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International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol.

19, 273–295 (2017)


DOI: 10.1111/ijmr.12148

Individual-level Foci of Identification


at Work: A Systematic Review of the
Literature
Doyin Atewologun, Roxanne Kutzer,1 Elena Doldor,2 Deirdre Anderson3
and Ruth Sealy4
School of Business and Management, Queen Mary, University of London, London, E1 4NS, UK, 1 Cranfield School of
Management, Cranfield University, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, UK, 2 School of Business and Management, Queen Mary,
University of London, London, E1 4NS, UK, 3 Lincoln International Business School, University of Lincoln, Brayford
Pool, Lincoln, LN6 7TS, UK, and 4 University of Exeter Business School, Exeter EX4 4PU, UK
Email: a.o.atewologun@qmul.ac.uk

This paper presents a systematic literature review of individual-level targets (or foci)
of identification, that is, the bases by which one derives a sense of self as a unique
being in the context of work. We reviewed 253 articles from over 30 top management
journals between 2005 and 2016. In examining foci types, definitions, underpinning the-
oretical and philosophical assumptions, we catalogue nine categories of individual-level
identification foci (manager, leader, follower, team, organization, occupation-specific,
professional, career and work), finding a dominance of functionalist meta-theoretical
orientations (comprising over half the sample, with interpretivist approaches compris-
ing about a third of studies). Further, we enhance construct clarity in the field; we
identify conceptual challenges with extant definitions of key foci, and offer integrative
definitions by specifying scope conditions for each identity focus and semantic relation-
ships between various identity foci. We contextualize our discussion of construct clarity
to different research orientations in the field and offer possibilities for theoretical de-
velopments therein. Third, we offer an integrative framework for positioning work in
the field by scope of interest (identity content or context) and identity construction
assumptions (stable or evolving), suggesting directions for future research.

Introduction 2011), career (McArdle et al. 2007), and leadership


role (Petriglieri and Stein 2012). Identification can
‘Identity’ is an individual’s self-definition (Ashforth also mean the state of being identified; it is thus con-
and Schinoff 2016) and answer to the question ‘who ceived as both a verb and a noun (Ashforth et al. 2008;
am I?’ (Cerulo 1997). ‘Identification’ is commonly Ashforth and Schinoff 2016). Thus, one develops a
used to denote the process through which individu- sense of oneself as a professional (i.e. professional
als come to define who they are, through identifying identity) as one progressively identifies with the pro-
with a target. Bases for identification include occupa- fession (i.e. identification with the profession). In
tion (Ashforth et al. 2013), profession (Bolton et al. both cases, ‘profession’ is the identity target.
Studies of individual-level identities and identifica-
The authors are grateful to the editorial team of this special tion in organizations utilize a multitude of constructs
issue (Sandra Corlett, Christine Coupland, Peter McInnes and that are variably defined and implemented (Alvesson
Matthew Sheep) for their guidance and support throughout et al. 2008; Brown 2015). While concept prolifer-
the review process. The authors also thank the anonymous ation adds rich empirical insights to the field, this
reviewers for their constructive feedback on earlier versions can lead to missed opportunities to identify how
of this manuscript.


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 9600 Garsington
Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA
274 D. Atewologun et al.

different foci conceptually relate to each other. For to the scope of interest and underlying assumptions.
example, Ladge et al. (2012) apply the term ‘pro- This framework informs future research agendas by
fessional identity’ to the work-related identities of enabling researchers to conceptually and empirically
an entrepreneur, a manager and a consultant with- position work in the field with greater precision and
out explaining how these three different roles can be by identifying prospective theoretical or methodolog-
categorized together under this term. Arguably, lack ical challenges therein.
of construct clarity hinders theory development and This paper’s structure is as follows. We present the
precludes dialogue across different meta-theoretical SLR methodology, before examining the individual-
perspectives and research streams (Alvesson et al. level identity foci in the context of work, from narrow
2008). Different research designs and theoretical per- scope (e.g. leader) to broad (e.g. career); and then
spectives can lead to richer and deeper understand- identifying approaches to studying the foci in terms
ing in the field, but only if there is shared meaning, of meta-theoretical perspectives suggested by our re-
which results from clear concept definitions (Suddaby view. Our discussion offers integrative definitions to
2010). enhance concept clarity for key identity foci. Finally,
To advance construct clarity within the field, this we propose an integrative framework for positioning
paper provides a systematic literature review (SLR) of and informing future research agendas on focal iden-
the management literature on work-related individual tities before concluding the paper with limitations and
identity targets. Specifically, we examine individual- directions for further study.
level foci of identification; that is, the bases by which
one derives a sense of self as a unique being in the
work context. Methodology
We categorize the labels and terms used to explore
the myriad targets – referred to as ‘individual-level A systematic review enables us to locate, select, eval-
foci of identification’ and ‘individual-level identity uate and synthesize extant studies in a rigorous and
foci’ (dependent on term used) – by which individuals replicable manner, leading to clear conclusions about
conceive of themselves at work. This includes rela- what is known and not known in the field (Denyer
tional and collective identity targets (e.g. follower and and Tranfield 2009). This methodical and transparent
team) where researchers position these as bases for process is ideally suited for analysing and cataloguing
constructing an individual’s sense of self at work. The the vast and heterogeneous organizational literature
following questions informed our SLR: (1) Which on identity. The process is outlined in Figure 1.
individual-level identity foci related to work are in-
vestigated in management and organization studies
Conceptual boundaries and data collection
and how are these defined? (2) What are the under-
pinning meta-theoretical, theoretical and philosophi- As recommended by McWilliams et al. (2005) our
cal assumptions of studies examining individual-level search strategy focused on peer-reviewed papers iden-
identity foci? (3) Which methodologies are used to tified through electronic searches in major academic
research these identity foci? databases, specifically, ABI, Ebsco and PsycINFO,
Our contribution is three-fold. First, we categorize organizational/general psychology and management
extant research into nine individual-level identifica- databases. To set review boundaries on a vast and
tion foci within the work context. In cataloguing def- quickly expanding literature (Denyer and Tranfield
initions and underpinning theoretical/philosophical 2009), we limited our search to peer-reviewed arti-
assumptions, we update work by Alvesson et al. cles published over the last 12 years (January 2005–
(2008) and Brown (2015). Second, we discuss con- December 2016). This captures the time following a
struct clarity in relation to various meta-theoretical period of growing popularity of research on individ-
traditions in identity studies and offer integrative def- ual identities at work (Kirpal 2004). We limited our
initions, by drawing on Suddaby’s (2010) criteria for search to studies in peer-reviewed journals ranked 3
construct clarity: clear and parsimonious definitions, or 4 in the ABS 2015 journals list as focusing on
scope conditions (when and where does an identity top-tier journals remains a frequently used method
focus apply?), and semantic relationships with other for capturing research trends and scholarly debates
related constructs (how does the focus relate logi- in a field while conducting literature reviews (e.g.
cally to other foci?). Third, we offer an integrative Radaelli and Sitton-Kent 2016). To locate terms used
framework to map the field through overt attention by researchers to describe how individuals identify


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work 275

Figure 1. An overview of the SLR process (adapted based on Nolan and Garavan 2016)

themselves in the context of their work, we utilized includes examinations of how an individual’s sense
the key words ‘individual’, ‘identity’ and ‘work’. of self might be derived from a collective sense
This identified 1,914 journal articles, decreasing to of organizational identity. We also recognize the
1,627 articles after duplicates were removed. We importance of identities such as gender and eth-
then moved to examine the conceptual terms being nicity to individuals’ work-related experiences (e.g.
used. Atewologun et al. 2016). However, we excluded
Cornelissen and colleagues (2007) differentiate papers that focus solely on socio-demographic (i.e.
identity research in the organizational domain as in- ‘nonwork’ identities, Ramarajan and Reid 2013)
dividual (relating to people’s personal sense of self to maintain coherent and manageable boundaries.
within the organization), group (relating to the shared Nevertheless, studies that primarily examined work-
identity of teams and sections within an organiza- related identities (e.g. the identities of journalists
tion), organizational (relating to the identity of the and engineers) using a sociodemographically marked
organization as a whole) and cultural (relating to sample (e.g. African Americans; women) were in-
commonalities in identity across organizations and cluded (e.g. Hatmaker 2013; Slay and Smith 2011).
within a society). Our individual-level focus excludes Finally, we excluded studies with adolescent par-
conceptualizations of identity as a system of shared ticipants, and identities construed primarily outside
meaning and organizational-level phenomenon, but organizations (e.g. entrepreneurial identity, Navis


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
276 D. Atewologun et al.

and Glynn 2011). We included conceptual papers Organizationally situated individual foci
on the basis that they help us answer the review
Organizationally situated identities are concerned
questions (as suggested by Boaz and Ashby 2003).
with individuals constructing a sense of self that re-
After screening titles and abstracts following our in-
lates to performing a role or a job, in relation to
clusion and exclusion criteria, 326 studies proceeded
others, within the organizational structure. This clus-
to the full paper screening stage. Following full paper
ter, comprising over half of the retrieved papers, is
screening, a final 253 papers were selected for this
the narrowest in scope and includes manager, leader
review.
and follower foci, as well as teams and organizations
as individual identity and identification targets.
Analysis
We engaged in several inductive and deductive coding Manager as identity focus. With interpretivist and
rounds. We used Excel spreadsheets to extract induc- critical orientations prevailing, ambiguity and flux in
tively from each paper the identity or identification fo- managerial identity construction are central themes
cus, definitions, philosophical perspectives (explicit in this sub-cluster (we found no functionalist stud-
and inferred), research design and data collection ies of managerial identities). A typical perspective
methods, samples and findings. Then, we compared describes managerial identities as ‘constantly emerg-
and contrasted definitions, approaches and other fea- ing’ and ‘processual, relational and situational’
tures across papers and foci. We also categorized re- (Andersson 2010, pp. 167 and 169). Developing a
search orientations using Alvesson et al.’s (2008) and managerial identity is often examined by unpack-
Brown’s (2015) typologies. Alvesson et al. (2008) ing inherent tensions especially with regards to how
outlined three meta-theoretical orientations, classify- agency is restricted through organizational control
ing identity studies along a spectrum of functionalist, (e.g. Harding et al. 2014). Managerial identities are
interpretivist and critical dimensions. Brown (2015) examined using a range of methods including in-
proposed corresponding categories (social cognitive, terviews (Thomas and Davies 2005), case studies
symbolic interaction, post-structuralism and power), (Watson 2008, 2009), observation (Down and
as well as a fourth, psychoanalytic. While we recog- Reveley 2009), and secondary data and question-
nize the breadth within these traditions, these labels naires (Askehave and Zethsen 2014). Typically, these
facilitate synthesis and comparison within the field. studies focus exclusively on the manager target with-
For rigour, the data extraction form was initially pi- out exploring how this may emerge from, or into,
loted by all authors on three different papers each, and other organizationally situated foci, such as leader or
subsequently refined after collective discussions. Mir- follower. The critical slant of managerial identity foci
roring other SLR approaches (e.g. Nolan and Garavan studies means acquiring a sense of self as a ‘manager’
2016; Wang and Chugh 2013), the first two authors job holder bears some overlap with conceptualiza-
led the data extraction and descriptive analysis, reg- tions of occupation-based identities, especially those
ularly discussing differences in their interpretations, in precarious positions (discussed later in the paper).
and sense-checking regularly with the other authors.
The nine foci emerged from this combined deductive Leader as identity focus. The dominant formula-
and inductive analytical process. tion of leader identity is a functionalist one, referring
to the identity of an individual holding a supervi-
sory position within an organization (e.g. Day and
Research on individual-level identity Harrison 2007; Johnson et al. 2012). Although
and identification foci Alvesson et al. (2008) challenge the idea of ‘mea-
suring’ identity, this practice is prevalent in this
Table 1 displays the foci distribution in the data. Some sub-cluster. Leader identity is the individual’s un-
studies examine multiple foci simultaneously (e.g. derstanding of oneself as someone who can guide
Horstmeier et al. 2016 study foci relating to team, su- others’ work; leadership identity includes having
pervisor and profession); however, in the main, stud- that sense, and receiving acknowledgement of that
ies focused on single levels and foci. We first discuss ability from those one guides, as well as the or-
narrow, organizationally situated foci (e.g. leader and ganization (e.g. DeRue and Ashford 2010). Kark
team), then occupation-based foci, and finally, gen- (2011) suggests a nested relationship between leader
eral, broad foci related to work (i.e. work and career). identity and leadership identity, in which leader


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work 277

Table 1. Main categories of foci in research on individual-level identity and identification

Category N % of review papers

Organizationally situated individual foci:


Manager as identity focus 13 6
Leader as identity focus 17 8
Follower as identity focus 7 3
Team as identity focus (including workgroup and collective identity) 21 10
Organization as identity focus 65 30
Occupation-based individual foci:
Occupation-specific foci 23 11
Occupation as identity focus 8 4
Profession as identity focus 42 19
General foci related to work:
Work as identity focus 17 8
Career as identity focus 5 2

identity is one component (i.e. individual internaliza- Follower as identity focus. This sub-cluster con-
tion) of leadership identity. Researchers also examine cerns individuals’ identification with their leaders,
aspects of individual identity relative to securing fol- considering how this influences the organization (e.g.
lowers, such as relational self-concept (Chang and follower organizational citizenship behaviour, Zhang
Johnson 2010) and servant identity, the extent to and Chen 2013). Functionalist approaches to fol-
which individuals think of themselves as servants lower as focal identity generally centre on the ex-
and engage in servant behaviours (Sun 2013). DeRue tent to which an individual defines oneself in terms
and Ashford (2010) emphasize the interrelated- of one’s leader, denoted by terms such as ‘personal
ness of leaders and followers, defining leadership identification with the leader’ (e.g. Zhu et al. 2013)
identity as comprising individual internalization, and ‘supervisor identification’ (Zhang and Chen
relational recognition, and collective endorsement. 2013).
Furthermore, research in this domain suggests that Follower identity (understanding of oneself as
developing a leadership identity can be prompted by a follower) is also conceptualized as complemen-
others recognizing one as a leader (Humphreys et al. tary to leadership identity (DeRue and Ashford
2015). Thus, leadership as identity focus occurs in 2010). Thus, followers’ behaviours contribute to both
the context of an individual developing a sense of leadership and follower foci (Collinson 2006; DeRue
oneself as a leader of others and the recognition of and Ashford 2010). It is possible to think of oneself as
that identity by others. What remains under-examined a follower even in the absence of a leader (DeRue and
in the literature is the relationship between ‘man- Ashford 2010). Mostly, however, the literature ties
ager’ and ‘leader’ identity foci, despite the strong follower identity to leader identity; therefore, current
association between these in individuals’ conceptu- understanding of a follower identity is directly rela-
alizations and lived experiences (Carroll and Levy tional to leader/leadership identities.
2008).
Interpretivist and critical approaches in this sub- Team as identity focus. Studies of team as an in-
cluster examine the disconnect between individuals’ dividual identity target predominantly focus on the
understandings of themselves in their supervisory ca- process through which individuals come to see them-
pacities, relative to their expectations. Such studies selves as part of a predefined collective, variously
focus on the individual’s effort in aspiring to leader- described as a team or work unit. Team identification
ship (Koning and Waistell 2012; Petriglieri and Stein is the process by which individuals define themselves
2012), suggesting ideals are elusive (Carroll and Levy in terms of values, goals, attitudes and behaviours
2008) and imaginary (Driver 2013). Carroll and Levy shared with team members (e.g. Dietz et al. 2015;
(2008) offer managerial identity as a useful foil to Janssen and Huang 2008). Despite the use of the
a sometimes elusive leader identity, advocating de- term ‘identification’ suggesting a processual focus,
veloping leadership that encourages individuals to the predominant approach taken by authors is func-
choose mindfully between leader and management tionalist and quantitative, with surveys and question-
behaviours. naires (e.g. Janssen and Huang 2008; Liao et al. 2015;


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
278 D. Atewologun et al.

Millward et al. 2007). Social identity theory is the located papers. There is much consistency in the use
dominant theoretical approach. All ten team identi- of organizational identification (OID), typically as
fication studies approached this from a functionalist an individual-level construct based on Ashforth and
orientation, typically using surveys to establish me- Mael’s (1989), and Mael and Ashforth’s (1992) def-
diating and moderating relationships involving the inition of ‘perception of oneness with or belonging-
target (one study, Millward et al. 2007, applied mixed ness to the organization’. This definition comprises
methods). A typical example is Dietz et al.’s 2015 both cognitive and relational aspects of identification.
demonstration of the moderating effect of shared team Authors variously emphasize a sense of belonging
identification on directing ‘performance-prove’ goal (e.g. Karanika-Murray et al. 2015), cognitive bonding
orientation to team level or individual level perfor- (e.g. Glavas and Godwin 2013), and self-referential
mance. Similarly, Janssen and Huang (2008) find that elements (e.g. Garcia-Falières and Herrbach 2015),
citizenship behaviour mediates the relationship be- or a combination of all of these (e.g. Besharov 2014).
tween team identification and individuals’ effective- Organizational identification is occasionally exam-
ness as team members. ined with workgroup identification. Organizational
Another sub-cluster comprises studies of identi- identity (OI) is used less frequently, to refer to self-
fication with work group (Blader and Tyler 2009) definition and belongingness to the organization (e.g.
and co-workers (Farmer et al. 2015), or ‘group iden- Yu et al. 2016). A useful addition to this sub-cluster
tity’ (in reference to management and IT teams, in is Kreiner and colleagues’ (2006) attempt to bridge
Schwarz and Watson 2005). These papers commonly OI and OID terms by examining boundary dynamics
conceive of a loosely defined set of co-workers be- negotiated at the interface of individual and organi-
ing a source of felt inclusion, belonging and self- zational identities.
definition for the focal individuals. An anomaly in Two studies in this sub-cluster adopt ‘employee
this cluster is Brown and Humphreys’ (2006) crit- identification’ as an overarching concept to capture
ical analysis of the working environment (‘place’) various organizationally bound identity targets, in-
as one discursive resource for competing groups to cluding coworker, workgroup (Cooper and Thatcher
make sense of their positions within a newly formed 2010) team, supervisor or profession (Horstmeier
organization. We only found two studies examining et al. 2016). A unique, extra-organizational, perspec-
the relationship between team identification and tar- tive on identity foci is employee-customer identity,
gets other than ‘organizational identification’. Liao ‘the extent to which employees self-define and con-
and colleagues (2015) demonstrated how high lev- struct their identities in terms of their role relation-
els of professional identification compensated for ships with customers’ (Anaza 2015, p. 927). This is
low team identification in predicting shared divi- an area for further examination as there is limited
sion of cognitive labour in diverse specialists teams. research on organizational-related targets that cross
And, Mitchell and colleagues (2011) demonstrate that organizational boundaries (e.g. foci stemming from
inter-professional openness (motivation to use team cross-institutional collaborations).
members’ expertise for the team’s task) strengthens
team identification and reduces professional identity
Occupation-based individual foci
threat.
Another sub-cluster here is collective identity Occupation-based foci (comprising approximately
(Grohsjean et al. 2016; Johnson and Chang 2006), 33% of our dataset) are concerned with individual un-
seen as a propensity to assimilate or see oneself as derstandings of identity related to a particular form
part of a group. These studies position the immediate of work and, often, the training required to do it;
community around a focal individual in the workplace such foci incorporate a particular job or occupation
as the identity target, without pre-specifying the work (including specified professions), as well as ‘being
group or unit. A closer examination of these papers professional’. Although these identities can be inhab-
suggests they may be more closely aligned with work ited and enacted within organizational structures, the
unit (e.g. Yu and Cable 2011) or occupation-specific focus of identification is in the meanings associated
(Grohsjean et al. 2016) themes. with the occupation itself (whether a profession or
other form of work).
Organization as identity focus. These studies fea-
ture the organization as target of individual-level Occupation-specific foci. Authors conceptualize
sense-making, comprising nearly a third of all ‘occupational identity’ as a sense of oneself as a job


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work 279

holder in an identified role across various contexts of studies, which examines the professional ideal as
including administrative service work, management identity target.
consultancy, medicine and engineering (e.g. Anteby
2008; Bain 2005; Karlsson 2011; Kitay and Wright ‘The professional’ as identity focus. We found two
2007). These studies span functionalist, interpretivist uses of professional identity which we disentangle.
and critical approaches. On the basis of authors’ labels, professional identity
Examining occupation as a focal identity also re- constitutes one of the largest clusters retrieved
veals how individuals construct identities in precari- (second to organizational foci), reflecting the preva-
ous occupational positions. For example, pilots forced lent use of the lay term ‘professional’ in the field
to take a leave of absence due to adverse economic (Watson 2002). However, we separate ‘profession as
conditions retain strong occupational identities as pi- occupational role’ (previous cluster) from ‘identifi-
lots, despite not being able to perform the desired job cation with the professionalism ideal’ (this cluster).
(Fraher and Gabriel 2014). Similarly, professional vi- Such distinction unmasks specific insights to enhance
sual artists develop criteria, such as ‘showing work’, understanding of the identification dynamics and ten-
to distinguish themselves from amateur artists, thus sions associated with the professionalism ideal. For
incorporating the important aspect of being in a paid example, Croft and colleagues (2015b) and Cascón-
occupation, rather than engaging in an activity as a Pereira and Hallier (2012) both nominally examine
pastime (Bain 2005). medical ‘professional identities’. Cascón-Pereira and
In addition to the handful of studies explicitly ap- Hallier (2012) examine doctors’ professional, i.e. oc-
plying the ‘occupational identity’ term, 17 further cupational, roles (previous cluster). However, Croft
studies examine individuals’ sense of self as a job et al.’s (2015b) work on nurses reveals how individu-
holder in a named form of employment, categorized als in lower status occupational roles may face more
here as ‘occupation-specific’ focal identities. These challenges living up to the professionalism ideal in
studies examine foci including academic, public ser- hybrid roles. Of the 49 papers nominally studying
vice, military, creative and engineering identities and professional identity, 16 examine the professionalism
are largely conducted through critical lenses. Exam- ideal.
ples include investigations of behavioural expecta-
tions and controls on academics (e.g. Araújo 2009;
General foci related to work
Knights and Clarke 2014), to creatives’ experiences
of corporate environments (e.g. Brown et al. 2010; Having considered the relatively narrow categories
Costas and Fleming 2009). of organizationally situated identities (individuals’
A further cluster of occupation-specific focal iden- sense of self that relates to performing a role / job in
tities uses the term ‘professional identity’. In our as- relation to others within the organizational structure),
sessment, this cluster reflects identity studies relating and occupational and professional identities (individ-
to a subset of occupational identities known as profes- uals’ sense of self that relates to a particular form
sions, comprising ‘closed, collegial, self-regulating of work or a profession), we turn to more general
expert occupations’ with ‘an exclusive identity de- categorizations found in the literature.
veloped through qualifications, training and social- Identities and identification related to work and
ization’ (McGivern et al. 2015, p. 312). Commonly the worker are concerned with individual self-
accepted professions are medicine, law, accounting, understandings in the general work domain. Within
engineering and academia (e.g. Dobrow and Tosti- this broad cluster, we identify two sub-themes – ‘ca-
Kharas 2011; Elsbach 2009; Reid 2015). In these reer’ and ‘work’ focal identities. This cluster com-
studies, authors are concerned with individuals’ sense prises 10% of all papers, three-quarters of these per-
of self as a job holder in a specified professional job taining to work as focus.
role. For example, Croft et al. (2015a), McGivern
et al. (2015) and Spyridonidis et al. (2015) point to the Career as identity focus. Despite constituting a rel-
rising significance of the hybrid manager-physician atively small cluster, the career identity literature re-
professional identities due to prevailing political and trieved comprised the range of functionalist (Hoekstra
economic trends. The process through which individ- 2011; Ng and Feldman 2007), interpretivist (Bosley
uals manage different competing occupational identi- et al. 2009) and critical (LaPointe 2010) orientations.
ties against this context is of practical and theoretical Researchers use ‘career identity’ to describe an in-
interest. This usage is distinct from our next category dividual’s understanding of the pattern of their past,


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280 D. Atewologun et al.

present and future work experiences. Thus, a time Thirteen papers apply ‘work identity’ or ‘working
dimension is included, as in Hoekstra (2011), and identity’ as a general term to refer to various individ-
Bosley et al.’s (2009) ‘career self-concept’ empha- ual identities related to the work domain (e.g. Clarke
sizing the sequencing of career roles. The dominant et al. 2009; Sealy and Singh 2010; Wayne et al. 2006;
usage reflects a cognitive perspective of self over an Wright 2009). The primary utility of work identity
extended period. Although LaPointe (2010) maintains here is to juxtapose work and non-work domains.
the sequential aspect of career identity, uniquely, she For example, the experiences of bike messengers
presents career identity as an ongoing process that in- (Fincham 2008) and gamers (Lee and Lin 2011) chal-
tegrates others’ feedback. Two additional studies use lenge notions of separated domains. Similarly, unem-
‘career identity’, that, following our analyses, may be ployed older workers’ struggles to maintain a positive
better described using a more specific and bounded sense of a ‘worker’ self, highlights the significance of
identity focus. Strauss et al.’s (2012) and Millward being in work as a focus of identification (Riach and
and Haslam’s (2013) use of career identity suggests Loretto 2009).
they are examining the extent to which individuals The terms ‘working identity’ and ‘work-related
identify with their current occupation. For example, identity’ (e.g. Conroy and O’Leary-Kelly 2014;
Strauss et al. (2012, p. 584) measure ‘Having a career Dutton et al. 2010; Gaunt and Scott 2014; Meister
in my field is an important part of who I am’. et al. 2014) are similarly used, referring simultane-
A single paper in our review used the term ‘voca- ously to multiple identities including organizational,
tional identity’, which was conceptualized similarly occupational and career foci. References to work-
to career identity. Vocational identity ‘refers to in- related identity consistently draw on Dutton et al.’s
dividuals’ self-perceptions of their enduring skills, conceptualization, ‘the aspects of identity and self-
abilities, and needs across jobs over the course of a definition that are tied to participation in the activities
career’ Ng and Feldman (2007, p. 117). Their focus of work (i.e., a job) or membership in work-related
on school leavers’ transition to work suggests that groups, organizations, occupations, or professions’
the low incidence of vocational identity in our review (2010, p. 266). Work-related identity appears to be a
likely results from our inclusion criteria specifying contemporary term deemed useful for incorporating
adults. multiple individual, relational and collective identifi-
cation foci simultaneously. For instance, Lai and col-
leagues (2013) position work identification in the con-
Work as identity focus. This final sub-cluster con- text of occupational and organizational disidentifica-
stitutes the broadest and least specific references to tion. While this practice may be beneficial at the outset
individuals’ understandings of themselves in a gen- of exploratory research, we recommend that authors
eral work domain. We distinguish three different uses specify the focus of identification most relevant to the
of work as an identity focus: (1) a fairly stable un- phenomena examined. Such specificity may add clar-
derstanding of the work one does based on individ- ity to the identity target most impacted by the issues
ual traits and beliefs; (2) the centrality and salience under enquiry. For example, Clarke et al.’s (2009)
of work to one’s sense of self, and (3) a general study of the discourses drawn upon by managers in
term, sometimes simultaneously referring to multiple an engineering company could inform understand-
identification foci (e.g. occupation, organization and ings of managerial identity; Empson’s (2013) discus-
career). sion of bridging the academic-practice divide reflects
The first two uses encapsulate a small number of tensions experienced by management academics, as
papers using the terms in a narrow sense and adopting an occupational identity. We discuss additional bene-
predominantly functionalist approaches (e.g. Farmer fits of increased specification of identity foci later in
and Van Dyne 2010; Lai et al. 2013, p. 1660) who this paper.
define work identity as ‘the central, distinctive and
enduring characteristic that typifies the line of work
Summary
an employee performs’). Another usage is Greenhaus
et al.’s (2012) assessment of the salience of work to Thus, work as identity focus encompasses other
an individual’s self-concept in their usage of work individual-level identity targets. Although adopting
identity. This is similar to Ng and Feldman’s (2007) such a broad, non-specific term is useful for investi-
emphasis on ‘salience’ of, and an individual’s ‘com- gating competing and contradicting facets of identi-
mitment’ to, work. fication (e.g. occupational vs organizational targets),


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work 281

scholars could consider increasing foci specificity in


other cases. For example, career as focal identity of-
fers a basis for making sense of one’s pattern of work-
related experiences, and can encompass occupation-
specific or organizationally situated foci dependent
on researcher interest. Leader and follower identity
foci are not necessarily confined to the organization
and can shape an individual’s overall sense of self
whereas managerial identity foci are generally nested
within one or more organizations.
While functionalist or interpretivist orientations
dominate leader/follower identity studies, research
on managerial identities is predominantly critical and
utilizes non-US samples. Managerial identity is often
viewed as a contested identity, positioning the indi-
vidual as a company officer, amidst organizational
and social discourses concerning what managers do
and what they are like. This is akin to some concep-
tualizations of occupation-based identities, such as
those in precarious positions. This suggests possibil-
ities for examining managerial identity construction Figure 2. Meta-theoretical perspectives adopted by individual-level
identity foci studies (2005–2016)
as an occupation-specific identity. This will be helpful
for highlighting, for example, the liminal experiences
of hybrid manager-physicians (e.g. Spyridonidis et al. assumptions remain implicit in many published pa-
2015). This also includes examining how training and pers. Whilst most authors proffered their definition
socialization may facilitate entry into management of identity, or approach to identification referenc-
ranks and how enduring this target may be in compar- ing a body of work to signal a certain tradition (see
ison to other occupation-specific foci. We note, how- Figure 2), few explicitly stated their underlying as-
ever, the under-examination of the relational aspect sumptions.
of managerial work and, of the relationship between Functionalist approaches conceive identity as rel-
‘manager’ and ‘leader’ identity foci. This is despite atively stable, often emphasizing Tajfel and Turner’s
the experiential overlap between leader and manager (1986) social identity theory (Alvesson et al. 2008).
identities in workers’ everyday practice. Here, identity is generally conceived as a social cog-
We join Watson (2002) in discouraging the use of nitive construct (Brown 2015) with prevalent cause
‘professional identity’ in a way that conflates identi- and effect concerns, investigating associations be-
fication processes engaged in managing profession- tween identity-related phenomena and organizational
alism ideals with experiences relating to specific pro- outcomes. In contrast, interpretivists (including sym-
fessions (i.e. occupational roles). We also advocate bolic interactionists, Brown 2015) have a descrip-
distinguishing ‘profession as occupational role’ tive, socially derived meaning-centred focus of in-
(more likely to be organizationally situated) from quiry exploring the ‘complex, unfolding and dynamic
‘identification with the professionalism ideal’ (less relationship between self, work and organization’
likely to be organizationally situated). (Alvesson et al. 2008, pp. 8–9); interpretivists typ-
Having commented briefly on meta-theoretical pat- ically view identity as in flux and occasionally inter-
terns observed within the categories of foci, we pro- rupted or intensified in crises. A critical orientation
vide a brief summary by orientation next. (see Brown’s 2015 power/post-structuralism theme)
focuses on power relations to demonstrate how iden-
tity projects constitute a modern exemplification of
Meta-theoretical perspectives in literature
the tensions between control and resistance. Brown’s
on individual-level identity and identification foci
(2015) fourth, psychoanalytic category, refers to stud-
Like other authors (Alvesson et al. 2008; Brown ies examining how the subconscious (e.g. imagina-
2015; Miscenko and Day 2015), we find that tion, Driver 2009; intrapsychic dynamics, Petriglieri
meta-theoretical orientations and studies’ underlying and Stein 2012) influences personal meaning-making


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
282 D. Atewologun et al.

and behaviour at work. These different paradigmatic we draw on construct clarity criteria to position
communities tend to publish in isolation, as is the case various identity foci in relation to each other, reassess-
with organizational studies more broadly (Buchanan ing their usage and proposing suggestions to enhance
and Bryman, 2009). construct clarity in the field. According to Suddaby
Our SLR revealed that functionalist approaches (2010), construct clarity requires good definitions
were adopted in over half of the empirical stud- that capture the main properties of the phenomenon
ies reviewed, and applied from broad (work) to examined, avoid tautology and are parsimonious.
narrow identity foci (occupation-specific, leader, fol- Our review indicated that scholars utilize different
lower). Functionalist approaches dominated team definitions with varying degrees of parsimony to des-
and organizational targets. The prevalent term ‘or- ignate the same identity foci; thus, greater focal con-
ganizational identification’ belies the emphasis on sistency would benefit the field. Second, construct
organization-related self-definition as a mediator, clarity requires that we specify scope conditions.
moderator or outcome variable measured by a ques- Spatial (i.e. contextual) and temporal boundaries
tionnaire and statistically associated with perfor- are particularly pertinent to construct clarification in
mance and other behavioural and organizational fac- identity foci scholarship. Our findings highlight that
tors. the scope of the identity foci located in extant lit-
Interpretivist approaches dominate the academic erature ranges from general (e.g. work identity) to
discussion concerning individual-level identity foci specific (e.g. leader identity); and spatial boundaries
relating to manager, leader, follower, occupation and between foci exist within and outside organizations.
especially professional status. Descriptive, meaning- Additionally, time is a key definitional element for
centred approaches and the ‘evolving understanding certain identity foci (e.g. career), but remains under-
of self amid social situations’ (Alvesson et al. 2008, specified for other foci (e.g. transition from manager
p. 16) were evident in studies examining how individ- to leader).
uals craft and modify their ‘professional’ (i.e. occupa- Additionally, Suddaby (2010) claims that construct
tional) identities (e.g. Brown and Lewis 2011; Gen- clarity entails spelling out the semantic relationships
dron and Spira 2010) and how the professionalism between related constructs, as theoretical constructs
ideal influences individuals’ occupational identities do not exist in isolation, but are ‘suspended in a com-
(e.g. Currie et al. 2010; Pritchard and Fear 2015). plex web of references to and relationships with other
Critical and psychodynamic orientations challenge constructs’ (Suddaby 2010, p. 350). This review cat-
normative assumptions about professional, manage- alogued myriad constructs denoting identity foci, in-
rial and leader foci, prevalent in studies demonstrat- cluding inconsistencies within conceptualizations of
ing how part-time work (Dick 2015), gender (e.g. specific foci (i.e. same construct label used to denote
Haynes 2008, 2012), sexuality (Rumens and Kerfoot different concepts, such as organizational identity),
2009) and ethnicity (Srinivas 2013) disrupt profes- and across conceptualizations of different foci (i.e.
sional norms. Future individual-level identification different construct labels used to denote overlapping
research could do more to centre the interplay be- concepts, such as profession and occupation). A key
tween work and non-work domains for more inno- step for advancing the field is to further specify the
vative understanding of self-understandings in the semantic relationships between various identity foci
workplace (as recommended by Ramarajan and Reid constructs, in conjunction with clarifying the defini-
2013). tions and scope conditions for each construct. Thus,
Next, we turn our discussion to (a) advancing con- our second contribution entails considerations for en-
struct clarity based on identified inconsistencies and hancing construct clarity of key individual level iden-
opportunities by identity foci, rather than by ap- tity foci at work, offering an agenda for future re-
proaches and (b) an integrative framework to position search. Below we contextualize our construct clarity
current and future research agendas in the field. discussion to the identity foci reviewed. In Table 2
we summarize their conceptualization in extant liter-
ature, including limitations; we propose scope condi-
Foci construct clarity for future tions necessary in defining these foci, specify seman-
theoretical development tic relationships to other related concepts/foci and,
finally, offer integrative definitions for each target.
The field’s ability to establish construct clarity is ar- Overall, we found the organizationally located
guably key to the field’s development. In this section, foci (manager, leader, follower, team, organizational),


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Table 2. Considerations for enhancing construct clarity of individual level identity foci

Construct labels Conceptualization in extant literature Scope conditions Semantic relationships with other foci Proposed integrative definition

Managerial identity Interpretivist and critical perspectives Space: Organizationally bound Managerial identities can occur prior An individual’s sense of self in the
prevailing, with emphasis on Time: Mid-career experiences to and simultaneously with leader context of doing managerial work
emergent subjectivities identities, an under-examined that is influenced by organizational
(processual, relational, situational/ relationship. and social discourses concerning
contextual aspects) rather than The relationship between manager what managers do and how they
fixed definitions. and managed / follower is behave.
underspecified.
Leader identity Relatively consistent usage in the Space: Typically, organizationally Relative to follower identity, a link An individual’s sense of self as
literature, with functionalist bound but could also be explored in extant literature; someone who can guide others’
perspectives prevailing. Defined as community based and linked to relatively independent of other work and who receives
identity of an individual holding a other forms of organizing identities. acknowledgement of that ability
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work

supervisory position within an Time: Mid to late career experiences Career identity development can from those one guides as well as
organization. Interrelatedness with encapsulate leader identity the organization.
follower identity emphasized. development, but the relationship
(Rare) interpretivist and critical between these foci is underspecified.
approaches explore elusive or
unrealistic leadership ideals.
Follower identity Relatively clear definitions, Space: Typically, organizationally Relational/relative identity to leader, An individual’s sense of self as

C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
functionalist perspectives bound but could also be independent of other identities someone who is guided by others
prevailing and defining focus as community based and linked to Possible links to team identity in their work and who provides
personal identification with the other forms of organizing underexplored (e.g. are follower acknowledgement to those who
leader. Interrelatedness with leader Time: Mostly bound to identities stronger in certain teams?) guide.
identity emphasized. leader/manager relationship, thus
shifting and dynamic, likely to
develop or diminish over time
Team identity Relatively clear / consistent usage in Space: Typically, organizationally Team identities can be nested in An individual’s sense of self in the
the literature, functionalist bound but could also be community broader organizational identities – context of the beliefs they share
perspectives prevailing, examining based and linked to other forms of links currently explored. with a collection of workers and a
what team membership means to organizing (e.g. partnerships and Team identities could also be sense of belonging (within and
the individual. collaborations across institutions) examined in conjunction with outside an organization).
Time: Likely to evolve over time – managerial, leader and follower
across the lifecycle of a team, and identities – links currently
across individuals’ career/work under-explored.
experience
283
284

Table 2. Continued

Construct labels Conceptualization in extant literature Scope conditions Semantic relationships with other foci Proposed integrative definition

Organizational Relatively clear / consistent usage in Space: Organizationally bound (in Organizational identification can An individual’s sense of self as a
identification the literature, functionalist contrast to the meso level partially overlap with occupational person who is working for
perspectives prevailing, examining organizational identity concept or professional targets; career can /employed by an organization.
what it means and the extent to which may extend to also encapsulate several
which an individual perceives market/industry/stakeholder organizational identity foci (if one
themselves as a member of the boundaries) has several employers). These links
organization. Time: Identity transitions into and are currently under-explored, as
outside organizations extant literature focuses on
under-explored intra-organizational rather than
extra-organizational boundaries
with other foci.
Occupation-specific Covers an almost limitless number of Space: Expands beyond Narrower and potentially shorter-term An individual’s sense of self as a job
identities foci, studies span functionalist, organizational boundaries into than career identity. How holder in an identified role.
interpretivist and critical communities of practice. occupational identities feed into


perspectives. Studies often Time: Medium term, episodic, career identities over time remains
examine sense of oneself as a job relative to career; likely to evolve underexplored.
holder in a precarious role. into career identity over time. Professions are a sub-category of
occupations, thus occupational
identities subsume professional
ones. Some occupational foci
remain under-examined (e.g.
scientist, low-skilled occupations).
The most likely alternative to work
identity.
Professional identity Varied and inconsistent usage, studies Space: Can be organizationally Similar to occupations as identity An individual’s sense of self in the
span functionalist, interpretivist bound (e.g. professional services foci; a career could comprise a context of doing professional work
and critical perspectives, generally firms) or not; likely to vary within long-term series of experiences of that is influenced by social
examining identification with an members of a professional aspiring to a professionalism ideal. discourses concerning what
ideal of professionalism. community Such embeddedness and temporal professionals do and how they
Scope for greater insight into Likely to be similar across dynamics are currently behave.
professional identity content and national/cultural boundaries, underexplored.
context with increased processual compared to other foci Professional identities could clash
focus on professionalization rather Time: Aspiring towards being a with managerial identities (e.g.
than occupational experiences professional likely to occur over studies of doctors as managers).
within specific professions. time

C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
D. Atewologun et al.
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work 285

the narrowest in scope and most consistently de-

Proposed integrative definition


fined. These foci have close semantic links, yet to

An individual’s understanding of

experiences that incorporates


be fully explored. Regarding time, generally, man-

past, present, future work

longer-term occupational
ager and leader as focal identities are more likely to

Use an alternative above.


be pertinent from mid-career experiences onwards.
Integrative definitions would be relational, conceiv-
ing a leader focal identity as an individual’s sense
experiences. of self as someone who guides others’ work and re-
ceives acknowledgement of that ability from those
one guides, as well as the organization. Similarly, fol-
lower as focal identity would entail an individual’s
sense of self as someone who is guided by others
Semantic relationships with other foci

in their work and who provides acknowledgement to


development, but relationship
professional identities over time,

temporal dynamics are currently


Subsumes occupation-specific or

between these foci remains


Could nest leadership identity

those who guide. Regarding manager as individual


but such embeddedness and

identity focus, the dominant critical orientation in the


literature meant definitions of this target were gen-
Subsumes all other foci
underexplored.

erally eschewed in favour of emergent understand-


underexplored.

ings of managers’ subjective experiences. A recom-


mended integrative definition would encapsulate an
individual’s sense of self in the context of doing man-
agerial work that is influenced by organizational and
social discourses concerning what managers do and
what they are like. This perspective also leaves open
Space: Likely to span organizational

the opportunity for examinations of this focal identity


depending on usage could entail

as an occupation-specific identity.
Space: Spans organizational and
Time: Assumed to be stable but
and occupational boundaries

Team as an identity focus is consistently, if nar-


Scope conditions

occupational boundaries
Time: Critical dimension

rowly, studied from mostly positivist and functional-


different timescales

ist perspectives. Studies tend to focus on team iden-


tification as an outcome. Content measures of team
identification are often used to indicate levels of felt
belongingness and shared perceptions with an identi-
fied sub-unit within the organization. Typically, stud-
ies are organizationally/institutionally bound (e.g. in-
terprofessional health teams, Mitchell et al. 2011);
Conceptualization in extant literature

however, current trends in new forms of organizing


Lacks parsimony, used with different
constructed, occasional association

understanding of the work they do,


Relatively clearly and consistently

historically, presently and in the

and working (Salvato et al. 2017) suggest that future


functionalist, interpretivist and
with identification with work;

research should consider how individuals come to see


Emphasis on the individual’s
interpretivist and critical
studies span functionalist,

themselves as members of work units collaborating


meanings; studies span

critical perspectives.

across institutions in multidisciplinary units. Addi-


tionally, as team identification will vary across the
perspectives.

team lifecycle, and across an individual’s career/work


experience, these underexplored time conditions are
future.

also areas for future research. Finally, our review did


not reveal many studies of team identities in conjunc-
tion with other specific foci such as managerial and
leader identities (although there were several studies
in conjunction with organizational identification). A
Table 2. Continued

recommended integrative definition would encapsu-


Career identity
Construct labels

Work identity

late an individual’s sense of self in the context of the


beliefs they share with a collection of workers and a
sense of belonging to a work group not necessarily


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
286 D. Atewologun et al.

bound by the confines of an organization, or shared individual’s sense of self in the context of doing pro-
background/experiences. fessional work that is influenced by social discourses
With regards to organizational identification, in concerning what professionals do and what they are
our review, we considered this target to be organi- like.
zationally bound (in contrast to the common usage of Career as identity focus is a relatively clear con-
OI as a meso-level concept, which may extend to cept in the literature. However, definitions associating
market/industry/stakeholder boundaries). Concern- it with work-related identification are overly broad
ing time, transitions into and outside organizations and lack parsimony. Time is the most salient scope
(e.g. identification as part of newcomer socialization condition as career is a particularly time-sensitive
and disidentification as potential retirees transition identity focus. With regards to space, career as a fo-
out) comprise additional areas for future focus on in- cal identity is likely to span organizational bound-
dividual level identification targets. Additionally, sev- aries as individuals change employers. Occasionally,
eral sequential organizational identification foci can career as identity focus will span occupational bound-
offer the building blocks for constructing longer-term aries as people reorient themselves professionally or
identities such as professional and careers. These foci change trajectories. Career as identity focus subsumes
could be coherently nested over time or could reveal occupation-specific foci due to its long-term holistic
the fractured and inconsistent nature of organizational nature (in a career life span, one can hold different oc-
identification (Brown, 2017). cupations; career identity results from the cumulative
Examining occupations, the identity focus is likely synthetic effect of these more local, organizationally
to be more medium term and episodic relative to ca- bound and more time-defined foci). An integrative
reer as focus. Over time, it is likely that occupation- definition of career as identity focus would incorpo-
specific identities crystallize into a career focal iden- rate an understanding of one’s past, present, future
tity. Such temporal transitions could be captured work experiences that incorporates longer-term oc-
with processual longitudinal research designs. Fur- cupational experiences.
ther, occupation-specific identities expand beyond or- As discussed, work is the widest identity focus
ganizational boundaries as occupations are defined subsuming all the other foci we examined, while
and sustained in larger communities of practice. As presenting conceptual overlaps between work-related
discussed, this concept is narrower than career iden- identity and other concepts. With regards to scope
tity as it can only be meaningfully applied to specific conditions, there is often an assumption that work
jobs, whilst a career identity can encompass several identity remains stable (especially within functional-
jobs and occupations through the life-course. As pro- ist orientations). However, even within this tradition,
fessions (‘a paid occupation, especially one that in- scholars can examine how experience and knowledge
volves prolonged training and a formal qualification’, accumulate over time or on changing occupations,
Oxford English Dictionary) comprise a sub-category with the potential for a changing work identity in
of occupations, we propose that specific professional both cases. In its current usage, the concept spans or-
identities be examined as occupations. As a likely al- ganizational and occupational boundaries and seems
ternative to ‘work identity’, an integrative definition to lack clear spatial boundaries. Thus, for enhanced
of occupational identity focus would incorporate an precision and clarity, we recommend researchers use
individual’s self-understanding as a job holder in an other terms, selecting from one of the alternatives
identified role. above.
As previously discussed, there is an indetermi- The above considerations for construct clarity ac-
nate use of the term ‘professional’. With regards to commodate diverse theoretical and methodological
time, future attention could turn to individual mean- perspectives in the field and we expect would be
ing making with regards to aspiring towards profes- contextualized. Constructs are ‘carefully articulated
sional status and living up to these ideals. This identity abstractions’ (Suddaby 2010, p. 353), conceptual
focus is not typically organizationally bound. How- frames that enable us to capture a phenomenon and
ever, contexts such as professional services firms offer compare it with others. Construct clarity can as-
boundary conditions for examination. Similar to oc- sist empirical analyses even when meaning standards
cupations as identity foci, a career could comprise a and construct use diverges across research traditions
long-term series of experiences of aspiring to a pro- and epistemological perspectives (Suddaby 2010).
fessionalism ideal. Thus, an integrative definition of For positivists, construct clarity can help compare
professionalism as identity focus would describe an and contrast results, as well-defined constructs are


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work 287

easier to operationalize and test. For constructivists Our reading of the selected papers indicates
and interpretivists, construct clarity helps in captur- that two dimensions appear key to orientating
ing and communicating individuals’ subjective mean- individual-level identity research in the work con-
ings and interpretations of an abstraction grounded text. First, conceptualizing identities as stable or fluid
in actors’ meaning-in-use, rather than a priori con- generally reflects one’s meta-theoretical perspective
structs imposed by researchers (Gephart, in Suddaby on the identity research project undertaken (Ash-
2010). We recognize that identity foci underpinned forth et al. 2008; Brown 2015). A process perspec-
by clear constructs will be investigated differ- tive of identification rather than a variance approach
ently across meta-theoretical traditions. For instance, to identities is a central difference in the literature.
functionalist studies of organizational identification These approaches, typically associated with personal
will emphasize its importance for employee attrition meaning-making dynamics being more stable or more
or performance (e.g. Liao et al. 2015); interpretivist evolving, are denoted by the horizontal axis in Figure
studies will focus on individuals’ meaning-making 3. The key question here is whether researchers are
and the self-construction in relation to the organi- primarily interested in what it takes to inhabit a pre-
zation (e.g. Gendron and Spira 2010), and critical specified focus, or in the (ongoing or developmental)
studies will expose the power of hegemonic organi- dynamics entailed in attaining this focus.
zational norms in shaping subjectivities (e.g. Brown The vertical axis in Figure 3 indicates scope of
and Humphreys 2006). Thus, in providing integrative interest. This second dimension relates to whether
definitions and construct clarity guidelines, our intent interest is directed towards the content of the iden-
is not to stifle theoretical and methodological diver- tity focus (e.g. what it means to the individual to be
sity, but rather to provide common ground for con- a doctor) or towards the context or situational fac-
versations that might overcome paradigmatic ‘cold tors shaping that identity focus (e.g. enabling factors
wars’ and silos (Buchanan and Bryman 2009; Yanow that shape one’s occupational identity as a doctor).
and Ybema, 2009). To facilitate cross-paradigmatic Identity content signifies the meaning of the identity
discussion, we conceptualize an integrative frame- focus in question and associated prescribed modes of
work for current and future individual-level iden- behaviour (Livingstone and Haslam 2008); and com-
tity foci research as discussed within the following prises values, goals, beliefs, stereotypic traits, knowl-
section. edge, skills and abilities associated with that identity
(Ashforth et al. 2008). When there is incongruence
between the content of two or more identities, identity
An integrative framework for current conflicts arise (e.g. Gotsi et al. 2010). Identity content
and future research agendas also includes formal and informal rules, relational
comparisons with other social categories and cogni-
Our SLR indicated research on individual-level iden- tive models (Abdelal et al. 2006). In contrast, identity
tity foci uses a multitude of concepts across vari- context refers to settings, social and historical fac-
ous perspectives. We offer an integrative framework tors that impact the development or performance of a
that organizes existent studies around four broad target identity. For example, Brown and Humphreys
constellations, allowing researchers to position cur- (2006) analyse the role of geographical sites in the
rent and future work with greater precision. These construction of team identities. And Spyridonidis
clusters do not represent rigid boundaries, but lenses et al.’s (2015) study of hybrid manager-physician pro-
for discerning current trends and future possibilities fessional identities reveals the role of institutional,
for the field, including drawing attention to underuti- political and economic pressures on the enactment
lized methodologies within each cluster. of certain occupation-specific roles. Though related
The dimensions were identified as we sought to to context, identity content operates independently of
interpret and interrogate the literature on individual- context (Livingstone and Haslam 2008). The ques-
level foci, iteratively going between the selected tion for this axis is whether researchers are primarily
articles and other identity literature reviews (e.g. concerned with the identity focus itself (content) or
Ashforth et al. 2008; Alvesson 2010; Brown 2015; with the focus in situ (context i.e. the relationships,
Miscenko and Day, 2015). We adopt a 2 × 2 matrix situations or narratives in which a focal identity be-
for simplicity, acknowledging that this is just one of comes salient and evolves). The decision to focus on
many alternative sensitizing devices for making sense context is also largely influenced by the empirical
of a messy field. context of the research (Haslam et al., 2017), such as


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
288 D. Atewologun et al.

Figure 3. A positioning framework for individual-level identity foci related to work

a concern for how individuals conceptualize leaders identities (Quadrant 2); the stable context of identity
(content) in comparison to how changes within an foci, such as a prevailing professionalism discourse
organization may impact an individual’s understand- (Quadrant 3); and the evolving context of identifi-
ing of herself as a leader (context). Different triggers cation foci, such as situational factors that control
are likely to come into play. For example, identity and enable the professionalization identity process
conflict may be a cue for identity work focused on (Quadrant 4).
content (triggering congruence). On the other hand, Our intention is to emphasize the essence of, and
identity salience is likely to be the trigger for identity contrast between, the four positions, rather than elab-
work focused on context; here, context is situationally orate on the variations within them. Thus, the frame-
relevant and subjectively important (Ashforth et al. work progresses dialogue on construct clarification
2008). Although organizational researchers often en- in individual identity foci research by eliciting re-
gage with the debates regarding stability/fluidity searchers’ explicit assumptions relating to their iden-
of identity, we find less consideration of identity tity target of study and by flagging up conceptual
content versus context. Indeed, there is still much to and methodological issues to be addressed by further
learn about how organizational, national and cultural research.
contexts affect identity foci (Brown 2015). However,
as Brown (2017) notes in relation to agency / structure
debates, identities are neither simply chosen by au- The stable content of identity foci
tonomous individuals unconstrained by context, nor Quadrant 1 represents conventional foci of individual-
merely allocated or imposed by context. level identification at work, such as relatively fixed
Thus, the constellations in Figure 3 are not rigid assumptions regarding what it means to an indi-
boundaries, as identities and identification are both vidual to be a leader, a manager or to hold a par-
stable and adaptive and changes in context affect ticular type of job (e.g. Day and Harrison 2007;
changes in content (e.g. as in the case of organiza- Johnson et al. 2012). The interest here is typically
tional prototypes; Hogg and Terry 2000). We distin- the experiences, attributes or traits associated with
guish between studies focusing on the stable content inhabiting a given identity focus. This includes how
of identity foci, such as a particular occupation individuals make sense of occupations or how they
(Quadrant 1); the evolving content of identification manage multiple occupations. Of course, underly-
foci, such as the changing meanings associated ing assumptions about the fluidity or stability of
with acquiring ‘professional status’ occupational identity//identification content might be inherently


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work 289

different across theoretical perspectives (e.g. Brown managerial and leader self-construal through time.
(2017), notes that psychologists tend to emphasize Processes relating to identification remain underspec-
stability while postmodernists emphasize the fluid ified in identity research generally (Brown 2015).
and fractured nature of identity content). Our review Longitudinal examinations of sensemaking as an in-
indicates that ‘work’, seen as a relatively stable and ternal meaning making process (Weick 1995) could
secure identity target, currently captures overly broad, be a useful analytical tool here. Additionally, there
sometimes vague, and multiple identity content. The is insufficient analytical use of time in identity stud-
review also indicates that there is more scope for ies (Brown 2015). Examining the evolving content of
examining meanings associated with rich, content- identification foci requires time-sensitive analyses of
imbued foci such as ‘professional occupation’. While how behavioural norms linked to various foci evolve,
certain professions are extensively examined (e.g. morph into each other or relate to each other over time
consultants, lawyers), others would benefit from fur- (such designs were rare in our data). Process studies
ther attention (e.g. scientists). Additionally, we notice and methodologies would be particularly useful in this
an elitist bias in the literature, attending to high-status respect (as demonstrated by Howard-Grenville et al.
identification foci. Future research could expand the 2013; Lutgen-Sandvik 2008), either through longi-
array of foci examined to include the personal mean- tudinal designs or retrospective interviews (Langley
ings associated with holding low skill or low status et al. 2013).
jobs.
The stable context of identity foci
The evolving content of identification foci
Quadrant 3 comprises studies of individual-level
The focus in Quadrant 2 is primarily on the evolv- identification at work that are sensitive to relational
ing, individual sense-making patterns associated with and other contextual factors, including the narra-
acquiring and developing a focal identity. Exem- tives surrounding specific occupational foci. Exem-
plar studies examine adaptive leader identification plar studies from our review examine the relational
and leader identity development (e.g. Humphreys dimensions of ‘leader’ as a focal identity (Sun 2013).
et al. 2015); research questions are variants of what Additionally, Brown and Humphreys (2006) take a
it takes to become and begin seeing oneself as different perspective on group/team identity (relative
a leader. Although the primary interest is on the to other studies of this target) and demonstrate how
meanings attributed to constructing a given identity ‘place’ (e.g. a college site) is a discursive resource on
(over time), our review revealed that interpretivist which groups draw in their efforts to author versions
researchers do demonstrate sensitivity to broader of their organization’s identity. However, this was the
socio-structural and socio-historical factors affect- only example of examining a relatively stable context
ing self-construction. For example, social stigma and of team/workgroup identification.
occupational stereotypes inherent in enacting jour- In this quadrant, attention to the discourse sur-
nalist and engineer occupations were identified in rounding ‘the professional’ can be fully explored.
African-American journalists’ (Slay and Smith 2011) Examination of narratives attributed to certain ‘pro-
and women engineers’ (Hatmaker 2013) experiences. fessions’, such as creativity, elitism and expertise are
Future research could pay increased attention to also categorized here. Researchers can further ex-
how career identification content changes over time. plore ‘professionalism’ as an identity focus by ex-
Since advancement towards leadership is often nested amining a range of (rather than single) occupations
within career transitions, future studies could also collectively labelled professions. For example, there
explore the overlap or disjuncture between ‘career’ is a gap in understanding the identity concerns shared
and ‘leadership’ as identification foci. There is also a across members of specific consulting organizations
gap to be addressed in our understanding of individ- or public sector institutions (Brown 2015). This will
ual sensemaking during different phases of establish- advance understanding of broader factors beyond
ing an occupational identity, such as the path from organizational boundaries that enable and hinder
Associate, to Consultant, to Manager, to Partner in the manifestation of a relatively stable ‘professional
professional services firms, and routes to other ‘elite’ identity’. Additionally, investigating critical struc-
identities. Future research could also focus on un- tural and contextual factors surrounding a wider range
derstanding shifts between foci, such as how/whether of identity foci (such as the ‘migrant’ or ‘low skilled’
there is a sequential development between follower, worker) would prove insightful.


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290 D. Atewologun et al.

The evolving context of identification foci add depth to our understanding of the contextual con-
ditions that shape the acquisition of various identity
We see the greatest potential for studying individual-
foci.
level foci falling within Quadrant 4. The issues of
interest here are the contextual factors influencing
the process of identification with a target, which Conclusion
include relational, institutional, structural and his-
torical aspects. A classic examination of the exter- This paper’s SLR provides a comprehensive synthesis
nal/contextual factors that trigger identification in- of research regarding the bases by which one derives
clude papers on organizational sensebreaking and a sense of self in the context of work. We identified
sensegiving processes (e.g. Pratt 2000). In addition, nine identity foci (manager, leader, follower, team, or-
Empson (2013) shows how colleagues can play the ganization, occupation-specific, professional, career,
role of self-appointed ‘identity regulators’. In this work), spanning a range of functionalist and interpre-
quadrant, we position critical examinations of indi- tivist meta-theoretical approaches, with slightly fewer
viduals’ evolving professionalization, as well as in- critical perspectives. We offered recommendations to
vestigations of the precariousness of aspiring to pro- enhance construct clarity of these foci by specify-
fessional ideals (e.g. Bain 2005; Fraher and Gabriel ing clearer conceptual boundaries for each focus and
2014). semantic relationships between foci, formulating spe-
Future research could examine adaptive follower cific suggestions to progress theoretical development
identity development, for example, considering how in the field. We also proposed an integrative frame-
the context of formal leader development pro- work to map nuances in the terrain regarding scope
grammes affects leader identification, compared to of interest and assumptions of identity foci studies,
informal learning or mentoring processes. Further, highlighting themes within the four clusters identi-
leadership identification is context-dependent and fied, relationships across categories and future re-
professional services create unique contexts for lead- search agendas.
ership (Empson 2013). Thus, examining how pro- We acknowledge our part in shaping the conceptual
fessionalism ideals shape leadership identification in boundaries we set for the SLR (e.g. individual focus).
professional services and the NHS (as earlier dis- We also recognize that in utilizing this methodology
cussed) as contexts would prove insightful. Similarly, and focusing only on management and organizational
while there is significant understanding of the content studies (MOS) literature, we inherently treat identity
of OID (e.g. in terms of measures), future research and the autonomous self as unproblematic and risk
could seek rich context data, such as how different perpetuating what Knights and Clarke (2017) refer
organizational forms and industries influence indi- to as a myopia endemic within the field. However,
vidual sensemaking. In short, within this quadrant, without wishing to disregard the value of insights
we see ample opportunity to investigate the ‘pro- from earlier multidisciplinary literature, we argue that
cess of contestation’, in which individuals strive to highlighting differences in the ways in which scholars
make sense of collective identities (Haslam et al., apply identity constructs within current MOS schol-
2017). arship reveals both researcher assumptions and unex-
Beyond organizational boundaries, what individual plored facets of organizational life. Furthermore, as
level identity foci become salient for working individ- scholars with organizational psychology backgrounds
uals across different national cultures? How do con- currently involved in social justice research agen-
temporary political movements and events, imbued das, and using qualitative methods within largely
with populist and anti-intellectual narratives, affect interpretivist perspectives, we demonstrate some
identification with professions where expertise is crit- ‘scholarly empathy’ with different communities of re-
ical (e.g. scientist)? Does the apparent preoccupation searchers in the field (positivists/functionalists, inter-
with professionalism/professionalization, occupation pretivists, and critical scholars). As a research team,
and organization as bases for self-definition play out we experienced this multiplicity as both a tension and
in non-Western contexts? Additionally, how does pre- a strength, allowing us to reflect the theoretical and
carious employment (prevalent in today’s Western methodological diversity in the field.
economies) shape the development of occupational We acknowledge the richness and complexity of
and career focal identities in the medium and long the field. Although we have sought rigour and trans-
term? Such questions for future researchers would parency in presenting our methodology, decisions


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Individual-level Foci of Identification at Work 291

regarding keywords, search strings, inclusion and ex- will provide a more informed guide to making schol-
clusion criteria may have inadvertently caused some arly choices in the field.
papers to be excluded. For example, by focusing
on adults, much (student-based) vocational identity
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Supporting Information
Thomas, R. and Davies, A. (2005). Theorizing the micro-
politics of resistance: new public management and man- Additional Supporting Information may be found in
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past research and future challenges. International Journal Appendix Table A1: Inclusion and exclusion
of Management Reviews, 16, pp. 24–61. criteria.
Watson, T. (2002). Professions and professionalism: should Appendix Table A2: Sample data extraction
we jump off the bandwagon, better to study where it is form.


C 2017 British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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