19-11-2014

Introduction
• A common example of a water hammer occurs in
most houses everyday. Simply turning off a
Pressure Surge shower “quickly” sends a loud thud through the
Water Hammer house.
• Dishwashers and washing machines make these
same sounds, because inside them small solenoid
valves are being opened and closed “quickly”,
producing this pulse noise. The key word in the
examples above was turning on or off the water
"quickly”. If you turn the water off slowly, the
water hammer will not occur.

Water Hammer Water Hammer

“quickly”

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Some figures Blown Expansion Joints

• 45 kg water (100 lbs)
• 3 m/s (10 ft/s) (on board we
load up till 12 m/s)
• Shut suddenly…. equals a
45 kg hammer stopping
• “Bang” “Bang” “Bang”
• 41 bar shock wave
• Reflecting back to forth
until energy is dissipated

76 workers killed as a consequence of a surge

pressure accident in a Russian hydraulic
power plant (19/08/2009) Introduction
• The hammer occurs because an entire “train”
of water is being stopped so fast that the end
of the “train” hits up against the front end and
sends shock waves through the pipe. This is
similar to a real train, instead of slowing to a
stop, it hits into a mountain side. The back of
the train continues forward even though the
front can not go anywhere.

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Compressibility of water "Joukowsky equation"

• In many problems water and other liquids
are treated as being incompressible
• This not completely correct • ∆V = flow velocity change in m/s
• For small pressure changes water can be • a = wave propagation velocity
through the liquid in the pipeline in
treated as if it was incompressible m/s (function of a number of
• For problems with FAST pressure parameters – next slide)
changes the compressibility of liquid • ρ = density of the fluid in kg/m3
SHOULD be considered • ∆P = pressure change in N/m2

Some Formula’s
Example
"Joukowsky equation"
• The pressure pulse due to rapid closing of a valve is • In a DN 500 pipeline, L = 8000 m, a = 1000
computed using equation:
m/s and v = 2 m/s, a gate valve is closed in
• where ∆P is magnitude of pressure pulse, ρ is the fluid
density, ∆V is the change in velocity due to the valve 5 seconds.
closing, and a is the effective speed of sound through the • Calculate the pressure surge
liquid in the pipeline.
where K is the fluid bulk • ∆P = 1000kg/m3 x 1000m/s x 2m/s
The
modulus*, E is Young’s compressibility of • ∆P = 2.000.000Pa
the liquid and the
modulus of the pipe, e is the stiffness of the • ∆P = 20 Bar
pipe thickness and D is the pipe line is taking
into account
pipe diameter.
* Modulus is a measure of stiffness of an elastic material

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• ∆P in a 3,5 m long pipeline with a
nominal Ø DN ½”
• Flow rate 14,7 l/min
• Closed suddenly by means of a
bal
• Initial pressure of 2 bar ↑till
13,5 bar and then ↓ till below
Patm.
• This phenomenon repeats itself a
number of times with decreasing
amplitude and lasts approx. 0.2
seconds.
Pressure wave
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Pressure wave
• The next figures show the flow of water in a pipe
line with an initial speed of V0
• When the valve is closed the complete flow does
not stop instantaneously througout the pipe
• Only the waterparticle that hits the valve is
stopped immidiately
• In order to stop the next waterparticle upstream a
force must be exerted – this force is a
compression
• This compression is transmitted through the
water as a pressure wave – sound waves are also
pressure waves
Speed of pressure waves
• Speed of pressure waves = sound waves trough
the water = 1.440 m/sec.
• In a large body of liquid only the
compressibility of the liquid affects the speed
• In a pipelinesystem the pipe wall thickness, the
stiffness of the material and all of the elements
affecting the deformation of the pipe will
influence the velocity of the pressure wave
• Small thick wall pipes 1.200 – 1.400 m/s
• Copper pipe 1.280 m/s
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Pressure surge Pressure surge

• A surge pressure is generated in a pipeline system • If the pressure surge in the pipeline results
when there is an abrupt change in the rate of flow
of liquid in the line.
in pressure stresses in excess of the strength
• Surge pressure is most likely to occur as a result of of the piping or its components, there may
one of the following actions; be a rupture leading to an extensive spill of
• Closure of an automatic shut down valve (ESD). oil
• Slamming shut of a shore non-return valve.
• Slamming shut of a butterfly type valve.
• Rapid closure of a power operated valve.
• Starting and stopping of a pump

Statoil Hydro's Statfjord Alpha

Platform Result of a surge pressure
Water Hammer likely
cause of large oil spill
in North Sea
The cause was the
unintended fast closure of
the shuttle tanker's bow
loading valve during off-
loading.

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Results of a surge pressure Results of a surge pressure

Slamming shut of a butterfly

Generation of pressure surge
valve ?
• Effective closing
time is only 30%
(25%) of the total
closing time
• => Great variation
of flow in a relative
short time
• Other types of
valves are more
P1 = Atmospheric + hydrostatic pressure (ρgh) in the
favourable
feed tank (suction head of the pump)
P2 = P of the pump (total head)

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Generation of pressure surge
• On conveying a liquid from a feed tank into a
receiving tank, through a pipeline, through a
valve, by means of a pump the pressure at any
point of the system is composed out of 3
components.
1. Atmospheric pressure in the feed tank.
(P1)
2. Hydrostatic pressure.
3. Pressure generated by the pump. This is the highest
at the pump outlet, decreasing because of the friction
along the line. (P2)
Generation of pressure surge
• When the end valve closes the liquid immediatley
upstreams of the valve is brought to rest
instantaneously.
• This causes the pressure to rise by and amount P3.
• P3 = aV (Equation of Joukowski).
•  = density of the liquid.
• a = propagation speed of sound in the liquid.
• V = change in linear velocity of the liquid.
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Generation of pressure surge
• During a pressure surge the atmospheric and
hydrostatic pressure in the suction tank may be
considered constant and need not to be taken into
account although they are always present and have
a contributory effect on the TOTAL pressure.
• A rapid closure of the valve superimposes a
transient energy upon all 3 components owing to
the sudden conversion of kinetic energy into
1. Potential energy
2. Strain energy by compression of the liquid
3. Expansion off the pipe wall.
Generation of pressure surge
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Generation of pressure surge Generation of pressure surge

• The cessation of flow of liquid is
propagated back up the pipeline at the speed
of sound in the liquid, and as each part of
the liquid comes to rest its pressure is
increased by the amount P3.
• A steep front P3 travels up the pipeline at
the speed of sound. This disturbance is
known as a surge pressure.
Speed of the
liquid behind
the pressure
surge = 0
Behind, downstream of the surge pressure, the liquid is
stationary. A continuous of pressure adjustments takes place
which ultimately results in a uniform (horizontal) pressurre
throughout the stationary liquid. (these pressure adjustments
also travel at the speed of sound)

Generation of pressure surge Generation of pressure surge

• When the surge pressure reaches the pump
the flow through the pump stops. High Lower
• At that moment the pump produces an pressure pressure
Speed of the liquid = 0
output pressure P2 + P4 = head at zero flow
(≈ closed discharge valve).

P4 At T= L/C the highest pressure is reached at the outlet of

P2 + P4 the pump.
P= P1+(P2+P4)+P3
P2 The pressure wave P3 travels again downstreams

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Generation of pressure surge Generation of pressure surge

• The process of pressure equalization continues
downstream of the pump.
• The final result is a pressure wave that oscillates
throughout the length of the piping system.

Generation of pressure surge Generation of pressure surge

• The period of the pipeline = 2L/C = The • If the pressure is not relieved in any way the
time between the closure of the valve and pressure stabilizes in the system at approx.
the return of the pressure wave at the valve. the delivery pressure of the pump at zero
flow, P1 + P2 + P4. (P3 disappears)

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Recapitulation
• P1 = Atm. Pressure
• P2 = Pressure at the discharge of the pump
– friction losses (normal pressure as a
consequence of the pumping proces)
• P3 = ∆P (equation of Joukowski)
• P4 = Total head of the pump at 0 flow – P2
Generation of pressure surge
• A analogue process is initiated on the downstream
side of a valve being closed.
• There a pressure drop is encountered instead of a
pressure rise.
• The pressure drop is often compensated by gas
evolution (liquid starts boiling) from the liquid so
that serious results may not occur immidiately.
• The subsequent collapse of the gas bubbles may
generate shock waves similar to those upstream of
the valve.
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Surge Pressure
Assessment of pressure surges
• In order to determine whether a serious pressure surge is
likely to occur in pipeline system compare the
EFFECTIVE closing time of the valve with the pipeline
period (2L/C & C = approx. 1.000m/s)
• If the EFFECTIVE valve closure time (approx. 25% of
the total closing time for automatic butterfly valves) is less
or equal to the pipeline period the system is liable to
serious surge pressures
• Total closing time must be > 4 x pipeline period (automatic
butterfly valves)
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Assessment of pressure surges
• Surge pressure becomes negligible only if the
effective valve closure time is several times
greater than the line period.
• Off-shore moorings usually have very long
pipelines => long pipeline period and
consequently a greater risk of surge pressure.
• Valve closure times must be adjusted accordingly.
Closure time of valves
• Valve closure rates should be steady and
reproducible
• This may be difficult to achieve if the valves are
spring loaded.
• A more uniform reduction of flow may be
achieved by selecting an adapted valve design or
by using an actuator which gives a very slow rate
of closure over the final 25% of the port closure.
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Reduction of pressure surge
hazard
• Where manually operated valves are used, good
operation procedures should avoid pressure surge
problems. All changes in valve settings should be
made slowly.
• In case of automated valves.
• Reduce flow rate i.e. reduce pumping speed.
• Effective closure times of valves should be > 30 sec.
• Use of pressure relief systems, surge tanks or similar
devices to absorb the surge effect sufficiently quickly.
Closure time of valves
• Increase the effective valve closure time. In very general
terms, total closure times should be of the order of 30
seconds, and preferably more.
• Use a pressure relief system, surge tanks or similar devices
to absorb the effects of the surge sufficiently quickly
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Surge Pressure Relief Systems Surge Pressure Relief Systems

Surge Pressure Relief Systems

Big scale
surge
pressure
relief
systems

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Limitation of flow rate to avoid
the risk of a damaging pressure
surge
• With sufficient accuracy;
• Often pipeline length and
valve closure time are fixed.
• The only practical way to
avoid surge pressures is to
reduce linear flow rate.
19-11-2014
Limitation of flow rate to avoid
the risk of a damaging pressure
surge
• Speed of sound in petroleun = 1300m/sec
•  of petroleum products = 0.850T/m3
• Qmax = 7.1x10-7D2 Pmax
• Q in cubic meters/sec
• D in meter
• P in N/m2 (Pascal)
• 1 Bar = 100.000 Pa
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