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Chapter 1.7.1
GENERAL THEORY OF ELASTIC WAVE
SCATTERING
Roel Snieder PART 1 SCATTERING OF WAVES BY
Department of Geophysics and Center for Wave
MACROSCOPIC TARGETS
Phenomena,
Colorado School of Mines, Topic 1.7 Elastodynamic Wave (Elastic)
Golden, Colorado 80401, Scattering: Theory
U.S.A.
This chapter appears in Scattering and Inverse Scattering in Pure and Applied Science, Eds. Pike, R. and P.
Sabatier, Academic Press, San Diego, 528-542, 2002.
General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering 529
For a general medium the stress in the medium de- has in three dimensions 21 independent elements. Of
pends in a complicated way on the deformation of special importance is the case of an isotropic elastic
the medium. The deformation of the medium results medium. In such a medium the elasticity tensor does
from a displacement vector u(r) in the medium that not depend on some preferred direction, but only on
varies with position, because a constant displacement the Lamé parameters λ and µ
vector u does not generate an internal deformation.
For small elastic deformations the relation between cijkl = λδij δkl + µ(δik δjl + δil δjk ), (10)
the deformation and the resulting stress can be lin- where δij is the Kronecker delta defined by δij = 1 when
earised; this linearisation is expressed by Hooke’s i = j and δij = 0 when i 6= j. For the moment we consider
law:
a general elasticity tensor.
τij = cijkl ekl . (5) The force associated
H with the stress acting on a vol-
ume is given by T dS, where the surface integral is
Throughout this chapter the summation convention over the surface that bounds the volume. By the the-
is used where one sums over repeated indices. In oremR of Gauss and expression (3), this force is given
expression (5) the infinitesimal strain tensor eij is de- by ∇ · τ dV. This implies that the force generated by
fined by the internal stress per unit volume is given by the di-
vergence of the stress tensor (∇ · τ). In addition to this
1
eij = (∂i uj + ∂j ui ), (6) force, forces such as gravity or a seismic source that
2 are not resulting from the deformation may be opera-
where the notation ∂i stands for the derivative with tive. These forces per unit volume are denoted by the
respect to the xi coordinate: ∂i f ≡ ∂f/∂xi . The force vector f. Since the mass per unit volume is given
fourth-order tensor cijkl , called the elasticity tensor, by the density ρ, Newton’s law can be written as
generalises the concept of the spring constant of a sim- ρü = ∇ · τ + f. (11)
ple spring to three-dimensional elastic media. One
should keep in mind that Hooke’s law (5) is a lin- It should be noted that this is the linearised form of
Newton’s law. Since we are dealing with a continu-
earisation that breaks down in situations when the
ous medium the acceleration contains advective terms
response of the medium is nonlinear. This is for exam- as well; hence, the left-hand side should be written as
ple the case at fractures or in the earthquake source ρ∂v/∂t+ρv·∇v, with v being the velocity vector. How-
region, where nonlinear fracture behaviour governs ever, when the material velocity v is much smaller than
the response of the medium. the wave velocity, the advective terms can be ignored
It follows from the definition (6) that the strain ten- (Snieder, 2001). By inserting (9) in Newton’s law,
sor is symmetric: one obtains the wave equation for the displacement
vector
eij = eji . (7)
ρüi = ∂j cijkl ∂k ul + fi . (12)
Because of this property, the elasticity tensor is sym-
metric when the last indices are exchanged: cijkl = cijlk . In the frequency domain this corresponds to
Since according to (4) the stress tensor is also symmet-
ric, the elasticity tensor is also symmetric in the first ρω2 ui + ∂j (cijkl ∂k ul ) = −fi . (13)
two indices: cijkl = cjikl . Energy considerations (Aki In a shorthand notation we will write this expression
and Richards, 1980) imply that the elasticity tensor is also as
also symmetric for exchange of the first and last pair
of indices: cijkl = cklij . The elasticity tensor therefore Lu = −f, (14)
has the symmetry properties where the operator L is defined by
cijkl = cjikl = cijlk = cklij . (8) Lij = ρω2 δij + ∂k ciklj ∂l . (15)
Inserting (6) in (5) and using the symmetry of the elas- The wave equation is a second-order differential
ticity tensor in the first pair of indices, the relation be- equation for the displacement vector u that needs to
tween the stress and the displacement can be written be supplemented with boundary conditions at the sur-
as face of the medium. At a stress-free surface S, the
τij = cijkl ∂k ul . (9) tractions acting on the surface vanish:
T = n̂ · τ = 0 at S. (16)
In general a tensor of rank 4 in three dimensions
has 81 components. The symmetry relations (8) re- This boundary condition is appropriate when the sur-
duce the number of independent components of the face S forms the outer boundary of the elastic body
elasticity tensor to the number of independent ele- that is surrounded by empty space. Ignoring the stress
ments of a symmetric 6 × 6 matrix (Backus, 1970; imposed on an elastic body imposed by the gas or fluid
Helbig, 1994), which means that the elasticity tensor in which the body is possibly embedded, the tractions
530 General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering
vanish at the surface. Using (3) and (9) this bound- Figure 1 Vertical component of the ground motion at a seismic
ary condition can be expressed as a condition for the station in Naroch (Belarus) after an earthquake at Jan-Mayen Is-
displacement at the free surface: land. This station, part of the Network of Autonomously Recording
Seismographs (NARS), is operated by Utrecht University.
nj cijkl ∂k ul = 0 at S. (17)
transverse waves. The polarisation of these waves is In order to derive the representation theorem for
indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2. Longitudinal waves elastic waves, let us consider a displacement u(1) that
propagate at a higher velocity than do the transverse is generated by an excitation f (1) , and a displacement
waves. The nomenclature “P wave” and “S waves” u(2) that is caused by an excitation f (2) :
historically denotes the first arriving (primary) and (1)
(1)
(1)
later arriving (secondary) body waves. The wave ar- ρω2 ui + ∂j cijkl ∂k ul = −fi ,
riving around 300 s therefore is the P wave while the (2)
(2)
(2)
ρω2 ui + ∂j cijkl ∂k ul = −fi . (24)
wave arriving around 550 s is the S wave. There are
two directions of polarisation perpendicular to the (2)
Multiply the first equation by ui and the second by
path of propagation; for this reason there are two (1)
S waves in an isotropic medium that for reason of ui , subtract the two expressions and integrate over
symmetry propagate at the same velocity. When the a volume V:
medium is anisotropic, there are still three polarisa-
Z n
(2) (1) (1) (2)
o
ui ∂j cijkl ∂k ul − ui ∂j cijkl ∂k ul dV
tions of the body waves, but they do not correspond Z n
to longitudinal and transverse directions of polarisa- (1) (2) (2) (1)
o
=− fi ui − fi ui dV. (25)
tions. This is treated in more detail under Plane Wave
Solutions. The volume integrals on the left-hand side can be
The surface wave is guided along the Earth’s sur- converted
R into surfaceR integrals using the R identi-
face. For an isotropic Earth model where the elas- ties vi ∂j (cijklH∂k ul )dV = ∂j (vi cijkl ∂Rk ul )dV − (∂j vi )cijkl
tic parameters and the density depend only on depth (∂k ul )dV = nj vi cijkl ∂k ul dS − (∂j vi )cijkl (∂k ul )dV,
there are two types of surface wave: Rayleigh waves where Gauss’s theorem is used in the last equality.
and Love waves. The Love wave is linearly polarised Applying this to both terms on the left-hand side of
in the horizontal direction perpendicular to the prop- (25) gives
agation path, while Rayleigh waves have an ellip- I n
(2) (1) (1) (2)
o
soidal polarisation in the vertical plane through the nj ui cijkl ∂k ul − nj ui cijkl ∂k ul dS
path of propagation (Aki and Richards, 1980). Love
Z n
(2) (1) (1) (2)
o
− ∂j ui cijkl ∂k ul − ∂j ui cijkl ∂k ul dV
and Rayleigh waves propagate in different modes, the Z n
number of modes depending in a nontrivial way on (1) (2) (2) (1)
o
=− fi ui − fi ui dV. (26)
the Earth model and on frequency.
The velocity of wave propagation changes with Because of the symmetry properties of the elasticity
depth in the Earth. Since the surface waves penetrate tensor as shown in the last identity of (8), the terms in
to different depths at different frequencies, the phase the second line vanish so that this expression reduces
velocity of each surface wave mode in general depends to
on frequency. This implies that surface waves are in I n
(2) (1) (1) (2)
o
nj ui cijkl ∂k ul − nj ui cijkl ∂k ul dS
general dispersive. This can clearly be seen in the sur-
face wave that arrives in Fig. 1; the early part of the
Z n
(1) (2) (2) (1)
o
=− fi ui − fi ui dV. (27)
wave train around 650 s has a frequency much lower
than that of the later part of the wave train, which This general expression holds for any volume V,
arrives around 800 s. which is not necessarily the complete extent of the
elastic body through which the waves propagate.
§ 4. The Representation Theorem We now specialise momentarily for the case
wherein the Green’s function satisfies homogeneous
Green’s functions are very important in scattering boundary conditions on the bounding surface S. This
problems. In elasticity theory the Green’s function means that either the Green’s function or its associ-
gives the displacement generated by a point force in a ated traction vanish on the boundary: Gin (r, r 0 ) = 0
certain direction. Since both the point force and the or nj cijkl ∂k (Gln ) = 0 when r is located on S. When
displacement are vectors with three components, the (1) (2)
point forces fi (r) = δin (r − r1 ) and fi (r) = δim (r − r2 )
Green’s function is a 3 × 3 tensor. The ith component
of a unit force in the n direction at location r 0 is given are used to excite the wave fields u(1) and u(2) , these
by δin δ(r − r 0 ). The Green’s tensor Gin (r, r 0 ) is the dis- wave fields are by definition equal to the Green’s ten-
(1) (2)
placement at location r in the i direction due to this sors: ui (r) = Gin (r, r1 ) and ui (r) = Gim (r, r2 ). For
point force this special excitation the following identity holds:
R (1) (2) R
ρω2 Gin (r, r 0 ) + ∂j (cijkl ∂k Gln (r, r 0 )) = −δin δ(r − r 0 ), (22) fi ui dV = δin (r − r1 )Gim (r, r2 )dV = Gnm (r1 , r2 ).
Inserting these results in (27) then gives the reciprocity
or, using the shorthand notation of Eq. (15), theorem:
Lij Gjn (r, r 0 ) = −δin δ(r − r 0 ). (23) Gnm (r1 , r2 ) = Gmn (r2 , r1 ). (28)
532 General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering
This theorem states that n component of the displace- With this decomposition one can also separate the
ment at r1 due to a point source excitation in r2 in operator L defined in expression (15) into an oper-
the m direction is identical to the m component of ator L(0) for the reference medium and an operator
the displacement at r2 due to a point source excita- L(1) associated with the perturbation of the medium.
tion in r1 in the n direction. In other words, when It should be noted that the reference medium is not
the roles of source and receiver are exchanged, one necessarily a homogeneous medium. For the Earth,
obtains exactly the same wave field. for example, an Earth model in which the properties
Note that in deriving the representation theorem depend only on depth is a natural reference model.
the volume V can be any volume, and the wave- Let u(0) be the solution for the reference medium, and
field solution can have any value at the surface S that denote the Green’s function for the reference medium
bounds this volume. Let us now leave out the super- by G(0) ; this means that in operator notation
scripts (1) in u(1) and f (1) and let the (2) solution be (0) (0)
Lij Gjn (r, r 0 ) = −δin δ(r − r 0 ). (32)
the Green’s function for a unit point force at r 0 in the
(2)
n direction. This means that fi (r) = δin (r − r 0 ), and Let us now assume that at the surface of the medium
the associated response is by definition given by the the tractions vanish. This boundary condition holds
(2) both for the reference medium and for the perturbed
Green’s tensor: ui (r) = Gin (r, r 0 ). Using this in ex-
pression (27) yields medium.
Z The total wave field in the perturbed medium that
un (r 0 ) = Gin (r, r 0 )fi (r)dV is excited by a force f(r) is given by
I
0 L(0) + L(1) u(r) = −f(r), (33)
+ {Gin (r, r )nj cijkl ∂k ul (r)
or
−ui (r)nj cijkl ∂k Gln (r, r 0 )}dS. (29)
L(0) u(r) = − f(r)+L(1) u(r) . (34)
The reciprocity theorem (28) can be applied to the
Green’s tensors on the right-hand side. Exchanging According to this expression the total wave field in the
the coordinates r ↔ r 0 in the resulting expression and perturbed medium is identical to the wave field in the
interchanging the indices i ↔ n then gives the repre- unperturbed medium that is generated by an effective
sentation theorem: force given by f(r)+L(1) u(r). The representation theo-
Z rem (30) for the reference medium can be applied to
ui (r) = Gin (r, r 0 )fn (r 0 )dV 0 this result. Using that the effective force is given by
I f(r)+L(1) u(r), the wave field is given by
+ {Gin (r, r 0 )nj cnjkl ∂k0 ul (r 0 ) Z
(0)
ui (r) = Gin (r, r 0 )fn (r 0 ) dV 0
−un (r 0
)nj cnjkl ∂k0 Gil (r, r 0 )}dS 0 . (30) Z
(0) (1)
Note that the integration and differentiation are now + Gin (r, r 0 )Lnj (r 0 )uj (r 0 ) dV 0
over the primed coordinates. When the exciting force I
(0) (0)
fn (r 0 ) is known within the volume and when the wave + Gin (r, r 0 )nj cnjkl ∂k0 ul (r 0 )
field un (r 0 ) and the associated traction nj cijkl ∂k ul (r 0 ) (0) (0)
−un (r 0 )nj cnjkl ∂k0 Gil (r, r 0 ) dS 0 .
(35)
are known on the surface S, one can compute the
wave field everywhere within the volume V. This ex- Note that the Green’s tensor for the reference medium
pression forms the basis of the elastic equivalent of is used and that in the surface integral the elasticity
the Kirchhoff integral. tensor c(0) of the reference medium is used. The first
term on the right-hand side is the unperturbed wave:
§ 5. The Lippman–Schwinger Equa-
Z
(0) (0)
ui (r) = Gin (r, r 0 )fn (r 0 )dV 0 . (36)
tion for Elastic Waves
At this point we assume that the reference medium
In order to describe scattering it is necessary to define has zero tractions at the surface:
a reference medium in which an unperturbed wave (0) (0)
propagates and a perturbation of the medium that nj cnjkl ∂k0 Gil (r, r 0 ) = 0. (37)
acts as a secondary source that generates scattered
waves. For this reason we divide the elasticity ten- Because of this boundary condition the last term in
(35) vanishes. The perturbed medium also has zero
sor c into a reference tensor c(0) and a perturbation
tractions at the surface S, but for this boundary con-
c(1) , and do the same for the density: dition we must use the perturbed elasticity tensor and
c(r) = c(0) (r) + c(1) (r),
the total wave field:
(31)
(0) (1)
ρ(r) = ρ(0) (r) + ρ(1) (r). nj cijkl + cijkl ∂k ul (r) = 0. (38)
General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering 533
(0)
From this it follows that at the surface nj cijkl ∂k ul (r) = many problems the Born approximation is a useful
(1) tool for computing the scattered waves. This approx-
−nj cijkl ∂k ul (r).
This expression can be used in the imation is obtained by replacing the total wave field
third term of the right-hand side of (35). Using on the right-hand side of (41) with the unperturbed
these results and inserting also definition (15) for the wave. This means that in the Born approximation
operator L(1) one obtains that the scattered waves uBi are given by
Z Z
(0) (0) (0) (0)
ui (r) = ui (r) + ω2 Gij (r, r 0 )ρ(1) (r 0 )uj (r 0 ) dV 0 uBi (r) = ω2 Gij (r, r 0 )ρ(1) (r 0 )uj (r 0 ) dV 0
Z Z
(0) (1)
(0) (1) (0)
+ Gin (r, r 0 )∂k0 cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dV 0 − ∂k0 Gin (r, r 0 ) cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dV 0 . (42)
I
(0) (1)
− Gin (r, r 0 )nj cnjkl ∂k0 ul (r 0 ) dS 0 . (39) An alternative way to obtain the Born approximation
is to iterate the integral equation (41). This result-
Note that the perturbed elasticity tensor c(1) is present ing series is nothing but the Neumann series solution
in the surface integral as well as in the volume integral for elastodynamic wave scattering where the wave
in the second line. The theorem of Gauss can be used field is written as a sum of the unperturbed wave, the
to convert this volume integral in a surface integral: single-scattered waves, the double-scattered waves,
Z
(0)
(1)
etc. Truncating this series after the second term gives
Gin (r, r 0 )∂k0 cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dV 0 (42) for the scattered waves. This implies that the
Z
(0) (1)
Born approximation (42) retains the single-scattered
= ∂k0 Gin (r, r 0 )cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dV 0
waves in an elastic medium. Analytic estimates of the
domain of applicability for the Born approximation
Z
(0) (1)
− ∂k0 Gin (r, r 0 ) cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dV 0
I for elastic waves are given by Hudson and Heritage
=
(0) (1)
nk Gin (r, r 0 )cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 )dS 0 (1982).
Z So far we have considered volumetric perturba-
(0) (1)
− ∂k0 Gin (r, r 0 ) cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dV 0 . (40) tions of the density and elasticity tensor. In many ap-
plications, the perturbations of the medium are best
The surface integral in this expression is the same as described by perturbations in the position of inter-
the surface integral in expression (39) but it has the faces within the medium. Because the properties of
opposite sign. When (40) is inserted in (39) these the reference medium are discontinuous at interfaces,
terms cancel so that finally we consider perturbations of height h away from their
position in the reference medium. For perturbations
of the boundary height small compared to the wave-
Z
(0) (0)
ui (r) = ui (r) + ω2 Gij (r, r 0 )ρ(1) (r 0 )uj (r 0 ) dV 0
length of elastic waves, the associated perturbation of
the
(0)density is equivalent to a volumetric perturbation
Z
(0) (1)
− ∂k0 Gin (r, r 0 ) cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dV 0 . (41)
ρ over a thickness h across the interface (Hudson,
This is the Lippman–Schwinger equation for elastic 1977). The straight brackets denote the contrast in
wave scattering. In this expression the total wave field the density across the interface. Similarly the associ-
ated perturbation of the elasticity tensor is given a vol-
is decomposed in the unperturbed wave plus scattered
umetric perturbation c(1) over a thickness h across
waves that are generated by the perturbations of the
medium. The strength of these scattered waves de- the interface. Since h is assumed to be small com-
pared to a wavelength, the resulting volume integrals
pends on the total wave field at the location of the
in (42) reduce to surface integrals over the perturbed
scatterers as well as on the size of the perturbations interface multiplied with the height of the perturba-
from the reference medium. Conveniently, expression tion. This then generalises the previous expression to
(41) is simpler than the original expression (35) be- include perturbations of the interfaces in the reference
cause the surface integral has disappeared. In addi- medium:
tion, the Green’s function and the wave field appear Z
(0) (0)
in a more symmetric way in the last term of (41) be- uBi (r) = ω2 Gij (r, r 0 )ρ(1) (r 0 )uj (r 0 ) dV 0
cause the gradient of both terms is taken. Z
(0)
(1) (0)
− ∂k0 Gin (r, r 0 ) cnklj (r 0 )∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dV 0
Z
(0) (0)
h i
§ 6. The Born Approximation of Elastic + ∑ ω2 Gij (r, r 0 )h(r 0 ) ρ(0) (r 0 ) uj (r 0 ) dS 0
Waves
Z
(0) (0) (0)
h i
− ∑ ∂k0 Gin (r, r 0 ) h(r 0 ) cnklj (r 0 ) ∂l0 uj (r 0 ) dS 0 .
Up to this point no approximations have been made. (43)
The simplicity of (41) is elusive because one needs to
know the total wave field at the scatterers in order The summation is over the perturbed interfaces. The
to compute the integrals on the right-hand side. For details of this derivation are given by Hudson (1977).
534 General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering
One must be careful in the application of this ex- These velocities are derived under An Isotropic
pression to the displacement of an interface that sep- (1)
Medium (§8). In expression (44) the hm are spherical
arates a fluid from a solid (Woodhouse, 1976). The Bessel functions of the first kind. It should be noted
reason is that at such a boundary the component of that Ben-Menahem and Singh (1981) use a Fourier
the displacement parallel to the interface is not contin- transform with the opposite sign in the exponent to
uous, and the equivalence of a displacement of such the convention (1) that is used here. For this reason,
an interface with a volumetric perturbation is not the complex conjugate is taken, which implies that
(2)
obvious. This is relevant for a variety of situations the spherical Bessel function of the second kind hm
such as the scattering of elastic waves at the core– in their expression is replaced by the spherical Bessel
(1)
mantle boundary in the Earth, the scattering of waves function of the first kind hm . These functions are
by irregularities in the ocean floor and engineering ap- given by
plications where an elastic body is surrounded by a
fluid. (1) eix
h0 (x) = −i ,
x (47)
(1) i 3 3i
h2 (x) = − 2 − 3 eix .
§ 7. The Green’s Tensor in Dyadic x x x
Form Let us first analyse the Green’s tensor in the far
field. The far field is defined as the region of space
In this section examples are given of the Green’s ten- that is far away from the source compared to a wave-
sor for different media. In all these examples the length; hence it is defined by the condition kr 1. In
Green’s tensor G(r, r 0 ) can be written as a sum of the far field only terms 1/kr are retained, but terms of
dyads of the form p(r)g(r, r 0 )p† (r 0 ). (The dagger de- higher powers in 1/kr are ignored. Using this in (47)
notes the Hermitian conjugate definedas the complex and (44) gives the Green’s tensor in the far field:
∗
conjugate of the transpose: p† = pT .) In this ex-
pression, the vectors p are polarisation vectors and 1 eika r T 1 eikβ r
GFF (r) = r̂r̂ + I − r̂r̂T . (48)
the scalar function g(r, r 0 ) accounts for propagation. 4π(λ + 2µ) r 4πµ r
The fact that the polarisation vectors at the source r Note that this expression is not yet in the form of a
and the receiver r 0 enter this expression in a symmet- superposition of dyads pg(r, r 0 )pT . However, (48) can
ric way is due to the reciprocity property (28) of the be written in such form by using the closure relation
Green’s tensor. T T
for the identity matrix: I = r̂r̂T +θ̂θ̂ +ϕ̂ϕ̂ , where r̂, θ̂
and ϕ̂ are the unit vectors in the direction of increas-
A Homogeneous Infinite Isotropic Medium ing values of the variables r, θ and ϕ used in spherical
As a first example, consider the Green’s tensor for coordinates. The directions of these unit vectors are
a homogeneous, infinite isotropic medium. This shown in Fig. 3. Using this result and using the rela-
Green’s tensor is given in expression (4.12) of Ben- tions λ + 2µ = ρα2 = ρω2 /k2α and µ = ρβ2 = ρω2 /k2β , the
Menahem and Singh (1981) far field Green’s function can be written as
ikα (1) (1) k2α eika r T k2β eikβ r
G(r) = I h0 (kα r) + (I − 3r̂r̂T ) h2 (kα r) GFF (r) = r̂r̂ +
T
θ̂θ̂ +ϕ̂ϕ̂T . (49)
12π(λ + 2µ) 4πρω2 r 4πρω2 r
ikβ (1) (1)
− −2I h0 (kβ r) + (I − 3r̂r̂T ) h2 (kβ r) , (44) Let us consider the first term. For a general exci-
12πµ
tation f at the origin, the inner product of the force
where r is the relative location of the observation with the Green’s tensor should be taken. This means
point relative to the source. (In this expression I that the first term gives a contribution proportional
denotes the identity matrix with elements Iij = δij .)
The caret above a vector denotes the unit vector point- to r̂ eika r /r (r̂·f), and the displacement of this wave
ing in the same direction, hence r̂ ≡ r/r, where r is the is in the radial direction. This term therefore corre-
distance between the source and observation points. sponds to a longitudinal wave. The wave propagates
In expression (44) the wave numbers kα and kβ are with a wave number kα through space, and the corre-
given by sponding wave velocity is given by α defined in (46).
It follows from (46) and the fact that the Lamé con-
kα = ω/α and kβ = ω/β. (45)
stants positive that α is larger than β. This means that
where α is the wave velocity for compressive waves the P wave arrives first in the time domain. During
and β is the wave velocity for shear waves: the propagation the wave decays because of geomet-
s rical spreading with a factor 1/r. The excitation of
λ + 2µ this wave is given by the component (r̂·f) of the force
r
µ
α= and β = . (46)
ρ ρ in the direction of propagation. Since the unit vector
General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering 535
Figure 4 Definition of the geometrical spreading factor J. Note the similarity between this expression and
Eq. (50) for the Green’s tensor in a homogeneous
medium. The polarisation vectors p̂ν (r) and p̂ν (rs )
are defined by the ray direction at the point r and
the source point rs respectively. In (50) these vectors
are identical because the reference medium is homoge-
neous in that development. Since the rays in general
are curved, the polarisation vectors p̂ν (r) and p̂ν (rs )
usually have a different direction. The integral of the
phase is computed along the ray that joins the points r
and rs . In the ray-geometric approximation the waves
with different polarisations are not coupled; this is re-
flected by the fact that expression (56) contains a sin-
gle sum over the different modes of polarisations.
is the amplitude of the wave field and J is the geo- The reader may be puzzled by the fact that the
metrical spreading factor. As shown in Fig. 4, JdΩ is Green’s tensor (56) appears to violate the principle
the surface area spanned by a bundle of rays with a of reciprocity (28) because the velocity at the source
solid angle dΩ at the source. This result impliesp that enters through a factor c3ν (rs ), whereas the velocity
the amplitude of the wave is given by A = C/( ρcJ), at location r is present with a factor cν (r). Snieder
where the constant C needs to be determined. The and Chapman (1998) show that for a point source
polarisation vector p̂ν is parallel to the ray direction
in three dimensions the geometrical spreading factor
for the P wave and is orthogonal to the ray direction
for the S waves. Using these results one finds that the satisfies the reciprocal rule J(r, rs )c2 (rs ) = J(rs , r)c2 (r).
displacement for mode ν is given by The velocity term in this expression ensures that the
Green’s tensor (56) indeed satisfies the reciprocity
C property (28).
uν (r, rs ) = p p̂ν (r)eiϕν . (53)
ρν (r)cν (r)Jν (r, rs )
The value of the constant C follows from the fact Other Examples of Dyadic Green’s Tensors
that close to the source, the medium can be treated as It is shown in §1 of Chapter 1.7.3 that the Green’s ten-
if it is homogeneous with the properties of the source sor for surface waves in an isotropic half-space that
region. The corresponding wave field in the vicinity of varies only with depth can be written as
the source is given by (50) contracted with the excita-
tion f. (The contraction means that the quantities are ei(kν X+π/4) †
combined using the rules for matrix multiplication, G(r, rs ) = ∑ pν (z, ϕ) q pν (zs , ϕ). (57)
2 kν X
ν π
i.e., (G·f)i stands for ∑j Gij fj .) For a homogeneous
medium, the rays are straight lines. It follows from In this expression the pν are appropriate polarisa-
Fig. 4 that, near the source, the geometrical spread- tion vectors that describe the particle motion of Love
ing is given by J(r, rs ) = |r − rs |2 . These results lead to and Rayleigh waves, and X is the horizontal distance
the following constraint on the constant C: between r and rs . Again, the Green’s tensor is given
by a sum over polarisation vectors that correspond
†
1 p̂ν (rs ) · f C
=p . (54) to the (surface wave) modes ν of the system. The
4πρ(rs )c2ν (rs ) |r − rs | ρ(rs )cν (rs )|r − rs |2
p
term exp (ikν X)/ kν X accounts for the phase shift
Solving this expression for C leads to the displacement and geometrical spreading in the horizontal propaga-
of mode ν tion from the source at rs to the point r and ϕ denotes
1 the azimuth of the source–receiver direction.
uν (r, rs ) = q p̂ν (r) The Green’s tensor of the Earth can be expressed as
4π ρ(r)ρ(rs )cν (r)c3ν (rs ) a sum over normal modes of the Earth. These normal
eiϕν
†
modes also incorporate self-gravitation in the Earth.
×p p̂ν (rs ) · f . (55) The theory of the Earth’s normal modes is described
Jν (r, rs )
in detail by Dahlen and Tromp (1998). Let the dis-
Summing over the polarisations ν the complete ray- placement of a normal mode ν be denoted by pν (r)
geometric Green’s tensor can then be written as and let the mode have eigenfrequency ων . According
to Section 6.3.3.2 of Ben-Menahem and Singh (1981),
1
GFF (r, rs ) = ∑ q p̂ν (r) the modes are orthogonal and can be normalised to
ν 4π ρ(r)ρ(rs )cν (r)c3ν (rs ) form an orthonormal set with respect to the inner
R product
exp (i kν ds) †
× p p̂ν (rs ). (56)
Jν (r, rs ) pν |pµ = δνµ , (58)
General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering 537
where the inner product is defined by view, it also provides a physical description of the role
Z Z played by the Green’s tensor in the life history of the
hu|vi ≡ ∑ ρ(r)u∗i (r)vi (r)dV = ρ(r)u† (r) · v(r)dV. (59) waves.
i
An Example of a Complicated Green’s Tensor
Note the presence of the mass density in this in-
ner product. As shown in Ben-Menahem and Singh The Green’s tensors given in the previous sections are
(1981) the displacement for a point source f at for simple models of elastic media. These Green’s ten-
location rs is given by sors could be obtained because of the symmetries of
1 the models considered and the simplifying assump-
u(r) = ∑ pν (r)hpν (rs )|fi, (60) tions that have been made (such as smoothness of the
ν ω2ν − ω2
model). In practice the response of an arbitrary elastic
where ω is the angular frequency of the excitation. medium can be very complex. The Green’s function
This implies that the Green’s tensor is given by gives the impulse response of the medium. This means
that for a localised earthquake, the recorded ground
1 †
G(r, rs ) = ∑ pν (r) 2
pν (rs ). (61) motion gives a direct measurement of the Green’s
ν ων − ω2 function in the Earth.
Again the Green’s tensor is written as a sum over The top panel of Fig. 5 shows the vertical compo-
dyads composed of the polarisation vector multiplied nent of the ground motion recorded with the Park-
with a function that measures the strength of the field array in California (Fletcher et al., 1992) after
response. Note that the response is strongest when a local earthquake. The signals have a noisy appear-
the excitation has a frequency close to a resonance ance. At almost the same location a second earth-
(ω ≈ ων ). At a resonance (ω = ων ) expression (61) for quake occurred on the same day; the resulting ground
the Green’s tensor is infinite, but anelastic damping motion measured by the same array is shown in the
prevents a singularity in the solution. In the presence bottom panel of Fig. 5. The ground motion recorded
of anelastic damping, however, the eigenfunctions are after these two earthquakes is virtually identical, each
not orthogonal so one of the polarisation vectors in trace in the top panel matches the corresponding trace
each term of (61) must be replaced by the polarisa- in the bottom panel “wiggle by wiggle.” In fact, the
tion vector of the dual eigenfunctions. The reader is discrepancies between the corresponding traces are on
referred to Dahlen and Tromp (1998) for details. the same order of magnitude as the fluctuations in the
traces before the first impulsive arrival.
Physical Interpretation of Dyadic Green’s Tensor This similarity implies that the “noisy” signals in
Fig. 5 are not noise but deterministic Earth response.
In Eqs. (50), (56), (57) and (61) the far field Green’s At these frequencies the Earth is a strongly scattering
function is written as a sum of dyads:
medium, and the resulting ground motion is a com-
†
G(r, rs ) = ∑ pν (r)R(r, rs )pν (rs ). (62) plex interference pattern of multiply scattered and
ν mode-converted elastic waves. The complexity of the
waves that propagate through the Earth is a strong
In this expression R(r, rs ) is a response function that
function of frequency. At present it is not known
measures the strength of the response. The displace-
to what extent these complex waves can be used for
ment generated by a force f is given by
imaging purposes. This issue and the possible re-
u(r) = ∑ pν (r)R(r, rs )hpν (rs )|fi. (63) lationship between classical chaos and wave chaos
ν are discussed further in Scales and Snieder (1997),
Reading this expression from right to left one can fol- Snieder (1999) and Snieder and Scales (1998).
low the life history of each mode ν. A mode can refer
to either a normal mode of the Earth or a surface wave
mode, but it may also refer to the three polarisations § 8. Anisotropic Media
of body wave propagation. At the source the mode is
excited, the excitation given by the projection of the Plane-Wave Solutions
force on the polarisation vector: hpν (rs )|fi. The wave When the elastic medium is anisotropic, interest-
then travels from the source to the receiver; this is ac- ing wave phenomena that have no counterpart in
counted for by the response function R(r, rs ). Finally, isotropic media occur. The phenomena are intro-
at the receiver location r the mode oscillates in the duced here by considering a plane wave that prop-
direction given by the polarisation vector pν (r). The agates in a homogeneous elastic medium
general expression (62) therefore not only unifies the
various Green’s tensors from a mathematical point of u(r) = p̂ eik·r , (64)
538 General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering
Figure 5 Wave field recorded at the Parkfield array (Fletcher Figure 6 The phase velocity v = v n
and the group velocity U
et al., 1992) in California after two nearby earthquakes (top and in relation to the orientation of the wave fronts in an anisotropic
bottom, respectively). Note the extreme resemblance of each medium. The transverse gradient ∇1 is defined in expression
trace in the top panel with the corresponding trace in the bottom (76).
panel. (Courtesy of Peggy Hellweg of the USGS).
Figure 7 Surface ω = const. in the wave-number plane. The necessarily orthogonal to the wave fronts. It follows
phase slowness s = k/ω for the points 1, 2, 3 and 4 is indicated from the geometry of Fig. 6 and expression (77) that
by arrows. The direction of the group velocity U = ∇k ω is given by the angle between the group velocity and phase veloc-
the solid arrows.
ity is given by
|∇1 v|
tan ψ = . (80)
v
The nontrivial relationship between phase slow-
ness and group velocity has interesting consequences.
As an example, consider once again the group velocity
at the points 1, 2, 3 and 4 in Fig. 7. The correspond-
ing group velocities at these points are shown in the
group velocity plane in Fig. 8. The group velocities
indicated by the solid arrows have the same direction
as the group velocity shown by the solid arrows in
Fig. 7. When we move from point 1 through point 2
to point 3 in Fig. 7, the group velocity vector rotates
in the counterclockwise direction. However, at point
3, the curve ω = constant has an inflection point, and
the group velocity vector at point 4 is rotated clock-
wise compared to the group velocity vector at point
3. This means that the group velocity vector traces
the folded curve that is shown in Fig. 8. At point 3
the group velocity is stationary for perturbations in
the direction of propagation. Therefore point 3 cor-
∂ 1 responds to a caustic in the wave field. This example
=k = n̂ + =1 , (75)
∂k k shows that caustics can form in a homogeneous elas-
where =1 is the component of the gradient perpen- tic medium.
dicular to the direction of propagation. Using spheri- Such caustics can be observed experimentally.
cal coordinates in wave-number space, the orthogonal Fig. 9 shows snapshots of waves that have propa-
component can be written as gated through a rectangular block of silicon at three
∂ ŵ ∂ different times. (This figure was made available by
=1 = û + . (76) J.P. Wolfe (1998) who also describes the experiment
∂θ sin θ ∂ϕ
in detail.) The waves are excited at one side of the
Inserting ω = vk in (74) and using (75), the group block. At t = 1.76 µs the waves have propagated to
velocity is given by the opposing face where the wave field is measured,
U(n̂) = v(n̂) + ∇1 v(n̂). (77) and at later times one sees the wave fronts spread over
the face of the crystal. Note that the wave fronts have
With (76) it then follows that the same cusped structure as the group velocity shown
∂v 1 ∂v in Fig. 8. This type of measurement provides informa-
U(θ, ϕ) = v(θ, ϕ)n̂ + û + w̃. (78)
∂θ sin θ ∂ϕ tion about the elasticity tensor of the crystal, which in
turn gives information about the symmetry axes and
Thus, in general the phase velocity v = vn̂ and group
elastic constants of the crystal.
velocity U have different directions. The difference in
It should be noted that in three dimensions the
direction is proportional to the change in the phase
slowness and the group velocity as shown in Figs. 7
velocity to the direction of propagation as described
and 8 are described by surfaces that can have a
by the derivatives ∂v/∂θ and ∂v/∂ϕ.
very complex shape, which gives rise to caustics in
Using that ∇1 ⊥ n̂, one finds from (77) and from
v = vn̂ that the components of the phase velocity and the wave field with a complicated geometry (Helbig,
the group velocity in the direction of propagation are 1994; Wolfe, 1998). The only ingredients used in this
identical: section were that the phase velocity is anisotropic and
independent of frequency, and that the group velocity
(n̂·U) = (n̂·v) = v. (79) follows from expression (74). For this reason the the-
This means that the group velocity differs from the ory of this section is not particular for elastic waves.
phase velocity only because it also has a component In fact, the theory is equally applicable to other types
along the wave fronts, as is illustrated in Fig. 6. In of nondispersive anisotropic media. The analogue of
anisotropic media the energy flow is therefore not the theory of this section applied to electromagnetic
General Theory of Elastic Wave Scattering 541
Figure 8 The group velocity for the points 1, 2, 3 and 4 that References
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