habituation and recovery to visual stimuli are among the most useful infant
predictors of future intelligence.
(b) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (fifth edition) is designed for children
from age two to adults. The fifth edition yields composites for verbal IQ,
nonverbal IQ, brief IQ and full-scale IQ (general intelligence). It also assesses
five intellectual factors, namely fluid reasoning, quantitative reasoning,
knowledge reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning and working memory. The
knowledge and quantitative reasoning factors focus on crystallised
intelligence (cultural and factual knowledge). The other factors tap into fluid
intelligence, which is more cultural-free. A special version of the Stanford-
Binet scale has been tailored for assessing children between two to seven
years of age.
Figure 7.1: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales assesses five intellectual factors
(c) Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC-II)

KABC-II is used to test processing and cognitive skills of children between
the ages of 3 and 19 years. It has 18 subtests. It has two interpretive models,
Luria or CHC, from which the examiner can choose from before conducting
the test. The subtests are grouped into four or five scales depending on the
childÊs age and the model chosen:
(i) The Luria model has four scales – sequential processing scale,
simultaneous processing scale, learning ability and planning ability.

(ii) The CHC model has five scales – short-term memory, long-term
storage and retrieval, visual processing as well as fluid reasoning plus
an extra fifth scale, which is crystallised ability.
Figure 7.2: Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC-II)
(d) McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities

The McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities measures children from ages two
to eight years old. It is a fun and attractive test for children, using pictures,
motor activities, toys and a xylophone. It has 18 subtests which appraise
varied functions. Fifteen of the subtests are combined to form a composite
score known as the general cognitive index (CGI). The CGI has a mean of 100
and a standard deviation of 16. The 18 subtests are organised into the six
following scales:
(i) Verbal scale – comprises pictorial memory, word knowledge, verbal
memory I, verbal memory II, verbal fluency and opposite analogies;
(ii) Perceptual-performance scale – comprises block building, puzzle
solving, tapping sequence, right-left orientation, draw-a-design, draw-
a-child and conceptual grouping;
(iii) Quantitative scale – comprises number questions, numerical memory I
and II as well as counting and sorting;
(iv) Memory scale – comprises pictorial memory, tapping sequence, verbal
memory I and II as well as numerical memory I and II; and
(v) Motor scale – comprises leg coordination, arm coordination, imitative
action, draw-a-design and draw-a-child.

Figure 7.3: McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities
(e) Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children

David Wechsler developed individually administered intelligence tests for
children between the ages of 2 and 16 years, which can be carried out without
the need for using academic skills.
Children ages two to seven years are tested using the Wechsler Preschool
and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). The WPPSI is divided into 14
subtests:
(i) Block design;
(ii) Information;
(iii) Matrix reasoning;
(iv) Vocabulary;
(v) Picture concept;
(vi) Symbol search;
(vii) Word reasoning;
(viii) Coding;
(ix) Comprehension;
(x) Picture completion;
(xi) Similarities;
(xii) Receptive vocabulary;

(xiii) Object assembly; and

(xiv) Picture naming.
WPPSI generates verbal IQ, performance IQ and full IQ scores. Its quotient
and composite scores have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) is used to assess 6 to

16-year-olds. The WISC-IV is divided into fifteen subtests:
(i) Vocabulary;
(ii) Similarities;
(iii) Comprehension;
(iv) Information;
(v) Word reasoning;
(vi) Block design;
(vii) Picture concept;
(viii) Matrix reasoning;
(ix) Picture completion;
(x) Digit span;
(xi) Letter-number sequencing;
(xii) Arithmetic;
(xiii) Coding;
(xiv) Symbol search; and
(xv) Cancellation.
It yields an overall cognitive ability, the full-scale IQ. The four composite
scores that are produced from the intelligent test covers:
(i) Verbal comprehension index;
(ii) Perceptual reasoning index;
(iii) Processing speed index; and
(iv) Working memory index.

Only verbal reasoning assesses crystallised, culture-dependent intelligence

while the other three factors evaluate fluid intelligence.
(f) Cultural Bias in Testing

A common issue which emerges in intelligence tests is whether they are fair
to children and adolescents across all cultures. Tests are biased if they sample
knowledge that is familiar to only specific groups or if the testing condition
reduces the accomplishment of some groups. Some authorities justify that
tests are meant to measure achievement in common cultures. Thus, they are
fair to all children. Others think that non-exposure to specific communication
styles and particular experiences tend to reduce childrenÊs scores.
7.3.3 Giftedness: Creativity and Talent

Gifted children who show remarkable intellectual competencies are diverse in
characteristics. Some children have IQ scores above 130, a sharp memory and an
extraordinary ability to solve perplexing academic questions. The notion of
giftedness, which embraces creativity, emerges as a result of the awareness that
intelligence tests do not represent a full array of cognitive abilities. Sternberg and
LubartÊs investment theory of creativity suggests that the ability to generate an
original work depends on the availability of the following:
(a) Cognitive Resources

Creative work relies on an array of complex cognitive skills. It requires the
ability to discover and describe a problem distinctly. The creator has to apply
both divergent and convergent thinking interchangeably, uniting and
rearranging components in unexpected but practical ways. Creativity entails
the talent to appraise conflicting ideas. High creativity is typically
demonstrated as talents or exceptional accomplishment in one or a number
of related fields.
(b) Personality Resources

Creative children and adolescents have a unique style of thinking. They have
an extraordinary endurance, amazing perseverance at a task and high
tolerance of obscurity. They have a readiness to take risks and have a high
level of assurance due to their existing knowledge.
(c) Motivational Resources

Creative children and adolescents are task-focused, intrinsically motivated
to produce high standard output and are not distracted by extrinsic rewards.
Extrinsic reward, in itself, does not damage creativity but creativity can
suffer if they are exaggerated.

(d) Environmental Resources

Talented children and adolescents have parents who are dedicated to
optimising their childrenÊs abilities. Programmes that provide enrichment to
children in diverse disciplines highlight the strengths of highly talented
children who had earlier been judged ordinary or were at risk of failing in
school.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Create your own discussion group. Debate and argue on all of the
abilities that you consider vital for school, job and practical successes.
Which of these abilities are measured by intelligence tests? Which of
these abilities are noted in GardnerÊs theory of multiple intelligences?
Do you think Gardner succeeded in identifying all the intelligences that
are valued by Malaysians? Explain why or why not?
7.3.4 Schooling and Achievement

Information processing skills have been used to improve childrenÊs proficiency in
school and in practical skills. For generations, researchers have been trying to
establish the mental requirements that contribute towards creating a high-
performing expert. Their goal is to develop teaching techniques that will expand
childrenÊs learning and increase the realisation of their potentials.
(a) Reading
Becoming a skilful reader is a complex process that begins during the
preschool years. Skilful reading requires the child to be able to perform most
or all of the specific skills involved spontaneously. ChildrenÊs early
childhood activities which build their literacy knowledge through everyday
experiences are known as emergent literacy.
Literacy development is constructed based on their verbal skills and

information about the environment. Phonological awareness is the capacity
to contemplate and manipulate the sound patterns in a language. It is
displayed in their attention to variations in word sounds, rhymes and
articulation. Phonological awareness is a robust indicator of emergent
literacy skills.

Adult-child dialogues enrich numerous language skills vital for literacy

development. Interactive storybook reading and adult-supported writing
activities promote many aspects of language and literacy development. Lack
of a rich language environment and learning opportunities for literacy are
the main reasons why low-income preschoolers lag behind their age-mates
in reading attainment during their school years.
During middle childhood, processing speed amplifies. This raises the ability
to rapidly convert visual symbols into sounds, an ability which discriminates
good readers from poor readers. Phonological awareness also predicts
reading and spelling attainment. Many studies establish that children learn
best from a blend of two very different approaches to reading:
(i) Whole language approach is a view that reading is best acquired
through natural means such as stories, poems and other
communicative text in everyday settings; and
(ii) Phonics approach is a view that children should first master phonics
and be taught using simple reading materials before getting exposed to
complex reading materials.
At the beginning of school age, children shift from „learning to read‰ to

„reading to learn.‰ This will continue into adolescence as they become more
proficient in decoding and comprehension.
(b) Mathematics
Mathematical reasoning, like reading, builds on informally acquired
knowledge. At about 15 months, toddlers begin to show some understanding
of the concept of ordinality, that is, the arrangement of objects based on
specific quantities. By age four, most children have grasped the concept of
cardinality, that the last word in a counting sequence signifies the amount of
objects in a set. Children experiment with various strategies to solve
arithmetic problems and eventually master the more efficient strategy.
While the emergence of arithmetic knowledge is universal, children grasp

the knowledge earlier when adults prepare various opportunities for using
the basic rules of arithmetic in meaningful settings. In elementary school,
written notation systems and formal computational techniques boost
childrenÊs ability to signify quantities and to calculate. As with reading, a
mixture of the two approaches is advantageous for the child. Solid mastery
of basic math is promoted by fostering childrenÊs ability to employ effective
strategies and ensuring that they know why some work well while others do
not.

(c) Scientific Reasoning

Scientific reasoning lies in the ability to match theories with verifications.
Younger children often ignore incompatible information or distort it to
match the theory. The ability to differentiate theory from evidence and to
examine their relationship using logical rules improves with age, into
adolescence and adulthood.
Factors that support skills related to scientific reasoning include greater

working-memory capacity as well as exposure to increasingly complex
problems through schooling. Many researchers think that superior
metacognitive understanding is the core of scientific reasoning. Reasoning
scientifically demands an impartial metacognitive capacity, an ability to
employ logic to ideas we approve as well as those we doubt. Information-
processing findings reveal that scientific reasoning advances progressively
as a result of experiences that require children and adolescents to match
theory with evidence and contemplate on their thoughts.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Examine the following statements and decide if they are TRUE or

FALSE. Explain your choice.
(a) ChildrenÊs emergent literacy is constructed from their early

childhood activities in familiar experiences. _____
(b) Phonological awareness is a relatively weak indicator of emergent

literacy skills. _____
(c) Research supported the fact that children learn to read and count
best from a blend of whole language and phonics instruction.
_____
(d) When reasoning scientifically, children are especially likely to

overlook evidence that does not match their prior beliefs when a
causal variable is implausible and when task demands are high.
_____
(e) Children as young as 14 months begin to display an

understanding of the concept of ordinality. _____
(f) Most researchers agree that drill and repetition of mathematics

facts are the best approach for teaching school-age children. _____

• Cognitive development is the process in which the mental abilities of babies

transform into those of a child, adolescent and then an adult.
• Jean Piaget stated that children move through four stages of cognitive
development, namely sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and
formal operational stages whereby babiesÊ exploratory actions progress into
abstract, logical intelligence of adolescents.
• Lev Vygotsky suggested that childrenÊs optimal learning occurs through

scaffolding within the zone of proximal development. His theory has given us
new techniques in teaching and learning which transpires in social contexts
through scaffolding, collaboration, reciprocal teaching and cooperative
learning.
• Information processing theory states that knowledge is stored in three parts of

the mental system, namely the sensory register, the short-term memory and
the long-term memory. Attention decides which data will be stored in the
memory. We retrieve information from our long-term knowledge base by
means of strategies such as recognition, recall and reconstruction.
• SternbergÊs triarchic theory of intelligence identifies three general, interacting

intelligences, namely analytical, creative and practical.
• GardnerÊs theory of multiple intelligences proposes nine independent

intelligences.
• The first intelligence test stemmed from an interest to determine a general

ability which predicts school success. Researchers use factor analysis to detect
the fundamental cognitive abilities that promote positive performance on
intelligence tests.
• Sternberg and LubartÊs investment theory of creativity suggests that the ability
to generate an original work is influenced by a blend of cognitive, personality,
motivational and environmental resources.

Animistic thinking Maintenance rehearsal

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Metacognitive understanding
(ADHD)
Object permanence
Circular reaction
Preoperational stage
Class inclusion
Private speech
Cognitive inhibition
Production deficiency
Cognitive self-regulation
Propositional thought
Collaborative group
Quantitative reasoning
Concrete operational stage
Reciprocal teaching
Conservation
Retrieval strategies
Control deficiency
Reversibility
Crystallised intelligence
Scaffolding
Decentration
Schema
Egocentrism
Sensorimotor
Elaborative rehearsal
Sensory register
Emergent literacy
Short-term memory
Fluid intelligence
Spatial reasoning
Fluid reasoning
Theory of mind
Formal operation
Transitive inference
Habituation
Utilisation deficiency
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Working memory
Intersubjectivity
Zone of proximal development
Long-term memory

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational

implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher
Journal,(8), 4–10.
a changing society. New Jersey, NJ: Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (2004). Kaufman assessment battery for

children: Technical manual (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance
Service.
Piaget J. (1976) PiagetÊs theory. In: Inhelder B., Chipman H.H., Zwingmann C. (eds)
Piaget and his school. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Sternber, R. J., & Lubart, T. I (1993) Investing in creativity. Psychological Inquiry,

4:3, 229–232
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In M. Cole,

V John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.). Mind in society. The
development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.

Topic  Language and
8 Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Compare and contrast major theories of language development;
2. Define language and its major components;
3. Explain antecedents of language development and the production of
first words;
4. Describe learning the social uses of language;
5. Analyse the means by which children learn the pragmatics of
language; and
6. Evaluate metalinguistic awareness.
 INTRODUCTION
Ainul articulated „abah‰, her first intelligible word at two months - the very first
word she heard when she was born. As AinulÊs father held her in his arm soon
after she was born, he introduced himself as „abah.. abah.. abah.‰ Two months
later, when Ainul began to coo, she repeatedly uttered the word „abah‰ along with
other vocal sounds. At three months, she started to shift her interest to other sound
production. She started to blow bubbles, attempting to form other new sounds
which echoed of garbled consonants, „bbbbbbbbbbb.⁄bbbbbbooo⁄.‰
Occasionally, „mmmmmmmmm⁄..mmmmaaa.‰ could be heard. She pressed her
lips tightly and then pursed them in an O-shape as she contrived to form a sound
before emitting each utterance. She seems to have lost the ease of reverberating
„oooo..ooo⁄ooo⁄.aaa⁄.aaa⁄.aa‰ which was released so effortlessly the month
before. The mother was perplexed by her sudden loss of glib. She was convinced

TOPIC 8 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION  171
that her flawless production of „abah‰ at two months, long before most babies can
talk, was an indication that she was going to talk early. Such is the complexity of
human development. Like all aspects of human existence, the development of
language competency is simply another miracle. No theory can predict its course
completely.
This topic attempts to outline theories and patterns that have emerged as the result
of research studies on childrenÊs acquisition of language skills.
8.1 MAJOR THEORIES OF LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT
Language, an incredible human achievement, is attained at an amazing rate during
the early childhood years (Aslin, Jusczyk & Pisoni, 1998). During this time,
children acquire skills in four components of language, namely phonology,
semantics, grammar and pragmatics. These skills are then merged into a display
of fluent mastery of a language.
Three major theories that have attempted to explain language development

include the nativist, behaviourist and interactionist perspectives (Pence & Justice,
2016). The nativist perspective believes that all children have an innate language
acquisition device that allows them to absorb any language they are exposed to.
The behaviourist perspective regards language like any other behaviour, which is
acquired through operant conditioning and can be explained in terms of imitation,
practice and reinforcement. The interactionist perspective emphasises language
acquisition which is an output resulting from interactions between childrenÊs inner
capacities and their surrounding environment.
8.1.1 The Nativist Perspective

Noam ChomskyÊs nativist theory views language as a uniquely human
accomplishment, sculpted into the brain structure. Chomsky proposed that all
children have a language acquisition device (LAD), which ensures that language
is acquired early and promptly. The LAD is an innate system, a built-in store of
rules that applies to all human languages, which young children use to interpret
grammatical categories and relationships. It has a universal grammar, which
allows them to acquire sufficient vocabulary, combine words into syntactic
utterances and to understand the meaning of sentences they hear.

172  TOPIC 8 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
(a) Language Areas in the Brain

Research upholds the existence of LAD in the brain. The BrocaÊs area, located
in the left frontal lobe, supports grammatical processing and language
production while WernickeÊs area, located in the left temporal lobe, plays a
role in comprehending word meaning.
(b) Sensitive Period for Language Development

Research evidence supported the notion that the sensitive period for
language development coincides with brain lateralisation. Brain
lateralisation results in specialised functions in which the left hemisphere
identifies the sounds that form words and processes the syntax of the words.
The right hemisphere, on the other hand, processes the emotional features of
language, tuning in to the slow rhythms of speech that carry intonation and
stress. Research confirms an age-related decline beginning around age five
to six in the capacity to acquire a second language with a native accent.
8.1.2 The Behaviourist Perspective

Behaviourism views language development as being entirely due to
environmental influences, particularly through intensive training by caregivers in
the childÊs environment. Learning is explained in terms of imitation, practice and
reinforcement. B.F. Skinner suggested that language, like any other behaviour, is
acquired through operant conditioning. As babies vocalise and smile, caregivers
reinforce them with smiles, hugs and speech. Skinner proposed that language can
be categorised by the way it is reinforced. He claimed that there are four general
types of speech as explained in the following:
(a) Echoic behaviour is the primary form of verbal behaviour of language

learners. These verbalisations include repeated utterances such as:
Parent: [pointing to self] This is Umi⁄ Can you say „Umi‰?
Child: Ooooo⁄mieee⁄
(b) Mands (short for deMANDS) are defined as utterances that are reinforced by
heightened deprivation. For example, when a child is hungry or cold, she
demands for her „Oooomieee‰. Directives such as „Stop,‰ „No,‰ and „More‰
also count as mands.
(c) Tacts (short for conTACTS) are utterances produced when the speaker is not
deprived. Tacts are used to provide information instead of relieving states of
deprivation. For example, a child sees a bear and labels it „bear‰. When tact
is reinforced, there is no need to satisfy.

(d) The fourth type of utterance is the intraverbal. The intraverbal is verbal
behaviour in response to the verbal utterance of another person. Interverbal
is when what one says is based on what another says but does not match it
exactly. There are two types of intraverbals, namely fill-ins and wh-
questions. For example, the childÊs response to the following question is an
intraverbal:
Mother: Twinkle, twinkle, little?
Child: Star.
8.1.3 The Interactionist Perspective

Recent ideas about language development emphasise interactions between inner
capacities and environmental influences.
(a) Information-processing Theories

The most influential information-processing theories suggest that children
make sense of their complex language environments by applying general
analytic cognitive abilities rather than specific abilities tuned to language.
Other theorists blend the nativist view with the information-processing
notion that the human brain is amazingly skilled at perceiving patterns
(Sprenger, 2013). Supporters of information-processing theories highlight
that the regions of the brain that house language also control other related
perceptual, motor and cognitive abilities.
(b) Social Interactionist Theories

According to social interactionist theories, inborn capacity, a strong desire to
understand others and to be understood by them, and a rich language
environment unite to help children acquire language abilities. As babies
strive to communicate, they signal their caregivers to supply suitable
language experiences. These experiences help them link the content and
structure of language to their meanings.
(c) Theories Explaining Strategies for Acquiring Grammar

One theoretical perspective views that children rely on specific properties of
language to detect basic grammatical regularities, for example, using word
meanings to figure out sentence structure. Some theorists believe that
children master grammar through direct observation of the structure of
language. Other theorists agree with the essence of ChomskyÊs position. One
idea accepts semantic bootstrapping but proposes that the grammatical
categories into which children group word meanings are innate. Another
theory holds that children start not with innate knowledge but with a special
language-making capacity.

ACTIVITY 8.1
Discuss the following with your coursemates on myINSPIRE:
(a) How do the interactionist theories of language development differ
from nativist views?
(b) Discuss research evidence that validate the existence of areas of the
cortex which are specialised for language. Relate these findings to
the concept of brain plasticity.
8.2 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE

Language consists of several subsystems, which are interdependent. Four major
components of language are as follows:
(a) Phonology refers to the rules governing the structure and sequence of speech
sounds;
(b) Semantics involves vocabulary, the way underlying concepts are expressed
through words and word combinations;
(c) Grammar consists of two main parts – syntax, the rules by which words are
arranged into sentences, and morphology, the use of grammatical markers
that indicate number, tense, case, person, gender, active or passive voice and
other meanings; and
(d) Pragmatics refers to the rules for engaging in appropriate and effective
communication.
8.2.1 Semantic Development

Understanding of words begins in the middle of the first year. On average, babies
say their first word at age one. At age two, they have a vocabulary of about 200
words. By six years, their vocabulary is roughly 10,000 words. Their language
comprehension develops ahead of language production. This discrepancy is
related to the development of two types of memory, namely recognition and recall.
Comprehension requires only recognition of a wordÊs meaning while production
requires children to recall both the word and the concept it represents.

(a) The Early Phase

ChildrenÊs first words normally comprise people, objects that move, foods,
familiar actions and social terms. Young toddlers add to their vocabularies
slowly, around one to three words per week. Most children show a steady
increase of word learning that persists through the preschool years. Children
as young as two years can link a new word with its underlying concept after
only a brief encounter, a process called fast-mapping. Toddlers need more
repetitions than preschoolers to help them remember speech-based
information. As toddlers form networks of related concepts and words, these
help them fast-map new words. Words for concrete objects and actions are
easier to fast-map than abstract words.
(b) Individual and Cultural Differences

Children utter their first word at 12 months, with a range from 8 to 18
months, depending on an intricate mix of genetic and environmental
influences. Two-year-oldsÊ spoken vocabularies vary substantially across
languages, depending on their properties. For example, the early
vocabularies of children acquiring Mandarin Chinese are relatively large
because the language has many short words with easy-to-pronounce initial
consonants.
Children have unique styles of early language learning. Most toddlers use a
referential style, with vocabularies consisting mainly of words that refer to
objects. Some toddlers use an expressive style, producing many more social
formulas and pronouns. Language style is linked to temperament and to the
type of language the parents use. Language style is also linked to culture.
Nouns are common in the vocabularies of English-speaking toddlers but
Chinese, Japanese and Korean toddlers have more words for social routines.
(c) Types of Words

Object, action and state words are most common in the vocabularies of young
children.
(i) Object and Action Words

Young children in many cultures have more object than action words
in their beginning vocabularies. However, young children learning
Chinese, Japanese and Korean, languages in which nouns are often
omitted from adultsÊ sentences while verbs are stressed, acquire verbs
more easily than their English-speaking age-mates.
(ii) Underextensions and Overextensions

When young children first learn words, they may apply them too
narrowly, an error called underextension. For example, using „bear‰ to
refer to a favourite teddy bear. A more common error between children
one and two years is overextension, applying a word to a broader

collection of objects and events than is appropriate. For example,
calling all women „mama‰.
(iii) Word Coinages and Metaphors

Two-year-olds begin coining new words based on ones they already
know. Preschoolers begin to extend language meanings through
metaphors, which allow them to communicate more dramatically.
(d) Later Semantic Development

During the elementary school years, vocabulary increases fourfold. Older
school-age children expand their vocabularies by fast-mapping, by analysing
the structure of complex words and by guessing word meanings from
context. Reading contributes enormously to vocabulary growth. By the end
of elementary school, synonyms and explanations of categorical
relationships appear. As they transition to adolescence, young people add a
variety of abstract words to their vocabulary and also master sarcasm and
irony. Both the adult feedback and the childÊs cognitive processing facilitate
semantic development.
(e) Influence of Memory

Young childrenÊs fast-mapping is supported by a phonological store, a part
of working memory that allows us to recall speech-based information. By the
third year, children can recognise familiar words based on their initial
sounds. This ability allows them to perform other language tasks such as
appreciating more complex strings of words. After five years, semantic
knowledge increases the speed with which children form phonological traces
and both factors elicit vocabulary growth.
(f) Strategies for Word Learning

Young children decipher the meanings of words by comparing them with
words they know and assigning the new label to a gap in their vocabulary.
Early on in vocabulary growth, children assume that every word refers to a
completely separate (non-overlapping) category, a principle known as
mutual exclusivity. Once toddlers have acquired about 75 words, a shape
bias becomes more obvious. Shapes of learnt nouns amplify the childÊs
awareness to the shapes of new objects.
According to a hypothesis called syntactic bootstrapping, preschoolers

recognise many word meanings by noticing how they are used in syntax or
the structure of sentences. Children have a natural bias to generate word
meanings using mutual exclusivity and syntactic bootstrapping principles.
In addition, the emergentist coalition model suggests that word-learning

strategies surface as a result of childrenÊs efforts to decode language.

Children draw on a coalition of cues (perceptual, social and linguistic) that
shift in significance with age.
8.2.2 Grammatical Development

Theories differ in their views on how children acquire grammar. One view
suggests that children depend on strategies such as semantic bootstrapping, in
which word meanings are used to decipher a sentence structure. Another view
believes that children acquire grammar through direct experience and observation,
in which adults alert them about grammar by recasting and expanding their
sentences (Bates, Bretherton & Snyder, 2010).
(a) First Word Combinations

Between 1½ and 2½ years, children transition from word-gesture
combinations to combining words into two-word utterances called
telegraphic speech. Telegraphic speech normally focuses on high-content
words, omitting smaller, less important ones.
(b) From Simple Sentences to Complex Grammar

In the third year, three-word sentences appear, following the word order of
the adult speech in which the child is exposed to. Between 2½ and three
years, children create sentences in which adjectives, articles, nouns, verbs
and prepositional phrases start to conform to adult structure. Preschoolers
refine and generalise their early grammatical forms progressively.
(c) Development of Grammatical Morphemes

Once children form three-word sentences, they add grammatical
morphemes, small markers that change the meaning of sentences. For
example, the word „dogs‰ consists of two morphemes and one syllable (dog
and –s), which is a plural marker on nouns. English-speaking two and three-
year-olds acquire these morphemes in a regular sequence. Once children
apply a regular morphological rule, they extend it to words that are
exceptions, a type of error called over regularisation. For example:
Zaki: I want somes.
Mother: Some what?
Zaki: I want some chickens.

(d) Development of Complex Grammatical Forms
(i) Negatives
Three types of negation appear in the following order in 2½ to three-
year-olds who are learning a wide variety of languages:
• Nonexistence (remarking on the absence of something);
• Rejection (expressing opposition to something); and
• Denial (denying the truthfulness of something).
These early constructions probably result from imitating parental

speech.
(ii) Questions
Questions first appear during the early preschool years and develop in
an orderly sequence. English-speaking children as well as those who
speak other languages, use an increasing pitch to convert an utterance
into a question. Children seem to produce accurate questions
gradually.
(iii) Other Complex Constructions

Between ages three and six, children produce more complex
constructions including sentences joined by connectives, embedded
sentences and passive sentences. By the end of the preschool years,
children use most of the grammatical structures of their native
language competently. During the school years, childrenÊs mastery of
complex constructions improves, such as applying the passive voice to
a wider range of nouns and verbs.
(e) Strategies for Acquiring Grammar

According to one view, children use semantic bootstrapping, relying on
other properties of language to detect basic grammatical regularities, for
example, using word meanings to figure out sentence structure. Some
theorists believe that children master grammar through direct observation of
the structure of language. Other theorists agree with the essence of
ChomskyÊs position. Another idea accepts semantic bootstrapping but
proposes that the grammatical categories into which children group word
meanings are innate. Another theory holds that children start not with innate
knowledge but with a special language-making capacity.

(f) Communicative Support for Grammatical Development

Parents often amend grammatical mistakes subtly by reframing the childÊs
flawed expressions using two techniques:
(i) Recasts or rearrange inaccurate speech into its accurate form; and
(ii) Expand or extend childrenÊs speech to enhance its complexity.
Apart from the two techniques, parents could also use grammatical prompts
to encourage communication. An example would be to add in the
grammatical prompt "look forward to" in the sentence that the child has
made. Grammatical prompts also include asking children to clarify what
they mean so that interaction can continue.
8.3 ANTECEDENTS OF LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT
Human babies are primed for language development. Their audio perception was
developed long before they are born. NewbornsÊ can hear a wide range of sounds
but prefer speech sounds above all other sounds. They are able to discriminate
minute differences between linguistic sounds, a skill that facilitates language
acquisition. By the age of five months, they can detect sound patterns that enable
them to identify words in speech. Caregiver-child interaction through infant-
directed speech reinforces early language learning.
8.3.1 Prelinguistic Development: Getting Ready to Talk

Prelinguistic development explores how babies are designed by nature to have the
ability to learn or acquire language.
(a) Receptivity to Language

Before babies say their first word, they prepare for language development in
many ways. At birth, babies are primed for conversational behaviours such
as initiating interaction by making eye contact and smiling. They attend to
human speech and produce speech-like sounds. Their ability to make
detailed distinctions between practically all human-language sounds is a
skill that will help them to crack the phonological code of their native
language.

(b) Acquiring Native-language Sound Categories and Patterns

In making sense of a language, babies need to break down the flood of speech
sounds they hear into meaningful phonemes, the smallest sound unit that
signals meaning. The tendency to sense and match a range of sounds that
belong to the same phonemic class is known as categorical speech
perception. Newborns are capable of categorical speech perception. They
can categorise not only speech but also non-speech sounds. Between 6 to 12
months of age, babies have begun to detect the internal structure of sentences
and words, which help link speech units with their meanings. Babies acquire
a huge amount of language-specific knowledge before they start to talk at
around 12 months of age.
(c) Infant-directed Speech (IDS)

In 1977, Catherine Snow and Charles Ferguson coined the term „motherese‰
as being the distinctive language patterns used by mothers when they
converse with their infant. Motherese speech is a form of infant-directed
speech (IDS), which is slow, high-pitched and repetitive, varied in intonation
and comprises short simple sentences.
At birth, babies show a preference of IDS over other kinds of adult talk. IDS
consists of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression,
specifically vowels, reduced speed of conversation, spoken in a higher pitch,
uses shorter sentences and phrases, distinct pauses between speech
segments, clear pronunciation, obvious gestures to support verbal meaning,
simplifies the grammatical and vocabulary content of the conversation and
repetition of new words in a variety of contexts. Parents fine-tune their IDS,
shifting the length and content of their dialogues to fit their babyÊs growing
competencies. These modifications foster babiesÊ language progress in the
second and third years.
(d) Becoming a Communicator

Adults interact with their babies in many situations, especially when they
initiate eye contact and vocalise. By four months, infants achieve joint
attention, the ability to attend to the same object or event as their caregivers.
They look to the same direction as the caregivers and follow the same line of
vision as well. They comment on what the babies see and label objects and
events in the environment for them. Babies and toddlers who experience
joint attention will talk earlier and show faster vocabulary development.

Between ages 6 to 12 months, interactions between babies and their

caregivers begin to include turn-taking and preverbal gestural
communication. Around their first birthday, babies grasp the communicative
function of pointing and begin to point towards objects and locations. Their
pointing leads to two communicative gestures:
(i) In protodeclarative gestures, the baby points to, touches or holds up an
object while looking at others to make sure they notice; and
(ii) In protoimperative gestures, the baby gets another person to do
something by reaching, pointing and often making sounds at the same
time.
The earlier the toddlers form word–gesture combinations and the more they
use it, the earlier they produce two-word utterances, which usually happens
by their second birthday.
8.3.2 Phonological Development

Phonological development involves an intricate process in which children
discover sound structures, experiment with sounds and construct meaningful
words and phrases out of sounds they hear in their social environment.
Articulation of words improves gradually over the early childhood years as their
vocal tract matures and as they participate actively in communication with adults
and peers in their environment.
(a) First Speech Sounds

Between one and four years, children make great progress in phonological
development. Around two months, babies start to produce vowel-like noises,
known as „cooing‰. Around six months, they begin babbling, repeating
consonant-vowel combinations in long strings such as „bababababa.‰ As
caregivers respond contingently to their babbles, babies alter their babbling
to contain similar sound patterns to those in the adultÊs speech.
(b) Phonological Strategies

Children use phonological strategies to help them learn sounds that make up
words.
(i) The Early Phase

ChildrenÊs first words are partially influenced by the number of sounds
they can pronounce. All languages accommodate young childrenÊs
phonological limitations through the use of simplified words. One-year-

olds first learning to talk know how familiar words sound, even when
they do not articulate them fully. Toddlers are sensitive to
mispronunciations of new words.
By 18 months, toddlers attempt to articulate each sound within a word.

They apply regular strategies to difficult words so that these words fit
with their pronunciation abilities and yet resemble adult words.
Although strategies that individual children adopt differ, they follow a
general developmental pattern:
• At first, children generate minimal words, concentrating on the

stressed syllable and its consonant-vowel combination;
• Then, they add ending consonants, adjust vowel length and add
unstressed syllables; and
• Finally, they produce the full word with a correct stress pattern.
(ii) Later phonological development

Phonological development is largely complete by age five. However, a
few syllable stress patterns which indicate subtle differences in meaning
are not realised until middle childhood or adolescence. These late
achievements are possibly influenced by the semantic complexity of the
words.

SELF-CHECK 8.1
Matching/Prelinguistic Development/Getting Ready to Talk
Match each of the following terms with its correct description.

_____ 1. Joint attention
_____ 2. Cooing
_____ 3. Infant-directed speech
_____ 4. Phonemes
_____ 5. Categorical speech perception
_____ 6. Protoimperative
_____ 7. Protodeclarative
A. A form of communication made up of short sentences with high-

pitched, exaggerated expression, clear gestures to support verbal
meaning and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts.
B. The baby points to, touches or holds up an object while looking
at others to make sure they notice.
C. The child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver.
D. The smallest sound units that signal a change in meaning such as
the difference in „pa‰ and „ma.‰
E. Around two months, babies begin to make vowel-like noises
such as „oo-oo-oo‰.
F. The tendency to perceive a range of sounds that belong to the
same phonemic class as identical.
G. The baby gets another person to do something by pointing,
reaching and making sounds.

8.4 LEARNING THE SOCIAL USES OF

LANGUAGE
In addition to phonology, vocabulary and grammar, children also learn
pragmatics, which refers to the cultural rules that dictate what is considered
acceptable in communication. During early childhood, children learn speech
registers such as greetings and words of politeness through social interactions in
which parents and teachers guide them to comply with sociocultural expected
behaviours and routines. School-age children pick up conversational strategies
such as shading and illocutionary intent (explained in the following subtopic).
Preschool children begin to display early signs of metalinguistic awareness.
However, a stable metalinguistic awareness is not reached until middle childhood.
Multilingual children who are fluent in two or more languages tend to be superior
in metalinguistic awareness and cognitive development.
8.4.1 Pragmatic Development

Children undergo certain development to attain the pragmatics of communication.
(a) Acquiring Conversational Skills

Young children who are engaged in a dialogue are able to make eye contact,
reply correctly to their partnerÊs statements and take turns. Preschoolers add
more conversational strategies to their interactions. In the turnabout, they
not only comment on what has just been said but also add a request to get
the partner to respond again. Between ages five and nine, more advanced
conversational strategies appear, including shading in which they change the
topic progressively by adjusting the focus of the discussion.
By age three, children have some understanding of illocutionary intent, what

a speaker means to say even if the form of the utterance is not clear. For
example, when the mother holds up and an apple and says „apple?‰, the
child knows that she intends to ask „would you like an apple?‰ and does not
mean to label „this is an apple.‰ The child thus replies „no, I am not hungry!‰
instead of repeating „apple‰ after the mother. AdultsÊ congruent interactions
with young children and the presence of a sibling will encourage and sustain
superior conversational ability.
(b) Communicating Clearly

To communicate effectively, we must master referential communication
skills, the ability to produce clear verbal messages and to recognise when the
messages we receive are unclear. Young childrenÊs referential
communication is less matured. Due to their egocentrism, they cannot see

their listenersÊ reactions or rely on typical conversational aids such as

gestures and objects to talk about. Around age three, preschoolers begin
asking others to simplify messages which seem confusing to them.
(c) Narratives
Dialogues with adults about past experiences promote childrenÊs ability to
produce detailed, meaningful narratives. Four-year-olds typically produce
sporadic narratives, brief renderings that hop from one event to another in a
disjointed fashion. Between 4½ and five years, children start to produce
chronological narratives. Around the age of six, chronological narratives
extend into classic narratives in which children add a resolution.
PreschoolersÊ narratives are restricted in part by their limited working
memories. Young children also often presume more shared knowledge than
their listeners have. During middle childhood, the childÊs orienting
information, detailed descriptions, connectives and evaluative comments
rise dramatically. Make-believe play and narrative competence support each
other.
ChildrenÊs narrative forms vary widely across cultures. African-American

children often use a topic-associating style, blending several anecdotes and
producing longer, more complex narratives than those of American white
children. Japanese children also connect events with a common theme, using
a structure that resembles the culturally valued poetic form haiku.
(d) Sociolinguistic Understanding

Young preschoolers are sensitive to speech registers, language adaptations
to social expectations. The importance of register adjustments depends on
how often parents teach them social routines such as politeness.
AdolescentsÊ capacity to adapt to a language style that suits their social
context increases dramatically as they age.
8.4.2 Development of Metalinguistic Awareness

Metalinguistic awareness, the ability to think about language as a system, draws a
special interest among researchers. Early metalinguistic understandings are good
predictors of vocabulary and grammatical development. However, full maturity
of metalinguistic skills does not occur until middle childhood, as cognition
progresses and teachers point out features of language in reading and writing
activities. Between ages four and eight, children make great strides in phonological
awareness, becoming able to identify all the phonemes in a word. School-age
children also make strides in morphological awareness. Multilingual children are
advanced in metalinguistic awareness as well as other cognitive skills.

8.4.3 Multilingualism: Learning More Than One

Language in Childhood
Many children grow up multilingual, learning two or more languages. Children
can become multilingual by:
(a) Acquiring a number of languages at the same time in early childhood; or
(b) Learning a second or third language after mastering the first.
Children of multilingual parents who teach them two or more languages in infancy
and early childhood do not show any problems with language development. In
fact, they are able to separate the language systems from the start.
Preschoolers acquire normal native ability in the language of their surrounding

community and good-to-native ability in other languages, depending on their
exposure. When school-age children acquire a second language, they generally
take five to seven years to attain speaking and writing skills to be on par with those
of native-speaking age-mates.
Multilingual children and adolescents sometimes engage in code-switching,

producing a statement in one language that contains one or more „guest‰ words
from another. Compared to their monolingual age-mates, multilingual children
have slightly less vocabularies in each language. But the difference seems largely
due to the lack of opportunity to acquire certain words. Research shows that
children who become fluent in two or more languages are superior in cognitive
development and metalinguistic awareness.

ACTIVITY 8.2
Interview on Attitudes Toward Multilingualism
Interview at least two parents regarding their attitudes toward teaching
their children two or more languages, using the following questions:
(a) Do you speak more than one language?
(b) What language(s) do you expose your preschooler to at home?
(c) Do you speak more than one language to your preschooler? Why
or why not? Explain.
(d) If yes, when did your child first acquire his/her first language and
second language?
(e) How do you teach him:

(i) Your mother tongue first, followed by the second or third
language?
(ii) Two or more languages at the same time?
(iii) That one parent speaks one language only?
(f) How fluent is he/she?
You may include other additional questions as you see fit. Compare the
answers with research reported in the text. Did your interviewees
provide answers that resemble contemporary attitudes toward
multilingualism? Explain and share your explanation in the myINSPIRE
online forum.

• ChomskyÊs nativist theory views all children as having a language acquisition

device, an innate system with built-in rules that apply to all human languages.
This device allows young children to acquire sufficient vocabulary, combine
words into syntactic utterances and to understand the meaning of the
sentences they hear.
• Behaviourism views language development as entirely due to intensive

training by the caregivers in the childÊs environment. Learning is explained in
terms of imitation, practice and reinforcement. Language, like any other
behaviour, is acquired through operant conditioning. As babies vocalise and
smile, caregivers reinforce them with smiles, hugs and speech. There are four
general types of speech, namely echoic behaviour, mands, tacts and
interverbals.
• The most influential information-processing theory suggests that children

make sense of their complex language environments by applying general
analytic cognitive abilities rather than specific abilities tuned to language.
Other theorists blend the nativist view with the information-processing notion
that the human brain is amazingly skilled at perceiving patterns.
• Four major components of language include phonology (the rules governing

the structure and sequence of speech sounds), semantics (the way underlying
concepts are expressed in words and word combinations), grammar (syntax,
the rules by which words are arranged into sentences) and pragmatics (the
rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication).
• Before babies say their first word, they prepare for language development in
many ways. At birth, babies are primed for conversational behaviours such as
initiating interaction by making eye contact and smiling. They attend to human
speech and produce speech-like sounds.
• Newborns are capable of categorical speech perception. They can categorise

not only speech but also non-speech sounds. Parents fine-tune their infant-
directed speech, shifting the length and content of their dialogues to fit babiesÊ
growing competencies.

• ChildrenÊs first words are partially influenced by the number of sounds they
can pronounce. All languages accommodate young childrenÊs phonological
limitations through the use of simplified words. One-year-olds first learning to
talk know how familiar words sound even when they do not articulate them
fully.
• Young children engage in dialogue are able to make eye contact, reply correctly
to their partnerÊs statements and take turns. Preschoolers add more
conversational strategies. In turnabout, they not only comment on what has
just been said but also add a request to get the partner to respond again.
Between ages five and nine, more advanced conversational strategies appear.
• Young preschoolers are sensitive to speech registers, language adaptations to

social expectations. The importance of register adjustments depend on how
often parents teach them social routines such as politeness.
• Early metalinguistic understandings are good predictors of vocabulary and

grammatical development. Between ages four and eight, children are able to
identify all the phonemes in a word. School-age children advance in
morphological awareness. Multilingual children are advanced in
metalinguistic awareness as well as other cognitive skills.
• Children of multilingual parents who teach them two or more languages in

infancy and early childhood do not show any problems with language
development. In fact, they are able to separate the language systems from the
start.

Babbling Multilingual
Bilingual Mutual exclusivity
Categorical speech perception Overextensions
Chronological narratives Overregularisation
Classic narratives Phonology
Coalition of cues Pragmatics
Code-switching Protodeclarative gestures
Congruent interactions Protoimperative gestures
Conversational strategies Referential communication skills
Cooing Referential style
Echoic behaviour Semantic bootstrapping
Emergentist coalition model Semantics
Expressive style Shading
Fast-mapping Shape bias
Grammar Social routines
Illocutionary intent Speech registers
Infant-directed speech Syntactic bootstrapping
Interverbals Tacts
Joint attention Telegraphic speech
Mands Turnabout
Metalinguistic awareness Turn-taking
Metaphor Underextensions
Morphemes Word coinage

Aslin, R. N., Jusczyk, P. W., & Pisoni, D. B. (1998). Speech and auditory processing
during infancy: Constraints on and precursors to language. In W. Damon
(Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and
language (pp. 147-198). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Bates, E., Bretherton, I., & Snyder, L. (2010). From first words to grammar:
Individual differences and dissociable mechanisms (Rev.ed). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Pence, K. L. & Justice, L. M. (2016). Language development from theory to practice

(3rd ed). Pearson Education (US).
Sprenger, M. B. (2013). The developing brain: Building language, reading,

physical, social, and cognitive skills from birth to age eight. New York:
Skyhorse Publishing.

Topic  Family, Peers
9 and
Community
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the ways that families function as a social system;
2. Describe the development of peer sociability and friendship in
children;
3. Examine the influence of different social contexts on families and
children;
4. Discuss the various roles that schools play in the development of
children;
5. Analyse the influence of parenting practices and childrenÊs
contribution to childhood socialisation; and
6. Appraise social contexts of peer relationships during childhood and
adolescence.
 INTRODUCTION
Growing up, we all remember the older sibling who bullied and protected us, our
best friend whom we used to have sleepovers with or the friendly neighbour who
taught us how to play football. Each one of us has had life-changing experiences
in which others play a vital role in, particularly members of our family, peers and
community.

TOPIC 9 FAMILY, PEERS AND COMMUNITY  193
Children are directly influenced by their immediate family especially their parents.
Parents are a childÊs first social connection upon arrival into the world. Nearly all
of our „first‰ experiences occurred around our parents and other family members.
It is no wonder that a childÊs family affects all forms of his early development from
intellectual to social behaviours. In turn, family attitudes affect how a child
interacts with those outside the household.
As children get older, they also come into contact with other external influencers
such as peers, teachers and other members of the community. With formal
education, they spend more time away from the immediate family, giving these
external influencers a bigger role in developing the childÊs personality and
competencies.
In this topic, we will explore the impact of family, peers and community on a
childÊs development. We find out how children are influenced by their family and
external influencers and how they are all interrelated. We analyse why children
may be influenced by those around them and suggest measures a caregiver may
take to ensure that children get the most out of their environment.
9.1 FAMILY SYSTEM

The family system began among our hunter-gatherer ancestors as a lifelong
commitment between a man and woman to feed, shelter and nurture their
children. From their family, children learn their cultureÊs language, skills as well
as social and moral values.
Over time, the family unit has evolved to perform five vital services for society:
(a) Reproduction – every new member would replace dying members;
(b) Economic Services – each family would contribute to the production and
distribution of goods and services;
(c) Social Order – families devise procedures to reduce conflict and maintain
order;
(d) Socialisation – everything begins at home. Children learn to be competent,
participating members of the society through interactions with family
members; and
(e) Emotional Support – family members would help each other when faced
with emotional crises and foster a sense of commitment and purpose.

194  TOPIC 9 FAMILY, PEERS AND COMMUNITY
9.1.1 The Family as a Social System

The family systems theory views the family as an integrated network of factors
that work together to influence a childÊs development. This theory makes the
following assumptions:
(a) The whole (family unit) is greater than the sum of its parts (the individual
members); and
(b) The family unit (system) is adaptive – change in any part of the system will
impact other parts and may change the whole system itself. For instance, the
death of the head of the family (typically the father) would require the
mother or one of the children to assume this responsibility, changing the
relationships between immediate family members.
BronfenbrennerÊs ecological systems theory views the family as a network of

interdependent relationships, within which family members mutually affect one
another bi-directionally, both directly and indirectly. The ecological model consists
of the following components:
(a) Microsystems
The smallest of the contexts in which the child is embedded is made up of
the environment where the child lives and moves. The people and
institutions the child interacts within that environment make up the
microsystems. Younger children have fewer number of microsystems.
Examples of microsystems are the immediate family, childcare,
neighbourhood play area (depending on the age of the child), school and
religious institutions.
(b) Mesosystems
The microsystems are set in the mesosystems layer, which relates to the
interactions the people in the microsystems have with each other. For
example, a parent can interact with the childÊs peer or teacher. The child is
not directly involved but is still affected by it.
(c) Exosystems
Settings that the child does not experience directly (extended family, family
networks, mass media and workplaces). As the people in the childÊs life are
affected by the exosystems, so will the childÊs. For example, any changes in a
parentÊs occupation will affect the childÊs life.
(d) Macrosystems
The macrosystems comprise the outer layer, containing the cultural contexts,
laws, customs, socioeconomic status and ethnicity which shape the childÊs
attitudes, beliefs and values.

(e) Chronosystems
The chronosystems comprise evolving environmental events and transitions
over the course of a lifetime as well as socio-historical circumstances that
affect a childÊs life. For example, divorce is one such transition. The negative
effects of divorce on children often peak in the first year after the divorce. By
five years after the divorce, family interaction becomes less chaotic and more
stable.
Figure 9.1: BronfenbrennerÊs ecological model

Source: http://www.glogster.com/cathy1971/bronfenbrenner/g-
6lpriiij2kqab2o3eocdba0

Based on this model, each component interacts with other components. A child
will be influenced by and have an influence on others. Nothing remains the same
(static) as environments (life events, contexts and experiences in which the child
grows up with) constantly change. Other factors influencing the childÊs responses
to these changes include the following:
(a) ChildrenÊs characteristics may include temperament, birth order (eldest or

youngest), ages and sex. For example, a parent may treat a first-born and last-
born child differently, expecting the elder child to be more responsible while
the youngest child will be more pampered.
(b) ParentsÊ characteristics may include personalities, internal working models

of attachment and the quality of the parentÊs relationship with each other.
For example, children may pick up personality traits such as friendliness,
kindness or conscientiousness from their parents.
(c) ParentsÊ employment – Mothers who work outside the home may have a
neutral or slightly positive effect on children. Children whose mothersÊ work
tend to be more independent and they admire their mothers more. However,
if the mother is employed during the first year of their life, this may have
negative effects. A child below one-year-old needs to build up a good
bonding relationship with the mother. The love and care should be first hand
from a mother. Study has found that this relates to later behavioural
problems and affects school achievements later (Clark, 2010).
Conversely, if a father is unemployed, conflict between parents may increase

and parenting may become less consistent. This may result in depression,
aggression and decline in school performance.
(d) Warm parents will nurture their children while hostile parents may overtly
reject their children. Children in warm, loving environments tend to feel
more secure, have higher self-esteem and do better in school. Children who
grow up in hostile environments lack these qualities and are more likely to
develop mental health problems.
(e) Responsiveness is the parentÊs ability to pick up signals and react to their
childrenÊs needs. These children are known to have higher IQ scores and are
socially and mentally better adjusted. This is because these children tend to
get sufficient amount of attention from their parents and feel fulfilled.

(f) Common short-term effects of divorce are behavioural problems or

decreased academic performance which may last for years. The younger the
child is, the more severe the problems. Divorced parents are likely to shift
away from being authoritative. Divorced parents should minimise the
changes their children have to go through. If possible, they should remain in
the same school and home settings. Older children are advised to stay with
same-gender parents. Parents should not fight in front of their children.
Older children should be included in making decisions that affect their lives.
9.1.2 Parenting Styles and Development

Every family has their own style of raising children which will have a substantial
effect on their childrenÊs development. Child-rearing styles are combinations of
parenting behaviours. There are three features that define the different child-
rearing styles:
(a) Acceptance of the child and involvement in the childÊs life;
(b) Behavioural control of the child; and
(c) Autonomy granting.
There are four types of child-rearing styles:
(a) The Authoritarian Type

(i) High control, low warmth;
(ii) Parents expect complete obedience without discussion, emphasis is on
adherence to rules; and
(iii) Children show poorer academic performance, poorer social skills and
sometimes they show behavioural problems.
(b) The Permissive Type

(i) Low control, high warmth;
(ii) Parents are loving but have low expectations of their children; and
(iii) Children tend to be immature, not very independent and are
sometimes aggressive.

(c) The Authoritative Type

(i) High control, high warmth;
(ii) Parents have high expectations of their children but warmly help their
children achieve these goals; and
(iii) These children tend to be more mature, more compliant and more
achievement-oriented than others. This parenting style generally yields
the best outcome for children.
(d) The Neglecting Type

(i) Low control, low warmth;
(ii) Parents may be depressed or otherwise not interested in the child; and
(iii) Neglecting parenting leads to the most consistent negative outcomes
for the child, including low school achievement, delinquency and
impulsivity.
Steinberg, Lamborm and Dornbusch (1992) conducted a study to compare the

different parenting styles:
(a) Authoritative families result in children with higher self-reliance, higher
social competence, better grades, fewer indications of psychological distress
and lower levels of school misconduct, drug use and delinquency.
(b) Authoritarian families have the lowest social competence and self-reliance.
(c) Neglecting families have the worst problem behaviours and school
achievement.
Child-rearing can be adapted as a child grows older and increases in competence.

As children mature, autonomy may be increased as it will improve their
competencies. Parents who are clear and consistent with rules in the household
tend to maintain self-regulation and control in children. Good communication
with children results in emotional and social maturity in these children.

9.1.3 Family Structure

Family structure is the composition of individuals in a childÊs household. Children
may grow up in families that do not include two married biological parents such
as single parent, usually the mother or same-sex couples. Composition of family
structure is as follows:
(a) Two Natural Parents

Families headed by two natural parents (father and mother) can be found
more frequently than others. These families tend to have the best outcomes.
However, this depends heavily on the parentsÊ relationship, a hostile one
may counteract the benefits.
(b) Blended Families

Blended families are a combination of a parent (divorced or widowed) who
marries a parent or non-parent. Children in blended families tend to have
lower grades and higher rates of delinquency compared to families with two
natural parents. This may be due to previous exposure to their parentsÊ
divorce.
(c) Single-parent Families

This may be either male or female-headed families. Compared to two-parent
households, only female or only male-headed households tend to be at
higher risk for teen pregnancy, unemployment and poor education
outcomes. These children tend to be less socially and cognitively developed,
possibly due to poverty. However, strong links to extended family
(grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins) may serve as a protective function
for single-parent families.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Get online and discuss the following with your coursemates on
myINSPIRE:
(a) Based on the family systems theory, explain how the family
influence a childÊs life.
(b) Review the four different parenting styles and discuss their
possible outcomes for children.
(c) IntanÊs parents recently divorced. Discuss how this may affect her
and how her parents can help her with the transition.

9.2 RELATIONSHIPS WITH PEERS

Most children interact with peers at a very early age, an experience which trains
them to socialise later on in life. During the preschool years, children develop the
ability to communicate with others and to understand their thoughts and feelings.
Some factors that may play a role include different situations, age-mix and cultural
values.
As children get older, they become more dependent on peers when making life-
changing decisions. Children may still consult parents on academic and career
decisions but they rely more on peers for decisions on aspects such as
entertainment, fashion and friendship.
In early childhood, children prioritise shared enjoyment or who they can have fun
with. As children get older, aspects such as intimacy, mutual understanding, trust
and loyalty become more meaningful and important part of their friendship.
Children also use peer relationships to understand what is socially acceptable and
encouraged within their own society based on previous interactions. They often
have common goals and rules of conduct based on their cultural background.
9.2.1 Peer Interaction According to Age

Children begin socialising with peers during their first year of life. The complexity
of their socialisation develops throughout different life stages and affects how they
form bonds and relationships. As children get older, they become more self-aware
and are able to better understand about interactions. The different stages of
interactions are described as follows:
(a) Babies and Toddlers

Interactions between infants such as looking and touching can be observed
among babies aged three to four months. Infants begin smiling at their peers
by the age of six months. Peer sociability is limited during the first two years.
Children with warm parental relationships or attentive caregivers show
more positive peer communication exchanges. Caregivers can also
encourage socialisation by facilitating or arranging play groups or dates with
other children.

(b) The Preschool Years

Children learn to interact with their peers primarily through play. Types
and amount of play may differ according to age-group and development.
As children get older, their discords may be influenced less by toys and
more by differences in opinion.
According to Mildred Parten (1932), social play proceeds in the following

sequence:
(i) Non-social Activity – unoccupied, onlooker behaviour and solitary
play;
(ii) Parallel Play – child plays near other children with similar toys but does
not interact directly with the other child;
(iii) Associative Play – children engage in separate activities but may
exchange toys and comment on each otherÊs behaviour; and
(iv) Cooperative Play – more advanced type of interaction in which
children may work together towards a common goal, for example, role-
playing as police and thieves.
All these forms of play may co-exist during the preschool years. While
children persist to engage in solitary and parallel play during early
childhood, the type of play may change. Older children may play on
smartphones on their own even though they are sitting in the same group.
Non-social activity, such as aimless wandering or standing around peers

with no interaction, is a cause for concern. Caregivers should encourage them
to interact with other children. However, some children who are not socially
anxious may prefer to play on their own. Socio-dramatic play, a form of
cooperative play where children assume dramatic roles, may encourage
cognitive, emotional and social development. Preschool children view a
friend as a handy playmate but do not perceive friendship as a long-term,
enduring interaction.
(c) Middle Childhood and Adolescence

At this age, most children are enrolled in school and are constantly
surrounded by children of their own age. This allows children to exchange
different perspectives and develop their own stand through communication
with peers. A childÊs social skills at this age needs to be refined as it will have
long-term effect on how they communicate with others and affect their
ability to make friends.

As children reach middle childhood, they communicate with peers more than
any other social partners. Their social and emotional knowledge is often tested
during peer interactions. In turn, frequent peer interactions may help improve
their knowledge in these spheres. Children (especially boys) of this age are more
likely to play chase and fight, also known as rough and tumble play.
School-age children have a more complex, psychologically-based view of

friendship which is characterised by mutual trust and assistance. Prosocial
acts such as sharing and helping other peers should be encouraged as this
may help improve their social competence.
There are different views regarding the effect of children mixing or

interacting with those of the same and different age groups:
(i) PiagetÊs Theory on Same-age Companions

Older school-aged children may prefer same-age companions. If a child
is separated into grades based on age, they will interact with those of a
close age. Piaget encourages interaction of children of equal status to
allow them to challenge each otherÊs viewpoints, thereby promoting
cognitive, social and moral development. In parallel play, a child plays
near other children with similar toys but does not interact directly with
the other children.
(ii) VygotskyÊs Theory on Different-age Companions

For schools that do not segregate, children are more likely to interact
across ages. Vygotsky believed that children benefit from interacting
with those who are more competent. Older peers may act as role
models for the younger children, allowing them to improve their skills.
Mixed-aged groups tend to have more socially matured children
compared to same-aged groups (Vygotsky, 1978).
9.2.2 Parents’ Effects on Peer Interaction

Parents can influence a childÊs frequency and quality of peer interaction. This can
be done through intentional planning or placing children in settings where they
may interact with peers. Those with regular informal peer contact tend to have a
larger network and are more socially skilled.

Parents may have a direct influence on peer interaction in the following ways:
(a) Parents may suggest ways to manage conflict, discourage bullying and
teasing; and
(b) Parental monitoring of peer interaction may protect children from antisocial
activities.
Parents may have an indirect influence on peer interaction in the following ways:
(a) Those with authoritative parents are more likely to have a firm foundation
for getting along with peers as they tend to be more self-confident;
(b) Coercive control such as physical punishment and psychological control may
cause the child to have poor social skills and act aggressively;
(c) ParentsÊ own social network is associated with the childÊs social competence.
Sociable parents tend to have children who enjoy socialising and are able to
socialise well;
(d) Children who play with their parents tend to do better in peer interaction as
this builds a foundation for future socially acceptable interactions; and
(e) Children whose parents give too little or too much control tend to depend
more on their peers for social support.
9.2.3 Friendship and Peer Acceptance

Childhood friendships with high levels of trust, intimate sharing and support
contribute to psychological health and competence. Research has shown that
children with close friendships that primarily consist of positive reactions may
experience the following benefits:
(a) They are open to self-exploration and are more understanding of others;
(b) Those with a mature understanding of friendship have more prosocial
tendencies;
(c) Early childhood friendships provide a foundation for future relationships;
(d) Close friends help children to deal with the stresses of everyday life by
having an outlet to express themselves;
(e) Positive behaviours such as cooperation, generosity, mutual affirmation and
self-disclosure increase during adolescence; and

(f) Opportunities for healthy competition increase childrenÊs emotional

resilience as friends disagree and compete more than non-friends. It provides
an environment in which children learn to tolerate criticisms and handle
disagreements.
In contrast, children with no or unhealthy friendships are more likely to be socially

incompetent and anxious. Those with poorly adjusted friendships may experience
certain negative effects such as the following:
(a) Antisocial or negative interactions in the preschool years have been
associated with poor adjustment;
(b) Those with aggressive friends are more likely to develop antisocial
behaviour; and
(c) Those who do not have friends tend to develop maladaptive behaviours as
adults since they lack opportunities to learn socially acceptable behaviours.
Peer acceptance or how a child is viewed by his peers as a desirable social partner,
differs from friendship. In other words, peer acceptance indicates how likeable the
child is. Children who are better accepted have more friends and more positive
relationships. They are often more academically and socially competent. There are
also popular antisocial children who are likely athletic but are poor academically.
These are relatively more aggressive children who cause trouble and question
authority.
Children who are rejected by their peers tend to suffer from the following negative
effects:
(a) They become anxious, unhappy, disruptive and are poor achievers;
(b) They are more likely to perform poorly in school, drop out and engage in
antisocial or delinquent behaviours as they get older;
(c) They are more likely to be victimised and harassed by their peers leading to
low-self-esteem, mistrust of others and suffer from severe adjustment
difficulties;
(d) Rejected-aggressive children tend to be aggressive, hyperactive, inattentive
and impulsive; and
(e) Rejected-withdrawn children tend to be passive, socially awkward and
overwhelmed by social anxiety.

Similarly, children who are controversial and neglected may also suffer from some
negative effects but are also able to experience positive effects such as the
following:
(a) Neglected and controversial children tend to be more hostile and disruptive
but are capable of engaging in positive and prosocial behaviour;
(b) They have as many friends as popular children and are happy with their
relationships with their peers;
(c) They bully their peers and engage in aggression to get what they want;
(d) They are usually well-adjusted in terms of peer acceptance; they do not
report feeling unhappy about their social life; and
(e) The neglected and controversial status is temporary.
Ways caregivers and teachers can assist rejected children include the following:
(a) Intervention with the child to improve peer relations through coaching,
modelling and reinforcing positive social interaction;
(b) Training in perspective-taking and social problem-solving skills; and
(c) In the event that a rejected childÊs negative behaviour is due to
incompatibility between the childÊs personality and parenting practice, the
intervention must focus on improving parent-child interaction.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. Explain PartenÊs theory on the different stages of play and give
examples or situations at each stage.
2. Describe the differences between friendship and peer acceptance.
3. What are the implications of poorly adjusted friendships? Suggest

how you may help a child to overcome this issue.
9.3 SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITIES

Beyond a childÊs microsystem of immediate family, teachers and other influencers
form a community that directly or indirectly affects how a child develops. Parents,
schools and communities should work together to provide information on child
health, safety, supervision, nutrition and discipline in a way that can support the
childÊs development. It is best when a classroom matches the cultural experiences

of a child. A teacherÊs ability and attitude may have a long-lasting effect on the
childÊs attitude towards learning and their academic performance. Apart from
schools and other formal education environments, children may be exposed to the
community through mass media. This is particularly true for children today who
are heavily dependent on media via smartphones, television and computers.
9.3.1 Childcare Centres and Schools

Researchers encourage parents to be involved in their childrenÊs formal education
as this may have a positive effect on their performance, attitude towards school
and their career aspirations. A childÊs education and care programmes may have
values that are in contrast to those of their families.
Other factors that affect how children perform in school may include parental
attitudes and behaviours, peer contexts and their teachersÊ attitudes and
behaviours. Children who easily make friends and relate well to teachers are more
likely to cooperate in class and are able to complete tasks and assignments better.
Children who have poor emotional control, who argue and act aggressively
usually will have issues making new friends and have difficulty adjusting.
Children are increasingly becoming enrolled in childcare centres at an early age.

Research has shown that children in good quality childcare environments may
enjoy several benefits such as:
(a) Cognitive Abilities

A childcare centre can have a positive effect on a childÊs cognitive abilities,
especially for those who come from poor families.
(b) Social Abilities

Children who have grown up in a good quality childcare environment are
more likely to be socially competent than those who have not.
(c) Temperament
Being in a structured environment may lower a childÊs level of aggression.
Overall, good childcare centres have the following characteristics:

(a) Small group of children with a low teacher to child ratio. From preschool to
third grade, children should be placed in smaller classes as it may lead to
better achievement later on. Smaller classes mean less time disciplining and
more time teaching. Children are also able to concentrate and participate
more.

(b) Clean, colourful spaces to stimulate children and keep them interested in
their environment.
(c) Structured daily curriculum - While it is not necessary for children to follow
a rigid set of rules, they should have a clear guide of what they are going to
learn.
(d) Sensitive and knowledgeable caregivers are able to keep order in the
classroom while keeping children interested in learning.
Generally, approaches to education can be divided into the following:
(a) Traditional Classroom

The teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules and decision making
and does most of the talking:
(i) Children are expected to be passive; they will listen, respond only
when called on and are required to complete teacher-assigned tasks.
(ii) Children might feel increased pressure through this approach.
(b) Constructivist Classroom

Children are encouraged to construct their own knowledge:
(i) Children construct their own knowledge rather than absorbing those
of others.
(ii) Learning centres are well equipped; children are divided into small
groups. Children are allowed to choose their own problems while
teachers guide and support them.
(iii) Children are evaluated based on their progress rather than their prior
development.
(iv) Children are more likely to have critical thinking skills and positive
attitudes toward school with this form of teaching.

Schools may vary in terms of their approach to teaching and learning. The
approaches include:
(a) Developmental Approaches

The focus is on the natural course of physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
development. The Montessori method places emphasis on the natural course
of development instead of teaching specific skills or attempting to control a
childÊs behaviour. Children are allowed to freely choose from a range of
activities that may support their own development.
(b) Academic Approaches

This approach focuses on teaching young children the skills needed to excel.
These type of schools are often based on teacher-directed instruction and
activities are similar to those practised in elementary school. Children are
taught to focus on learning or achievement-based goals.
(c) Developmentally Appropriate Practices

This approach looks at individual differences among children based on age,
social and cultural contexts. Younger children are unable to pay attention for
a long period of time, are easily distracted and require a great deal of
repetition to learn a particular skill or subject compared to older children.
Some research findings indicate that children may reap more benefits from formal
education by the age of six compared to earlier ages. In other words, formal
preschool education may not be essential for academic success. In fact, an informal
learning environment at home may contribute much more to a childÊs intellectual
development.
However, if the child is in a disadvantaged environment, intensive education

interventions may help minimise the gap in the childÊs academic achievement.
Early childhood interventions benefit children who are handicapped or come from
underprivileged (poor) backgrounds, who may require special attention.
9.3.2 Mass Media

For most children in Malaysia, particularly in urban areas, it is hard to avoid the
influence from media such as television and the Internet. From an early age,
children are familiar with the use of mobile smartphones for the purpose of
communication and entertainment.

According to Albert Bandura (2006), children may imitate what they see (including
violent behaviours) and the effects may persist into their adult years. They often
observe and imitate what they see through mass media such as television and the
Internet. They intuitively mimic the speech patterns or behaviours of the
characters they see.
Children who watch too much television may suffer from negative effects such as
problems with family, peers and health. These negative effects may include the
following:
(a) Television violence may encourage hostile behaviours and emotions. These
children are also more likely to tolerate aggressive behaviours;
(b) Exposure to ethnic and gender stereotypes on television causes children to
have unrealistic expectations of how a member of a different race or gender
should behave;
(c) Less time spent on reading, studying and social experiences;
(d) Exposure to risky behaviours such as sex, drugs and alcohol; and
(e) Commercials may condition children to desire products that are bad for them
such as fast foods, leading to issues such as family stress and obesity.
Television can also be used to promote positive development if children are

exposed to educational programmes. Programmes such as Sesame Street and
Playhouse Disney are good examples of programmes that encourage positive
intellectual and social development. The positive effects may include
improvements in the following aspects:
(a) Cognitive and academic skills - Viewing education programmes have been
associated with gaining early literacy and mathematics skills;
(b) Socio-emotional skills - Social understanding and prosocial behaviour such
as cooperation and comforting are more likely to be cultivated when the
programme is free from violent behaviour; and
(c) Children are able to engage in more elaborate make-believe or role-playing
based on information seen on television.

Research has shown that the computer is an effective medium to teach

mathematics and reading skills. Certain programmes and games also improve a
childÊs fine motor and reaction time. It has been suggested that parents or teachers
should allow children to use computers as a learning tool. However, they must
set a limit to its usage. Some positive effects of proper usage of electronic media
are as follows:
(a) It promotes friendship closeness. Children who are more exposed to social
media and use it to communicate with pre-existing friends are closer to their
friends;
(b) When focused on academic tasks, electronic media may raise achievement
test scores;
(c) ChildrenÊs ability to multitask electronically improves, for example, viewing
videos, e-mailing and listening to music at the same time;
(d) When children use software such as word processors, their written work
tend to be longer and of higher quality; and
(e) The Internet is a vast resource of information for older children who may use
it as a reference for their schoolwork.
Conversely, computers and electronic media may also have negative effects:
(a) They may also interfere with childrenÊs social development as they reduce
the likelihood of interaction between peers;
(b) Attempting to multitask electronically may cause information overload and
may be an inefficient way to process information, leading to anxiety in
children; and
(c) Children are vulnerable to predators and harassments as they may be overly
trusting.
With proper regulation, media of all forms may be beneficial for a childÊs long-
term development. There are hardware and software that can be used on TV and
the Internet to block undesired materials. Time spent using the media can also be
limited to one or two hours a day.

ACTIVITY 9.2
Television is an effective medium to educate children if properly
structured. Select a coursemate to discuss what would make a good
childrenÊs TV show. Propose a segment that may be shown in the TV
show, outline the characters involved, the activity that would take place
and what moral values may be conveyed.
Present your proposal to the other teams, share and review each otherÊs
work in the myINSPIRE online learning forum.
• The family systems theory views the family as an integrated and network of
factors that work together to influence a childÊs development.
• BronfenbrennerÊs ecological systems theory views the family as a network of

interdependent relationships, within which family members mutually affect
one another by means of bidirectional influences, both direct and indirect. The
ecological systems consist of microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems,
macrosystems and chronosystems.
• Parenting styles can be divided into four general categories - authoritative,

authoritarian, permissive and neglecting styles. Authoritative style often have
the best outcomes while other types tend to have negative implications on a
childÊs development or personality.
• Children interact with peers differently at different age groups. Infants and
toddlers are able to recognise each other but may not engage in play. Preschool
children may engage in different forms of play, namely non-social play,
parallel play, associative play and cooperative play. Older children are able to
exchange viewpoints through interaction and may develop long-term
relationships.
• According to Piaget, the interaction of children of equal status allows them to

challenge each otherÊs viewpoints to promote cognitive, social and moral
development.
• Vygotsky believed that children benefit from interacting with older peers who
are more competent as they may be role models for the younger children and
allow the younger ones to improve their skills.

• Parents may influence peer interaction directly through monitoring or

intervention, or indirectly through parenting style, social networks and earlier
interaction with children.
• Peer acceptance refers to how a child is viewed by his peers as a desirable social
partner, in other words, how likeable the child is. Similarly, high peer
acceptance is associated with positive outcomes while low peer acceptance is
associated with poor adjustment.
• Traditional classrooms are often teacher-centred and may limit a childÊs ability
to explore while constructivist classrooms allow a child to construct his own
knowledge.
• Schools may practice developmental approaches (focus on the natural course

of a childÊs development), academic approaches (focus on abilities needed to
excel in primary school) or developmentally appropriate practices (focus on
age-related differences among children).
• Media in all forms such as television and the Internet can be beneficial for
children if properly regulated. It may improve childrenÊsÊ cognitive skills and
coordination. However, children who are exposed to negative media may
become aggressive and engage in antisocial behaviour.

Academic approaches Macrosystems

Antisocial behaviour Mesosystems
Associative play Microsystems
Authoritarian style Neglecting style
Authoritative style Non-social play
Blended families Parallel play
Constructivist classrooms Peer acceptance
Cooperative play Peer interaction
Developmental approaches Peers
Developmentally appropriate practices Permissive style
Different-age companions Prosocial behaviour
Ecological model Responsiveness
Exosystems Same-age companions
Extended family Single-parent families
Family structure Traditional classrooms
Family systems theory Two natural parents
Family unit Warmth versus hostility
Friendship

Bandura, A. (2006). Psychological modelling: Conflicting theories. Somerset:

Taylor & Francis Inc.
Clark, L. (2010). Children do better in school if their mother stays home for the first
year. Mail Online. Retrieved July 21, 2014, from
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1325770/children-better-
school-mother-stays-home-year.html
Parten, M. B. (1932). Social participation among pre-school children. The Journal

of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27(3), 243–269
Steinberg, L., Lamborm, S. D., Dornbusch, S. M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of
parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting,
school involvement, and encouragement to succeed. Child Development, 63,
1266–1281.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In Cole, M.,

John-Steiner, V., Scribner, S., & E. Souberman, E. (Eds.). Mind in society. The
development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.

Topic  Child
10 Psychology
within the
Context of
Early
Childhood
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify basic principles underlying child development and
learning;
2. Discuss learning support strategies to promote effective learning in
early childhood;
3. Examine ways of managing children's behaviour for learning; and
4. Analyse the role of a reflective practitioner in applying child
psychology knowledge into practice.

216  TOPIC 10 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
 INTRODUCTION
Early childhood education is important as it occurs at such a crucial time in a
childÊs life. Teachers and caretakers that the children encounter during this time
will have a life-long impact on their attitudes towards learning, ability to learn as
well as early childhood development.
In this topic, we will discuss the importance of being a reflective practitioner and
what makes an educator a reflective practitioner. We will also explore theories
related to early childhood development and how we can apply them to best
support childrenÊs development based on their different capabilities. We will also
discuss how we can manage childrenÊs behaviours to promote their learning.
10.1 THE REFLECTIVE PRACTITIONER

As educators, we should have the capacity to reflect on our actions in the classroom
and use that information to create meaningful learning experiences for children.
An effective teaching practice requires committed, enthusiastic and reflective
practitioners with breadth and depth of knowledge, skills and understanding.
10.1.1 What Makes a Reflective Practitioner

As reflective practitioners, we should be able to effectively use our own learning
to improve our work with children and their families in ways which are sensitive,
positive and non-judgemental.
A reflective practitioner can be identified based on personal characteristics, which

may include:
(a) Contemplative
The practitioner should ponder and attempt to make sense of what happens
every day with the children in the classroom. Contemplating and learning
from these experiences will enable the practitioner to actively support the
childrenÊs learning experiences.
(b) Open-minded
The practitioner should be open to new ideas from others including the
children they teach, parents and other teachers. They may want to integrate
these new viewpoints in their classroom activities. An open-minded
practitioner is able to respond to unexpected situations in ways that benefit
the child.

TOPIC 10 CHILD PSYCHOLOGY WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF  217
(c) Responsible
The practitioner is willing to accept that whatever knowledge and ideas they
pass on to the children will often have a long-term impact. Therefore, a
practitioner should be socially aware and mindful of any sensitive issues.
(d) Wholehearted
The practitioner should be enthusiastic, energetic and dedicated. He should
encourage children to think critically and to always ask questions. The
teacher is able to inspire children and may improve their attitudes towards
learning.
(e) Emotionally Restraint

The practitioner must be able to restrain his emotions (particularly anger)
when dealing with children. This would give them time to reflect on the
possible solutions and chose the best course of action. Impulsive judgements
may be wrong and often worsen the situation.
Figure 10.1: Some personal characteristics of a reflective practitioner
As reflective practitioners, we must respect the knowledge, strengths and needs of

the children, their families and other teachers. At the same time, we must
understand how our values and beliefs fit into the classroom and how they may
affect the teaching process.
It is good to keep in mind that all children are capable of learning, so long as we
create orderly and productive learning environments that take into account each
childÊs learning style. A good practitioner is inclusive and fair in the classroom
and will ensure that all children receive appropriate amounts of attention.

10.1.2 Experiential Learning Cycle of a Reflective

Teacher
A reflective practitioner will always think and ask themselves questions. We must
always bear in mind the following, „Think before doing, think while doing, think
after doing.‰ Reflecting on our actions and experiences will improve our ability to
support and guide the children we work with.
We may also apply the concept of experiential learning or learning from direct
experience. Every class is a learning experience for the teacher. The cycle of
experiential learning of a reflective teacher is as follows:
(a) Gather Information

This occurs throughout the day when we are in school. We may observe the
characteristics and behaviours of the children, parents and other teachers as
well as how they interact with each other. We also need to examine our own
classroom environment, curriculum and activities as well as to establish the
childrenÊs needs, learning styles and interests.
(b) Reflect on Actions

Based on the earlier observations, we may reflect on how this knowledge
influenced our actions, what actions were taken and how those actions may
impact us and the respective children in the near and long-term future.
(c) Create a Response

To follow up on this, think of how we may act in response to future situations
based on gathered information. Take into consideration previous actions and
their impact in predicting which response may have the best outcome on the
childÊs learning in and across all areas and aspects of learning.
(d) Test Out

Test out the response that we have decided on. Observe the impact of the
response. If the result is unsatisfactory, repeat the process.

Figure 10.2: Experiential learning cycle of a reflective teacher
ACTIVITY 10.1
Being a reflective practitioner is essential in order to be an effective
educator.
(a) Explain the importance of being a reflective practitioner and how

this may affect a child.
(b) List down the characteristics of a reflective teacher and discuss

how each characteristic may affect a teacherÊs actions in the
classroom.
Share and compare your answers with your coursemates in the

myINSPIRE online forum.
10.2 LEARNING IN YOUNG CHILDREN

There are some basic principles underlying child development and learning. Each
individual learns at a different rate, in different ways and have different optimum
intelligence within a spectrum of multiple intelligences. There are many theories
that describe various stages of child development. They outline what an average
child is capable of at each stage of his life and how the childÊs behaviours change
with age. At the same time, we must also remember that even children of the same
age vary widely in abilities.
Our role as reflective practitioners is to use all theories on how children learn in
our daily face-to-face interactions with the children. Our theoretical knowledge
may be used when formulating the appropriate teaching approaches and
activities. At the same time, we must keep in mind that no particular approach or
strategy is better than the other (Jalongo & Isenberg, 2012). The best approach
depends on the situation and the needs of the child at any point of time. A good
practitioner considers the needs and situation of an individual child and also the
overall classroom environment. Often, we must depend on trial and error to find
the most applicable strategy while using theories and approaches as a guideline.
10.2.1 Child Development and Learning

During infancy and early childhood, children develop quickly in several areas
particularly physical, social-emotional, cognitive and language domains. As a
caregiver or educator, it is important for us to have knowledge of child
development in order to plan suitable learning experiences. We must also keep in
mind that individuals learn at different rates and in different ways. Some children
are more capable of learning mathematics and language while others are more
socially gifted. Teachers should always take an approach where they can nurture
a childÊs gifts and overcome his weaknesses.
(a) ChildÊs Age

All children follow a predictable pattern of development. However, any
biological or environmental condition may contribute to or impair this
development. Certain age periods may characterise the development of a
child. During the first twelve months, a child is totally dependent on his
caretaker. Children aged one to three years may be more competent and
independent. From three to six years, they learn to explore the world and
develop more complex ideas of the world. By the time they enter school (ages
six to eight) they are peer conscious, become more sociable and are able to
master basic skills such as reading, writing and mathematics.
(b) ChildÊs Social Development

Social development may occur naturally. However, children may need
guidance and support to develop social skills such as prosocial behaviours
and appropriate interactions with others. Good social skills are necessary to
ensure that children develop self-esteem and socially acceptable behaviours.
Social skill instruction is more than simply teaching children to sit quietly
and raise their hands in class. While children should be taught to follow
rules, the emphasis should be on teaching them to be cooperative and
accountable for their own behaviour.

(c) ChildÊs Language Ability

Each child has different capabilities in terms of language ability. Therefore, a
teacher should consider the following while attempting to develop their
language ability:
(i) Earlier exposure to linguistic elements at home. For instance, some

children have been exposed to talking through frequent conversations
with their parents and other family members. Other families may place
more importance on reading books. In this case, children with less
exposure to books should be encouraged to read more. Those who have
already been reading should be guided towards more complex books.
(ii) Children from different cultural backgrounds may enter school

speaking a different language other than English (or Malay). For these
children, they may initially be taught literacy (reading) skills in their
own language. They may also require additional attention.
(iii) Children may differ in terms of vocabulary and extent of spoken

language. This applies particularly to children from a different cultural
background who may speak a different language at home other than
the primary language in school (Malay or English).
Language can be acquired and developed through several ways:

(i) Play – Children use language to communicate with others or to
verbalise themselves (to express desire or state what they are doing);
(ii) Reading – Teachers may have children look at books or read to children
on a daily basis. They may learn individual letters and words, parts of
books, awareness that English and Malay writing moves from left to
right on a page, and that stories have a beginning, middle and end; and
(iii) Writing – Children have the opportunity to write daily to express ideas
and communicate.
10.2.2 Learning Structure and Environment

As teachers, we must create a positive physical and emotional environment for our
children. Proactive classroom management involves transforming a group of
children into a cohesive group of learners (Henley, 2010). How this is
accomplished depends on our creativity, motivation and experience as teachers
and the characteristics of the group of children we teach.

(a) Structuring Children's Learning

There are numerous ways to structure a childÊs learning. One concept that
may apply is gestalt, where the integrated structure exceeds the sum of its
parts. A proactive class structure involves a combination of:
(i) Positive classroom interactions, routines and activities; and
(ii) ChildrenÊs strengths, weaknesses and individual differences.
(b) Learning Environment

Children are highly sensitive to their surroundings, which has a direct
impact on their ability to learn. A classroom environment may affect a childÊs
self-esteem, security, comfort, autonomy, self-control and peer interaction.
Good early childhood environments meet the following criteria:
(i) Space is arranged to meet the needs of all learners;
(ii) Classroom time is structured yet flexible;
(iii) Selected learning materials are appropriate according to childrenÊs
ability and development;
(iv) Learning climate is positive for child development;
(v) Children can sense that the teacher cares about them and they are
learning; and
(vi) The teacher connects with the childÊs family.
It is essential that we create a flexible learning environment in which

activities within the classroom are changed frequently. Learning materials
may also be rotated and classroom arrangement changed regularly to reflect
the curriculum being studied.
(c) Learning Activities

Plan-do-review is a child-centred method where children may initiate the
activity. Children are given several chances to discuss plans for play or work.
Following the activity, children are encouraged to discuss what they have
accomplished and learned during the activity. This may be applied to
individuals, small groups and large groups.
Teachers may also use a developmental thematic curriculum that is

organised around a theme or topic. Children may provide the topic or theme
to be explored during a brainstorming session. Upon choosing a theme, they
may also suggest related activities to be carried out.

10.2.3 Early Childhood Education Models

A number of elements are vital to create a quality learning programme for young
children. These may include sufficient and qualified staff, adequate space and a
variety of materials and equipment suited for the intended children.
There are several models with unique approaches to curriculum development that
we can use as guidelines for early childhood education. Each model requires a
different level of teacher preparation based on the different curricula and materials
used.
(a) Montessori Approach

The Montessori Approach is based on a child-centred instruction where
children learn through the senses. It features child-sized learning
environments with carefully designed and sequenced didactic learning
materials that are provided in sequence according to the graded level of
difficulties. The role of the teacher is to observe and direct children'sÊ learning
rather than to provide instruction. This approach takes into consideration:
(i) Children have absorbent minds. They effortlessly assimilate the
sensorial stimuli from the environment, including information from
the senses, language and culture;
(ii) A prepared environment which may be tailored to a childÊs
characteristics, age, stage of development and personality; and
(iii) Sensitive periods: windows of opportunities for a child to learn a
particular human trait such as morals or language.
(b) Reggio Emilia Approach

Education of young children is based on relationships and interrelationships
between teachers, children and parents. The environment is viewed as a third
teacher. The program is based on the principles of respect, responsibility and
community through exploration and discovery in a supportive and enriching
environment. The learning environment is designed based on the interests of
the children through a self-guided curriculum. The curriculum emerges from
childrenÊs curiosity, social interactions and interests. Intellectual
development of children is promoted through a systematic focus on symbolic
representation through various modes of expression or „The Hundred
Languages of Children.‰ The Reggio Emilia philosophy is based upon the
following principles:

(i) Children must have some influence over the direction of their learning;
(ii) They must be allowed to learn through physical and sensorial
experiences (moving, touching, listening, seeing and hearing);
(iii) They must have a connection with other children and with material
items in the world that children can explore; and
(iv) They must be allowed infinite ways and opportunities to express
themselves.
(c) Project Approach

The project approach refers to a set of teaching strategies that enable us to
guide children through an in-depth investigation of real-world topics. The
basic premise of the project approach is that children learn through
meaningful experiences which can be carried out through projects. Projects
have a complex but flexible framework in which teaching and learning are
seen as interactive processes. While a teacher may implement the framework,
children will initiate and carry out the activities themselves. This approach
is mainly child-centred.
When projects are implemented successfully, children feel highly motivated

and that they are actively involved in their own learning, leading them to
produce high-quality work and to grow as individuals and collaborators.
Projects may be carried out with a large or small group of students, most
often at the preschool, elementary and middle school levels.
(d) Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP)

Developmentally appropriate practices are based on the following
principles:
(i) To Create a Caring Community of Learners in which Each Member

Must Feel Valued by Others
Teachers set clear and reasonable expectations. They listen to and
accept children's feelings and respond in ways children understand in
order to guide and model problem-solving. Teachers design and
maintain a positive and safe physical and psychological environment
for all children.

(ii) Teaching to Enhance the Development of Learning

Teachers make it a priority to know each child well. They implement a
comprehensive curriculum so that children can achieve goals in key
areas. They know how to scaffold children's learning with just enough
assistance for them to master the skill and begin to work on the next
skill. They draw on many teaching strategies to foster group and
individual learning.
(iii) Plan with State Standards and Other Mandates in Place Using the
Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals
Teachers use their broad child development knowledge to plan goals
for the classroom that align with state standards and other mandates.
While planning, teachers integrate experiences across various domains
such as physical, social, emotional and cognitive which include
language, literacy, mathematics, art and music.
(iv) Assess Children's Development and Learning in an Ongoing Strategic

Purposeful Way
Assessment must focus on children's progress towards goals that are
developmentally and educationally significant.
(v) Establish Reciprocal Relationships with Families

Relationships between teachers and families include mutual respect,
negotiation of conflict and shared responsibility towards the
achievement of shared goals. Teachers and families work as a team to
share information about the progress of children's goals and daily life.
In a developmentally appropriate classroom, the teacher is a facilitator

who coaches, observes, asks probing questions and provides security
and comfort when needed. According to Kostelnik (1992),
"...developmentally appropriate classrooms are active ones in which
both teachers and students learn from one another." Creating a
classroom which follows the interests of the children builds a
community of learners. Teachers set up the environment to facilitate
development of skills, to arouse interest and to allow for independence.
Classroom rules are few, focusing on ones that ensure safety and
health.

(e) High/Scope Curriculum

Materials and what happens in learning centres define the curriculum. The
environment is designed to enable children to actively manipulate and
experiment with objects, and present their knowledge. The role of the teacher
is to carefully design the environment and support children in exploring and
learning from it. The high/scope curriculum depends on four basic
principles:
(i) Active learning – This requires children to take an active role in
learning, where they will be in charge of the experiences that will help
them understand the world better.
(ii) Key experiences – These are experiences that can facilitate active
learning and help children meet their learning goals and objectives.
(iii) Plan-do-review process – A process that helps children learn through
daily routines where children will plan the activities, carry them out
and later reflect on what they have accomplished.
(iv) Parent component – Teachers recommend that parents are involved
and understand their childÊs development and learning.
(f) Bank Street/Developmental Interaction Approach

Young children learn through direct experiences by studying the
community. Trips to the community are frequent and valued learning
experiences. Wooden unit blocks are standard equipment in the classroom.
The classroom is viewed as a reflection of the society and teachers stress the
importance of children functioning as members of a group (learning to
problem solve and cooperate). Play is a central part of the curriculum,
particularly block play and dramatic play. Independent choice time is an
important part of the daily routine.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Discuss the differences and similarities between the Montessori approach,
Reggio Emilia approach and developmentally appropriate practices with
a coursemate.
Share the conclusions of your discussion in the myINSPIRE forum.

10.3 MANAGING BEHAVIOUR FOR LEARNING

Children come with all kinds of personality types and behaviours. Therefore, it is
not uncommon for some children to act inappropriately or disruptively within the
classroom. A good practitioner is able to identify and manage such behaviours.
Good classroom management is necessary to prevent disruptions from interfering

with the learning process. Less time spent on disciplining will allow more time for
teaching and learning. When a classroom is well managed, you will often see an
improvement in school achievement.
Teachers should focus less on strict rules and regiment and more on discipline.
This can be accomplished by establishing routines, lessons and disciplinary
strategies that teach children self-control. It is necessary that the children are aware
and responsible for their own actions. Children who are self-aware are more likely
to be mindful of their own actions and will think twice about disrupting classroom
activities.
10.3.1 Managing Problem Behaviours

We should search for long-term solutions to problem behaviours rather than short-
term compliance. Immediate punishment for bad behaviours and reward for
positive behaviours may only be temporary solutions. As teachers, we should look
at underlying causes for behavioural problems such as developmental, emotional
or family issues. We must not blame a student (or families) for behavioural
problems. Instead we should take responsibility for classroom control.
We should always be mindful of our teaching methods as these may also

contribute to a childÊs behaviour. Children often act out if they are bored or
uninspired by the teaching approach or subject matter. We should be able to
identify children who are either ahead or behind in class. We may adapt our
approach to the children, for instance, giving different activities to do based on
their current level of achievement.

10.3.2 Good Classroom Management

Bernard (2003) explored the concept of turnaround teachers who are able to
nurture the growth of at-risk children by providing a positive classroom
environment, which includes the following:
(a) Teachers provide emotional support and when necessary, basic necessities
as well. They give the impression to the children that „the child matters‰;
(b) Teachers challenge the children and help them recognise and discover their
potential. They teach children to understand their own thoughts, feelings
and behaviour; and
(c) Teachers give the children responsibilities. Learning activities often
encourage positive behaviours such as helpfulness and cooperation. They
are also able to identify abilities and find appropriate outlets to encourage
them.
Good classroom management can be summed up as the following:
(a) Structure
(i) Teachers establish routines for the children to follow based on their
daily tasks and needs.
(ii) The transitions between each activity should be smooth and
continuous.
(iii) Children should be encouraged to multitask.
(b) Instruction
(i) There should be a balance between challenge and variety in the
classroom.
(ii) Children should be encouraged to participate and play an active role in
learning.
(c) Discipline
(i) Disciplinary action should be consistent and proactive.
(ii) Teachers should be constantly aware of what goes on in their
classroom.
(iii) Teachers must be aware of the classroom environment and which spots
may be prone to trouble or attract attention.

(iv) Teachers should be able to anticipate problems and limit disruptions.

(v) Any minor disruptions should be resolved before they become major
problems.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Natasha has been labelled by other teachers and caretakers as a
„difficult‰ child. She often throws temper tantrums and refuses to
compromise in the classroom.
Discuss with your coursemates why Natasha may be acting out in this
way and what you can do as a teacher to turn things around. Use the
myINSPIRE online forum.
• Teachers should be able to reflect on their actions in the classroom and use the
information to create a meaningful learning experience for their students.
• Characteristics of a reflective practitioner include open-mindedness,

responsible, wholeheartedness, emotionally restraint and contemplative.
• Teachers should take into consideration the knowledge, strengths and needs
of each child.
• Reflective means always thinking and asking questions.
• Experiential learning means learning from experience and follows the cycle of
gathering information, reflecting on actions, creating a response and testing
out.
• A childÊs development may be characterised by the age of a child. As children

get older they become more socially aware and are able to develop basic skills.
• Proactive classroom management involves transforming a group of children

into a cohesive group of learners.
• A good classroom takes into consideration space, time, learning materials,

learning climate, teacher relationship with children and teacher relationship
with parents.

• Models with unique approaches to curriculum development that we can use

as guidelines for early childhood education include the Montessori approach,
project approach, developmentally appropriate practices (DAP), Reggio Emilia
approach and high/scope curriculum.
• Less time spent on disciplining students will allow for more time for teaching
and learning which translates into better achievement.
• Discipline can be implemented through establishing routines, lessons and

disciplinary strategies that teach children self-control.
• Immediate punishment for bad behaviours and reward for positive behaviours
may only be temporary solutions.
• The teacher should look at underlying causes for behavioural problems such
as developmental, emotional or family issues.
• Teaching methods may also contribute to a childÊs behaviour. Children may

act out if they are bored or uninspired.
• Turnaround teachers nurture the growth of at-risk children by providing a

positive classroom environment, emotional support, challenge and
responsibilities.
Developmentally appropriate Open-mindedness

practices
Proactive
Classroom management
Reflective
Discipline
Reggio Emilia approach
Emotional restraint
Responsible
Experiential learning
The project approach
Gestalt
Turnaround teachers
High/scope curriculum
Wholeheartedness
Montessori approach

Bernard, B. (2003). Turnaround teachers and schools. In B. Williams (Ed.) Closing

the achievement gap: A vision for changing beliefs and practices (2nd ed.).
ASCD.
Henley, M. (2010). Classroom management: A proactive approach (2nd ed.).

Boston, MA: Pearson.
Jalongo, M. R., & Isenberg, J. R. (2012). Exploring your role in early childhood
education (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Kostelnik, M. (1992). Myths associated with developmentally appropriate

programs. Young Children, May, 17–23.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-78012140
Fax No.: 03-78875911 / 03-78875966


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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Dr Rohani Abdullah

Moderator: Dr Azhar Md Adnan

Enhancer: Dr Wirawani Kamarulzaman

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2014

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 What is Child Psychology? 1

Topic 2 Biological and Environmental Factors 23

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 Early Capacities in Infancy 45

Topic 4 Physical Development and Health 67

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 The Social and Emotional World of Children 93

Topic 6 Context of Moral Development 119

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 Context of Cognitive Development 142

Topic 8 Language and Communication 170

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 9 Family, Peers and Community 192

Topic 10 Child Psychology within the Context of Early Childhood 215

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Topic 1 defines the concept of child psychology as well as introduces theoretical

Topic 2 highlights the controversy between the impact of biological and

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 deliberates on the context of moral development, paying special attention

Topic 7 examines the context of cognitive development, comparing contributions

Topic 8 evaluates language and communication, focussing on the theories of

Topic 9 analyses the influences of families, peers and community on child

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

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Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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Bentham, S. (2011). A Teaching assistantÊs guide to child development and

Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development (9th ed.). Pearson.

Feldman, R. S. (2014). Child development: A topical approach. Prentice Hall.

Parke, R. D., & Gauvain, M. (2009). Child psychology: A contemporary viewpoint

Snowman, J. (2012). Psychology applied to teaching. (13th ed.). Wadsworth

Ellis, J., (2006). Educational psychology: Developing learners. Pearson Education.

Martin, C. L. (2006). Discovering child development. Pearson Education.

Santrock, J. W. (2008). Educational psychology. (3rd ed.). Hill International

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

As I think of those school days, it brings to mind B.F. SkinnerÊs operant

Contemporary thoughts suggest the use of positive guidance instead of punitive

1.1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF CHILD

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Changes within these domains vary widely, according to childrenÊs periods of

1.1.1 Domains in Child Psychology

(a) Physical development includes changes in body size, proportions,

(b) Socio-emotional development refers to changes in emotional