The Boundary layer

Boundary layers appear on the surface of bodies in viscous flow because the fluid seems to
‘stick’ to the surface.

Exact at the surface the flow has zero relative speed and the fluid transfer momentum to
adjacent layers through the action of viscosity.

The requirement that the flow at the surface has no relative motion is the ‘no slip condition’.
The velocity in the boundary layer slowly increases until it reaches the outer flow
velocity ( ).

The boundary layer thickness (δ) is defined as the distance required for the flow to nearly
reach . We might take an arbitrary number (say 99%) to define what we mean by ”nearly”.

The flow conditions in the boundary layer are of considerable interest to chemical engineers
because these influence, not only the drag effect of the fluid on the surface, but also the heat
or mass transfer rates where a temperature or a concentration gradient exists.

How does the Boundary Layer Develop:

On the assumption that there is no slip at the surface, the fluid velocity at all points on the
surface, where y = 0, will be zero. At some position a distance x from the leading edge, the
velocity will increase from zero at the surface to approach the stream velocity( ). At the
leading edge, that is where x = 0, the fluid will have been influenced by the surface for only
an extremely small time and therefore only the molecular layer of fluid at the surface will
have been retarded. At progressively greater distances (x) along the surface, the fluid will
have been retarded for a greater time and the effects will be felt to greater depths in the fluid.
Thus the thickness (δ) of the boundary layer will increase, starting from a zero value at the
leading edge.

In laminar flow, the fluid moves in smooth layers or lamina. There is relatively little mixing
and consequently the velocity gradients are small and shear stresses are low. The thickness of
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the laminar boundary layer increases with distance from the start of the boundary layer and
decreases with Reynolds number. As the fluid is sheared across the surface of the body,
instabilities develop and finally the flow transitions into turbulent motion. Turbulent
boundary layer flow is characterized by unsteady mixing due to eddies at many scales. The
result is higher shear stress at the wall, and a greater boundary layer thickness. The wall shear
stress is higher because the velocity gradient near the wall is greater. This is because of the
more effective mixing associated with turbulent flow.

The Momentum Equation

It will be assumed that a fluid of density ( ) and viscosity ( ) flows over a plane surface and
the velocity of flow outside the boundary layer is A boundary layer of thickness δ forms
near the surface, and at a distance y from the surface the velocity of the fluid is reduced to a
value .

Considered of an element of fluid surrounded by the planes 1-2 and 3-4 at distances and
respectively from the leading edge; the surface and the plane 2-4 parallel to the
surface and at a distance from it; and by two planes parallel to the plane of the paper and
unit distance apart. The distance is greater than the boundary layer thickness δ, see figure
below:

Unit length
2 4
dy
l

1 3
dx

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Considered the velocities and forces in the x-direction:

( )
( )

( ) ( )
( )

In passing from plane 1-2 to plane 3-4 (i.e. ), the mass flow changes by:

(∫ )

(∫ )

A mass flow of fluid equal to the difference between the flows at planes 3-4 and 1-2 must
therefore occur through plane 2-4. Since plane 2-4 lies outside the boundary layer:

Thus the rate of transfer of momentum through plane 2-4 out of the element is:

(∫ )

It will be noted that the derivative is negative, which indicates a positive outflow of
momentum from the element.

Steady-state momentum balance over the element 1-2-3-4:

The terms which must be considered in the momentum balance for the x-direction are:

(i) The momentum flux Mi through plane 1-2 into the element.
(ii) The momentum flux Mii through plane 3-4 out of the element.
(iii) The momentum flux Miii through plane 2-4 out of the element.
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( )

(∫ ) (∫ )

(∫ ( ) )

The net rate of change of momentum in the x-direction on the element must be equal to the
momentum added from outside, through plane 2-4, together with the net force acting on it.

The forces in the x-direction acting on the element of fluid are:

1. A shear force resulting from the shear stress acting at the surface. This is a retarding
force and therefore is negative.

2. The force produced as a result of any difference in pressure dP between the planes 3-4
and 1-2.

The net force acting F is just the retarding force attributed to the shear stress at the surface
only:

( )

Equating the net momentum flux out of the element to the net retarding force and simplifying
gives:

(∫ ( ) )

(∫ ( ) ) ( )

Eq.(1) is the general form of momentum equation for incompressible fluid (constant
density).

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The Boundary Layer for Laminar flow

Assuming that the relation between and can be expressed approximately by:

( )

Where:

Boundary conditions:

* The shear stress in the fluid near the surface must approach a constant value. Since,

( ) ( )

The fluid in contact with the solid surface is at rest and therefore,

( )

Differentiating Eq.(3) with respect to y variable:

( )

( )

Substituting B.C.4 into Eq.(5):

( )

Substituting B.C.2 into Eq.(3):

( ) ( )
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Substituting B.C.3 into Eq.(4):

( ) ( )

Solving Eq.(6) and Eq.(7) to get:

Substituting the values of a, b and c into Eq.(3) to get the velocity profile:

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Velocity profile or distribution for Laminar flow

The integral in the momentum equation, Eq.(1), can now be evaluated for the streamline
boundary layer by considering the ranges and separately. Thus:

∫ ( ) ∫( )

∫ ( )( ) ∫ ( )

∫( )

( )

In addition:

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( ) ( )

The momentum equation, Eq.(1) becomes:

(∫ ( ) )

( )

Since when :

( )
( )

The boundary Layer thickness for Laminar Flow