Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
National Institute of Justice
DEC. 05
Research for P r a c t i c e
Sexual Assault on Campus: What Colleges and
Universities Are Doing About It
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij
U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
810 Seventh Street N.W.
Washington, DC 20531
Alberto R. Gonzales
Attorney General
Regina B. Schofield
Assistant Attorney General
Glenn R. Schmitt
Acting Director, National Institute of Justice
This and other publications and products
of the National Institute of Justice can be
found at:
National Institute of Justice
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij
Office of Justice Programs
Partnerships for Safer Communities
www.ojp.usdoj.gov
DEC. 05
Sexual Assault on Campus:
What Colleges and Universities
Are Doing About It
This Research for Practice
is based on the authors’
congressionally mandated
report, Campus Sexual
Assault: How America’s
Institutions of Higher
Education Respond,
submitted to the National
Institute of Justice,
October 2002,
available online at
www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/
nij/grants/196676.pdf.
Findings and conclusions of the research reported here are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the
U.S. Department of Justice.
The research discussed in this publication was conducted under National
Institute of Justice grant number 99–WA–VX–0008.
NCJ 205521
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
ABOUT THIS REPORT
Sexual assault on the Nation’s part, why these crimes are
college campuses has been underreported. Reporting pro
receiving more attention late cedures were a special con
ly. Schools are not the safe cern of the study. Individual
havens they once appeared and institutional barriers to
to be; college women are at reporting were identified.
higher risk for sexual assault
than their noncollegebound Schools are complying with
peers.1 Congress has enacted Federal law unevenly. Overall,
several laws requiring schools 4year and historically black
to disclose their security pro institutions are doing better
cedures, report crime data, than other schools. Most
and ensure victims’ rights. In schools comply with the
1999, it asked the National requirement to report crime
Institute of Justice to study data, but only about a third do
school compliance with Fed so in a way fully consistent
eral law. The resulting re with Federal laws. Anony
search report provides a mous reporting, which
comprehensive benchmark of encourages victims to come
sexual assault policy on the forward, is an option at just
Nation’s campuses. This Re half of the Nation’s schools.
search for Practice presents Schools also provide basic
key findings from the report. resources unevenly. Fewer
than half the schools studied
inform students how to file
What did the criminal charges.
researchers find? These findings show that
Sexual assault is widely con schools need guidance. The
sidered to be the most researchers identify promising
underreported violent crime practices, recommend devel
in America. Most sexual opment of model policies and
assaults on campus are com guidelines, and suggest areas
mitted by an acquaintance of for more research.2
the victim, which explains, in
ii
S E X U A L A S S A U LT O N C A M P U S
Heather M. Karjane, Bonnie S. Fisher, and Francis T. Cullen
Sexual Assault on Campus:
What Colleges and Universities
Are Doing About It
1
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
in some areas but must con translates into the disturbing
tinue efforts to increase figure of 35 such crimes for
student safety and accounta every 1,000 women students.
bility. After summarizing what For a campus with 10,000
is known about the nature women students, the number
and extent of sexual assault could reach 350. If the per
on campus, the researchers centage is projected to a full
highlighted findings regarding calendar year, the proportion
response policies and proce rises to nearly 5 percent of
dures; reporting options; bar college women. When pro
riers and facilitators; reporter jected over a nowtypical
training and prevention pro 5year college career, one in
gramming; victim resources; five young women experi
and investigation, adjudica ences rape during college.5
tion, and campus sanctions.
The study’s baseline informa Counter to widespread
tion can be used to measure strangerrape myths, in the
progress in how institutions vast majority of these
of higher education respond crimes—between 80 and 90
to sexual assault. percent—victim and assailant
know each other.6 In fact, the
more intimate the relation
The scope of the ship, the more likely it is for
problem a rape to be completed rather
than attempted.7 Half of all
Administrators want their student victims do not label
campuses to be safe havens the incident “rape.”8 This is
for students as they pursue particularly true when no
their education and mature weapon was used, no sign of
intellectually and socially. But physical injury is evident, and
institutions of higher educa alcohol was involved—factors
tion are by no means crime commonly associated with
free; women students face campus acquaintance rape.9
a high risk for sexual assault. Given the extent of non
stranger rape on campus, it is
Just under 3 percent of all no surprise that the majority
college women become vic of victimized women do not
tims of rape (either complet define their experience as a
ed or attempted) in a given rape.
9month academic year. On
first glance, the risk seems These reasons help explain
low, but the percentage why campus sexual assault is
2
S E X U A L A S S A U LT O N C A M P U S
not well reported. Less than
5 percent of completed and For definitions and explanation of
terminology such as “acquain
attempted rapes of college
tance rape,” see Karjane et al.,
students are brought to the Campus Sexual Assault: How
attention of campus authori America’s Institutions of Higher
ties and/or law enforcement.10 Education Respond, Oct. 2002,
Failure to recognize and NCJ 196676: 2–3; for an analysis
report the crime not only may of how colleges and universities
result in underestimating the define sexual assault, see chap
extent of the problem, but ter 3.
also may affect whether vic
tims seek medical care and
other professional help. Thus, Definitions, even of such
a special concern of the terms as “campus” and “stu
study was what schools are dent,” are often a challenge
doing to encourage victims to and contribute to inconsis
come forward. tency in calculating the
number of reported sexual
assaults. Only 37 percent of
Federal law and the the schools studied report
their statistics in the required
schools’ response manner; for example, most
Institutions of higher educa schools failed to distinguish
tion vary widely in how well forcible and nonforcible sex
they comply with Clery Act offenses in their reports as
mandates and respond to required by the Clery Act.
sexual victimization. Overall,
a large proportion of the
schools studied—close to 80 The issues and
percent—submit the annual the findings
security report required by
the Act to the U.S. Depart Congress specified the is
ment of Education; more sues to be investigated
than twothirds include their (see “Study Design”). Key
crime statistics in the report. areas of concern were
Yet, according to a General whether schools have a
Accounting Office study, written sexual assault re
schools find it difficult to sponse policy; whether and
consistently interpret and how they define sexual mis
apply the Federal reporting conduct; who on campus
requirements, such as decid is trained to respond to
ing which incidents to cite in reports of sexual assault;
the annual report, classifying how students can report
crimes, and the like.11 sexual victimization; what
3
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
STUDY DESIGNa
In 1999, Congress mandated investigation of nine issues concerning how colleges and univer
sities are responding to campus sexual assault. Most of these issues are discussed in this
Research for Practice.b
To collect the mandated information, the researchers studied a random sample of schools in
the United States and Puerto Rico that receive student financial aid from the Federal Govern
ment and therefore must comply with the Clery Act. Almost 2,500 schools were in the sample,
including all Historically Black Colleges and Universities and all Tribal Colleges and Universi
ties. Schools were classified using the U.S. Department of Education’s classification system.
Results were reported by school type. The policy analysis was derived from almost twothirds
of the dataset of results from 4year and 2year public institutions and 4year private nonprofit
schools.
The researchers used three methods to study how schools are complying:
❋ Content analysis of the written sexual assault policies of the schools.
❋ A survey of campus administrators that asked about the issues mandated for study.
❋ Using 29 criteria, onsite examination of 8 schools found to use promising practices in
addressing sexual assault on campus.
The eight schools with promising practices were:
❋ Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington.
❋ Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania.
❋ Lewis & Clark College, Portland, Oregon.
1p
❋ Metropolitan Community College, Omaha, Nebraska.
2p3
❋ Oklahoma State University, Stillwater.
❋ University of California at Los Angeles.
❋ University of California at Santa Cruz.
❋ West Virginia State College, Institute, West Virginia.
Response rates varied by type of institution. Overall, 1,015 schools sent their policies, and 1,001
campus administrators participated in the survey.
Notes
a. A complete description of the study methodology is at Karjane, H.M., B.S. Fisher, and F.T. Cullen, Campus
Sexual Assault: How America’s Institutions of Higher Education Respond, final report to NIJ, Oct. 2002, NCJ 196676:
chapter 2.
b. A list of the nine issues mandated for study can be found at ibid.: 12–13.
4
S E X U A L A S S A U LT O N C A M P U S
resources are available to vic definitions of sexual assault.
tims; and what investigation The researchers found:
and adjudication procedures
are followed once a report is ❋ States have their own crim
made. Researchers also inal codes; thus, definitions
examined policies that en of acts that constitute sex
courage or discourage report ual assault vary.
ing and some promising
practices (see “Promising ❋ Like State definitions,
Practices” on page 12). school definitions vary
widely.
Definitions of ❋ A slight majority of the
schools studied mentioned
sexual assault acquaintance rape in their
Although the Clery Act sexual assault response
instructs schools to use the policy.
FBI’s Uniform Crime Report
crime classification system as
the basis for their annual sta Sexual assault
tistics, schools may also response policy
define forms of “sexual mis
A formal policy that address
conduct” in their student
es sexual assault on campus
code of conduct. Clear
is a statement of the school’s
behavioral definitions—
commitment to recognizing
including definitions of con
and dealing with the prob
sent and scenarios with
lem. To meet the intent of
nonstrangers—can help vic
the Federal laws, the policy
tims decide whether what
should be widely and easily
happened to them should be
accessible to students.
reported to campus or law
enforcement authorities. This Congress asked whether
strategy, used at schools with the schools have and dis
promising practices, directly seminate a sexual assault
challenges strangerrape response policy. The re
myths that disguise the prob searchers found:
lem and provide a false sense
of safety. ❋ Traditional 4year public and
private nonprofit schools—
Congress asked about the which educate the majority
prevalence and publication of students—are the most
of school and State likely to have a written sex
ual assault response policy.
5
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
❋ About half the schools ❋ Overall, only about 4 in 10
studied spell out specific schools offer any sexual
policy goals; for example, assault training. What train
not tolerating sexual of ing is available is usually
fenses on campus or pur for resident advisers and
suing disciplinary action student security officers,
against perpetrators. This not the general student
is more common in 4year population.
institutions and Historically
Black Colleges and Univer ❋ Of the schools that provide
sities (HBCUs). training, about half train
their faculty and staff in the
school’s response policies
Who is trained to and procedures.
respond? ❋ Fewer than two in five
Students who are sexually schools train campus securi
assaulted are most likely ty personnel, even though
to tell their friends first.12 formal complaints are likely
Research shows that social to be reported to campus
support from friends—and security. The majority of 4
other “first responders”— year public institutions and
can help the victim recognize HBCUs require this training.
what happened as a violation
of the school’s sexual mis
conduct policy and potentially How do students
a crime and encourage the report an assault?
victim to report it to the
authorities.13 For this reason If students know what to
it makes sense for schools do in the event of a sexual
to train students and staff in assault (for example, whom
what to do if someone dis to notify) and what steps
closes that she or he has the school will take, they are
been sexually assaulted. more likely to feel reassured
and report to authorities. The
Congress wanted information probability of reporting is also
about who is trained to re linked to concerns about con
spond to sexual assault and fidentiality. Victims may be
how much training is offered. embarrassed or fear reprisal;
The researchers found: and victims who may have
been drinking before the
assault might fear sanctions
6
S E X U A L A S S A U LT O N C A M P U S
for violating campus policy on the policies of less than
alcohol use. Confidential half the schools, although,
reporting can be essential in following the pattern, the
these instances. Some vic figures for 4year institu
tims prefer anonymous tions are higher.
reporting, which allows the
crime to be “counted,” while
letting the victim decide Prevention efforts and
whether to file an official resources for victims
report.
Services for victims are
Congress asked what on and essential, but prevention is
offcampus reporting options also key. Many 4year col
are available to victims and leges and universities offer
what procedures the schools a variety of educational
follow after an assault. The programs geared to preven
researchers found: tion, including rape aware
ness and self defense. Many
❋ Although 84 percent of the schools also offer a combina
schools studied offer confi tion of on and offcampus
dential reporting, only 46 services.
percent offer anonymous
reporting. Congress asked what re
sources are available for
❋ Contact procedures are victim safety, support, and
specified in the sexual health. The researchers
assault response policies found:
of almost three in four
schools, with campus or ❋ About 6 in 10 schools offer
local police the most fre safetyrelated educational
quently named contact. programs. Of the programs
offered by these schools,
❋ Even though almost half of 6 in 10 address sexual
schools with a contact pro assault.
cedure listed a phone num
ber, less than half provide ❋ Of the schools that offer
service after business general educational pro
hours. grams, less than onethird
include acquaintance rape
❋ Information about filing prevention in the program.
criminal charges and cam Even in 4year public
pus reports is included in schools, less than half
do so.
7
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
❋ Only about onefourth of about their confidentiality.
schools provide residence Others may not want to par
hall staff with safety train ticipate in adjudication be
ing, have security staff on cause they want to avoid
duty in the residences, or public disclosure; they are
require overnight guests not certain they can prove
to register. a crime occurred or that the
perpetrator will be punished.
❋ For students who have Nonstranger rapists are rarely
been sexually assaulted, convicted of their crimes.14
mental health crisis coun
seling is the most widely Congress asked what poli
available service. cies and practices may pre
vent reporting or obstruct
justice. The researchers
What discourages found:
victims from reporting?
❋ Campus policies on drug
The small proportion of sexu and alcohol use have been
al assault victims who report adopted at threefourths
the offense to authorities of the schools studied.
attests to the existence of At more than half of these
multiple reporting barriers. schools, administrators
say these policies inhibit
When schools adopt sexual reporting.
assault response policies,
their goal is to protect victims ❋ A majority of campus
and the general student pop administrators believe that
ulation by holding the perpe requiring victims to partici
trator accountable while also pate in adjudication dis
protecting the rights of the courages reporting; about
accused. But any policy that onethird of schools still
compromises or restricts have such a policy.
the victim’s ability to make
informed choices about how ❋ Campuses may uninten
to proceed may deter report tionally condone victim
ing. At the individual level, blaming by overemphasizing
some victims do not initially the victim’s responsibility
recognize the assault as a to avoid sexual assault
crime, or they have concerns without balancing messages
8
S E X U A L A S S A U LT O N C A M P U S
stressing the perpetrator’s reporting. The researchers
responsibility for commit found:
ting a crime and strategies
bystanders can use to ❋ Services for victims, writ
intervene. ten law enforcement
response protocols, coordi
❋ A trauma response, which nation between campus
may involve high levels of and community, new stu
psychological distress, dent orientations, and
some of it triggered by campuswide publicity
shame and selfblame, about past crimes are seen
inhibits reporting. by administrators as facili
tating reporting.
❋ The desire to avoid the
perceived—and real— ❋ Administrators at almost
stigma of having been 90 percent of the schools
victimized also inhibits studied believe that preven
reporting. tion programs targeting ath
letes and students in the
Greek system encourage
What promotes reporting. Only about one in
reporting? five schools offers such pro
grams, however, although
Because barriers to reporting over half of 4year public
exist at many levels, a single schools have them.
policy or approach, such as
allowing confidential report ❋ As noted earlier, most ad
ing, is inadequate. The opti ministrators believe that a
mum approach to encourage policy allowing confidential
reporting would be to com and anonymous reporting
bine a number of strategies, encourages both victims
including making campus and other students to
staff more responsive to report assaults.
reports of sexual assault and
offering prevention education ❋ Most administrators con
for the general student popu sider sexual assault peer
lation as well as for specific educators to be conducive
groups. to reporting, but only about
one in five schools offers
Congress asked what poli this type of program. Again,
cies aid in encouraging
9
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
4year public institutions punishing perpetrators. The
and HBCUs are more likely researchers found:
to have such programs.
❋ Most reports of sexual
Although campus administra assault on campus are
tors believe these policies dealt with through binding
encourage reporting, few administrative actions, such
have adopted them. as nocontact orders.
❋ An informationgathering
Investigating and or investigative process is
punishing victimizers used at only onefourth of
schools overall, only one
In responding to and adjudi fourth of 4year private non
cating reports of sexual as profit schools, and less
sault, schools need to balance than half of 4year public
the victim’s need for justice schools.
with the rights of the ac
cused. Bringing victimizers ❋ Due process for the ac
to justice is made more com cused is guaranteed in
plex by the dual jurisdiction fewer than 40 percent of
of campus administration schools that have discipli
and law enforcement. Sexual nary procedures.
assault may be a violation of
the school’s sexual miscon ❋ In about 80 percent of
duct policy, with the accused schools, the body that
brought before a disciplinary decides whether the stu
board or other body to deter dent code of conduct has
mine his or her responsibility been violated is the discipli
in violating the student code nary board. In just over half
of conduct, but it is also a the schools, this body also
crime and therefore within decides what sanction will
the jurisdiction of the criminal be imposed.
justice system to determine
guilt. ❋ The most common penalty
is expulsion, imposed by
Congress asked what proce 84 percent of the schools.
dures schools have adopted Many schools suspend
for investigating sexual offenders or place them on
assault and disciplining and probation. Offenders may
10
S E X U A L A S S A U LT O N C A M P U S
also be censured, required Many schools either do not
to make restitution, or lose have a sexual assault
privileges. response policy or could not
provide it for the study. The
❋ Only about half the schools larger, 4year institutions and
keep the complainant ap HBCUs tend to have policies,
prised of the progress of often available on their Web
the case; they are far more sites, but these vary in clarity
likely to notify the accused. and thoroughness. This sug
gests a model policy could be
❋ Use of protocols for coordi useful to the schools as a
nating the responses of template in developing their
campus and local law en own.
forcement agencies were
found to be a promising More could be done to in
practice, but only about crease reporting. Practices
one in four schools have that are perceived by college
them, most of these 4year administrators to discourage
public institutions and or encourage reporting need
HBCUs. to be examined empirically.
Because underreporting may
Do schools need to be linked to the victim’s in
do more? ability to recognize sexual
victimization as a violation of
The study confirmed that the school’s student code
there is much confusion of conduct and, further, as
among schools about what a crime, more research is
the Clery Act requires. The needed into such issues as
fact that only 37 percent fully the perpetuation of stranger
comply in reporting crime rape myths, the relationship
statistics indicates a need for of the victim to the assailant,
guidance. The researchers use of alcohol before the
recommend development of assault, and other contribu
a policy that includes explicit tory factors.
and behavioral definitions of
consent, sexual offenses,
and other terminology and
practices.
11
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
PROMISING PRACTICES
The researchers identified promising practices at eight schools (see "Study Design") in the areas of
prevention, sexual assault policy, reporting, investigation, adjudication, and victim support services.
Some examples are included here.a
Prevention
A campus sexual assault education program should include comprehensive education about rape
myths, common circumstances under which the crime occurs, rapist characteristics, prevention
strategies, rape trauma responses and the healing process, and campus policies and support
services. To reach the entire student body, these messages should be disseminated in many forms,
i.e., through student orientation, curriculum infusion, resource center trainings, campus events,
and public information materials. For example, Lafayette College’s sexual misconduct policy is
communicated to students where they live as well as where they learn, in a kind of “road show.”
Much larger University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC), conducts a weekly saturation campaign of
flier dissemination all over campus.
Several schools have peer educators and advocates who present programs that feature scenarios
followed by facilitated discussion. Some campuses gear prevention and intervention programs to
allmale groups, such as male athletes, fraternity members, and male members of ROTC. These
prevention programs stress male culpability for committing the vast majority of sex crimes, men’s
individual and collective responsibility for helping to prevent these crimes, and the attitudes men
may hold that foster the crimes. For example, UCSC supports a “Mentors in Violence Prevention”
program that emphasizes the bystander’s role in violence prevention, in part by using a “playbook”
of strategies men can use to interrupt their peers when they believe they may be edging toward
criminal behavior.b
Sexual assault policy
A school’s sexual assault policy should be a readerfriendly, easily accessible, and widely distrib
uted statement of the school’s definitions and expectations regarding sexual conduct. The policy
should:
❋ Clearly define all forms of sexual misconduct, including operational and behavioral definitions of
what acts constitute consent and what acts constitute a sexual assault.
❋ Discuss the prevalence of nonstranger sexual assault.
❋ Describe circumstances in which sexual assault most commonly occurs.
❋ Advise what to do if the student or someone she/he knows is sexually assaulted.
❋ List resources available on campus and in the local community.
Continued on page 13
12
S E X U A L A S S A U LT O N C A M P U S
Reporting
All eight schools allow anonymous, confidential, and thirdparty reporting. Highly recommended
are reporting and response policies that allow the victim to participate in decisionmaking, to exert
some control over the pace of the process, and to be in charge of making decisions as she/he
moves through the campus adjudication and/or the local law enforcement system. Written
response protocols ensure a coordinated, consistent, victimcentered response.c
For example, Oklahoma State University counsels student victims that reporting an incident, choos
ing to prosecute, adjudicating a complaint through the University, and filing a civil action are sepa
rate steps. Reporting the incident does not obligate the victim to prosecute, but does allow
gathering of information. The student chooses whether to move to the next step in the process and
is advised of the consequences of each action, what to expect, and how confidentiality will be
maintained.
Investigation
Protocols to ensure confidentiality for the victim and the accused during the investigation are
essential. Also important are protocols for shared collection and use of information to eliminate the
need for the victim to retell the experience multiple times.
One of the most promising practices is providing victims access to a trained, certified Sexual
Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE). SANE practitioners provide appropriate treatment and forensic
examination. Their documentation of evidence can corroborate a victim’s account.d
Continued on page 14
13
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
Many schools offer a range of adjudication options, from informal administrative actions that do
not require a formal complaint to a formal adjudication board hearing. Proceedings should follow
an established, documented, and consistent format that balances the rights of the complainant
and the accused. Sexual misconduct adjudication boards are not criminal proceedings; their pur
pose is to establish whether the accused is responsible for violating the school’s policy, not to
determine the accused’s guilt or innocence.e
Victim support services
The most promising practice in this area is the formation of partnerships between the school and
the community to provide student victims access to a comprehensive, coordinated network of
service providers—medical, psychological, advocacy, legal, and safety. More research is needed
to help schools determine which practices are best for their campus and students.
Notes
a. A comprehensive review of promising practices is in Karjane, H., B. Fisher, and F.T. Cullen, Campus Sexual Assault: How
America’s Institutions of Higher Education Respond, final report to the National Institute of Justice, Oct. 2002, NCJ 196676.
b. See Katz, J., ”Reconstructing Masculinity in the Locker Room: The Mentors in Violence Prevention Project,“ Harvard
Educational Review 65(2)(1995): 163–174; also see Karjane et al., Campus Sexual Assault: 128.
d. For more information about SANEs, see Littel, K., “Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) Programs: Improving the
Community Response to Sexual Assault Victims,” OVC Bulletin, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office for Victims of
Crime, 2001, available online at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/publications/bulletins/sane_4_2001/welcome.html. Also see Sommers,
M.S., B.S. Fisher, and H.M. Karjane, “Using Colposcopy in the Rape Exam: Health Care, Forensic, and Criminal Justice Issues,”
Journal of Forensic Nursing 1(1)(2005): 28–34, 19.
e. For more about adjudication protocols and practices, see Karjane et al., Campus Sexual Assault: chapter 6 and 135–136.
14
S E X U A L A S S A U LT O N C A M P U S
Notes 3. These laws affect all institutions
of higher education that receive stu
1. This finding about risk for college dent financial aid from the Federal
students versus nonstudents is Government.
derived from the National College
Women Sexual Victimization 4. The study was mandated as part
(NCWSV) survey, reported in Fisher, of the 1998 amendments to the
B.S., F.T. Cullen, and M.G. Turner, Higher Education Act of 1965, Public
“Extent and Nature of the Sexual Law 105–244.
Victimization of College Women: A
NationalLevel Analysis,” final report 5. Fisher et al., The Sexual Victimiza
to the National Institute of Justice, tion of College Women: 10–11.
Dec. 1999, NCJ 179977: 1–2. The
finding is inconsistent with findings 6. See ibid.: 17; also see Koss, M.,
from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ C. Gidycz, and N. Wisniewski, ”The
National Crime Victimization Surveys Scope of Rape: Incidence and Preva
(NCVS), which found little to no dif lence of Sexual Aggression and Vic
ference in risk for “rape/sexual timization in a National Sample of
assault” between college students Higher Education Students,“ Journal
and nonstudents—see Hart, T.C., of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Violent Victimization of College Stu 55(2)(1987): 162–170.
dents, Bureau of Justice Statistics
Special Report, Washington, DC: 7. Fisher et al., “Extent and Nature of
U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau the Sexual Victimization of College
of Justice Statistics, Dec. 2003, NCJ Women”: 89–90; 123–124.
196143; and Baum, K., and P. Klaus,
Violent Victimization of College 8. Fisher, B.S., L.E. Daigle, F.T.
Students, 1995–2002, Washington, Cullen, and M.G. Turner, “Acknowl
DC: U.S. Department of Justice, edging Sexual Victimization as Rape:
Bureau of Justice Statistics, Jan. Results From a NationalLevel Study,”
2005, NCJ 206836. The authors Justice Quarterly 20(3)(2000):
believe the discrepancy derives from 401–440. A study 13 years earlier
very different survey methodologies. reported that 3 in 4 women (73 per
See Fisher, F.S., F.T. Cullen, and M.G. cent) who had an experience that
Turner, The Sexual Victimization of met Ohio penal code criteria for rape
College Women, NIJ Research did not label the incident “rape.” See
Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Koss et al., “The Scope of Rape”:
Department of Justice, National 162–170.
Institute of Justice and Bureau of
Justice Statistics, Dec. 2000, 9. See Bondurant, B., “University
NCJ 182369: 3, 11–14. Women’s Acknowledgment of Rape:
Individual, Situational, and Social Fac
2. See Karjane, H.M., B.S. Fisher, tors,” Violence Against Women
and F.T. Cullen, Campus Sexual 7(3)(2001): 294–314.
Assault: How America’s Institutions
of Higher Education Respond, final 10. Fisher et al., The Sexual Victim
report to the National Institute of ization of College Women: 23.
Justice, Oct. 2002, NCJ 196676:
137–142.
15
RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05
11. Campus Crime: Difficulties Meet
ing Federal Reporting Requirements,
Additional reading
Washington, DC: General Accounting Extent, Nature, and Conse
Office, 1997.
quences of Intimate Partner
12. Fisher, B.S., L.E. Daigle, F.T. Violence: Findings From the
Cullen, and M.G. Turner, ”Reporting National Violence Against
Sexual Victimization to the Police and Women Survey, by P. Tjaden
Others: Results from a Nationallevel and N. Thoennes, Washing
Study of College Women,“ Criminal
ton, DC: National Institute of
Justice and Behavior: An Internation
al Journal 30(1)(2003): 6–38. Justice and Centers for Dis
ease Control and Prevention,
13. Kahn, A., and V. Andreoli Mathie, 2000, NCJ 181867, available
“Understanding the Unacknowl at www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/
edged Rape Victim,” in Sexuality,
nij/181867.pdf.
Society and Feminism, ed. C. Travis
and J. White, Washington, DC: Amer
ican Psychological Association, 2000: The Sexual Victimization of
337–403; Neville, H., and A. Pugh, College Women, by B.S.
“General and CultureSpecific Fac Fisher, F.T. Cullen, and M.G.
tors Influencing African American Turner, Washington, DC:
Women’s Reporting Patterns and
U.S. Department of Justice,
Perceived Social Support Following
Sexual Assault,” Violence Against National Institute of Justice
Women 3(4)(1997): 361–381. and Bureau of Justice Statis
tics, 2000, NCJ 182369,
14. See Spohn, C., and D. Holleran, available at www.ncjrs.org/
”Prosecuting Sexual Assault: A Com
pdffiles1/nij/182369.pdf.
parison of Charging Decisions in
Sexual Assault Cases Involving
Strangers, Acquaintances, and Inti Violent Victimization of Col
ment of Justice, Bureau of
Justice Statistics, 2003,
NCJ 196143, available at
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/
pdf/vvcs00.pdf.
Security on Campus, Inc., a
nonprofit organization whose
mission is safer campuses,
maintains information about
the Clery Act and other cam
pus security issues. See
www.securityoncampus.org.
16
The National Institute of Justice is the
research, development, and evaluation
agency of the U.S. Department of Justice.
NIJ’s mission is to advance scientific research,
development, and evaluation to enhance
the administration of justice and public safety.
NIJ is a component of the Office of Justice
Programs, which also includes the Bureau
of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice
Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, and the
Office for Victims of Crime.