1. What are monosaccharides? Enumerate the different examples and describe each.

The monosaccharides, or simple sugars, are important class of biochemicals. Most monosaccharides
taste sweet. They are the monomer building blocks that join together for more complex
carbohydrates.  There are one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom present
in the molecule. “Mono” refers to one and “saccharide” refers to sugars.

Glucose is the most important carbohydrate fuel in human cells and is concentrated in the blood. It
provides a source of energy for the human body and is the most important simple sugar used for
human metabolism.

Fructose is a non-reducing sugar. Fructose reacts with glucose to make sucrose.  All forms of
fructose, including fruits and juices, are commonly added to foods and drinks for the enhancement
of taste, and for browning of some foods, such as baked goods.

Galactose is a simple sugar found in a range of commonly eaten foods. It can be present in its free
form or with other sugars. Their molecules look very similar to glucose molecules.

2. What are disaccharides? Enumerate the different examples and describe each.

When two monosaccharides are combined in pairs, a disaccharide if formed. The condensation
reaction is the joining of two molecules with the formation of a new chemical bond and a water
molecule is released when the bond is formed. A glycosidic bond is formed between two
monosaccharides. If carbon 1 on one monosaccharide joins to carbon 4 on another monosaccharide,
it is called a 1,4-glycosidic bond. Disaccharides can be split apart into two monosaccharides by
breaking the glycosidic bond by adding water molecules, which is known as hydrolysis reaction. The
water provides a hydroxyl group (-OH) and hydrogen (-H), which helps the glycosidic bond to break.

Maltose consists a-glucose and a-glucose. It functions as energy source in germinating seeds.

Sucrose consists a-glucose and fructose. It serves as a transport in the phloem.

Lactose consists a-glucose and galactose. It functions as energy source in milk.

3. What are polysaccharides? Enumerate the different examples and describe each.

Polysaccharides are polymers formed by combining many monosaccharide molecules (more than

two) by condensation reactions. Molecules with 3-10 sugar units are known
as oligosaccharides while molecules containing 11 or more monosaccharides are true
polysaccharides. Polysaccharides do not taste sweet. Because their molecules are so enormous, the
majority of polysaccharides do not dissolve in water. Polysaccharides made solely from one kind of
monosaccharides are called homopolysaccharides (Starch) while those made of more than one
monomer are called heteropolysaccharides (Hyaluronic acid).

Starch is made up of long chains of a-glucose (Amylose and Amylopectin). Plants store glucose as the
polysaccharide starch. The cereal grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley) as well as tubers such as
potatoes are rich in starch. Starch is the main energy storage materials in plants.
Glycogen is made of a-glucose linked together by glycosidic bonds. It is the main energy storage
materials in animals. This is the storage form of glucose in animals and humans which is analogous
to the starch in plants. Glycogen is synthesized and stored mainly in the liver and the muscles.

Cellulose is also made of many b-glucose molecules linked by glycosidic bonds between carbon 1
and carbon 4. The major component in the rigid cell walls in plants is cellulose and is a linear
polysaccharide polymer with many glucose monosaccharide units.

4. In Seliwanoff’s Test, other sugars, especially sucrose will also give a positive test but usually
require a longer time. Explain why?
Sucrose gives a positive test as it is a disaccharide consisting of fructose and glucose. Generally, 6M
HCl is used to run this test. Ketoses get dehydrated faster and hence they give the test faster and a
red color is formed rapidly. Aldoses react very slowly and give faint colors lie light pink.

5. Is there a possibility for lactose to give positive results in Mucic acid Test? Explain why?

Yes. Lactose is a dimer (molecule made of 2 similar units) of glucose and galactose. Mucic acid is a
result of the nitric acid oxidation of galactose. So since one of the monomers of lactose is galactose,
it will give a positive Mucic acid test.