II - ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM THEORY

A SHORT INTRODUCTION
TO DIFFERENTIAL GALOIS THEORY

RAMIS J.P.
Universit(~ de Strasbourg 1
Strasbourg, France

. . . le t r a i t e s s e n t i e i du visage ~tait son mnbiguit& "Julien T o r m a nJ e x i s t e p a s ' .

John D a v i d M o r l e y , P i c t u r e s f r o m the w a t e r trade. H e n r i T h o m a s , U n e s a i s o n volde.

In the first l);trt of these notes we will give a brief drscril)thm of the "classi-
cal' differential GMois theory (for more details sec [Pi], [Ve], [Kap], [Kol], [Bell,
[Sin]]). One proMem with tilt, cl;Lqsit'M theory is the ditIiculty of explicit cMcu-
lations : from the birth of , u r .subject (late 19th century) md.il to w'ry recent
work ([I,:at4], [I,:P], [B.B.tI], [B.H], [m~51, [mrS1, [DMI)the only explicit compu-
tations we know are for Airy eqmttion [Kap], and Bessel equations [Ko2] (and in
l'~u:t Airy rqmttlon can be n,ducrd to a Slwcial case of Bcssrl rqmttion [AS]... ),
Ind. for evident situations. In the second part of our l~tl~('r we will give a new
description of the differential Galois theory (when the "tichl of constants" is the
complex flch[ C) in relation with rec(,nt l)rogress on the problem of chtssificalion
of analytic dilti,rrntial equations in th(, COml)h,x domain n 1) to analytic transh~r-
lnations ([Si], [Mail, [Ms21, [BJL1], [BJL2I, [Jl, [BV1], [BV2], [naV], [Ila2], for the
linear case, and [M.R.1], [M.R2], [MR3], [E3] fox" the non linear cm~e), and with
,,,.w th,.ory or [n [n, 41, Ins71, [MRI], [ 21
[Ea], [E4], IEMMm], [EMMR2], [MR4]). Using this dcscril,tion it is in l)articular
possible to get a method of computation for the c,~sc of Meijrr G-flmctions, that
is for more or less all the (.a.s(,s of special fa'nctions solutions of linear diffcrcntial
c,L,uai,,,,s [E~] ( 4 [DM], [m~S], [BH]).
I. D i f f e r e n t i a l G a l o i s t h e o r y : t h e classical t h e o r y .
I. Ablcbraic Galois theory.
A]gel)raic Galois theory is the model [or differential Gah)is theory. It is a whole
subject and we will limit ourselves to ha.sic definitions and one cxami)le. \Vc will
also give a "geometric intcrl)rctation" of Galois groul)S a little Sol~histicatrd for
the algchraic case, but vcry useful for the g(,ncralisations. For more details it is
certainly well worth to read the original pal)or of Gah)is [Gall] anti a classical
1,,,ok (as [L]).
Example.
Let P(.r) = x a + bx + c = 0, with b,c E Q. Wc suppose the polynomial P is
irrcducibh~ on Q (P has no rational root). Galois theory is related to the study of
"rational invarimds" tlmt ix of ratiomd flmctions of the roots n'l, n,.,, o.:~ of P (in
a splitting field) which are in fact in the "rationality field" Q.
One example of ratiomd flmt'ti(m (ff the roots is the polynomial

= (", - "'-')C"'-' - ":,)(':, - '.", ),

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t h a t is the diseriminant. T h e p o l y n o m i a l A = Sz is clearly invariant b y the group

~D3 of p e r m u t a t i o n s . o f the roots, so A E Q; a n d for a E ~ 3 , a(6) = 4-& If
A = - 4 b 3 - 27c 2 h a s a squaxe r o o t v / ~ in Q, t h e n ¢s = d=v]~ • Q a n d ~ is a
r a t i o n a l invariants in this case the Galois g r o u p G is n o t trivial : G = As; if A
has no square root in Q then G = ~ 3 .

DI~FINITION. - - Let P • Q[X] and K a splitting field .for P. The Galois

group of P is the group o] Q-automorphisms of field o] K (that is the group o]
automorphisms leaving fixed the elements of Q C K ) .

In the case of our e x a m p l e :

G=Oaifb=c=l, a n d G = Aa if b = - 3 , c = 1 .

Let a b e a root of P ( x ) = 0 and s • G (degree of P = n ) : P ( s ( a ) ) = s ( P ( a ) ) = 0;

s(a) is a root a n d wc get an injection of groups G "--* ~ , , .
Wc will considcr thc roots of P ,as "living on the Galois group G", t h a t is
functions of a • G, or functions of a "hidden variable" a E G, using the definition :

"~(~) = ~'~(o, for i e [ 1 , . . . , hi, ~ e a c ~,,.

Clearly r a t i o n a l functions of the r o o t s can be i n t e r p r e t e d as fimctions on G,

rational invariants corresponding to constant functions.
l~'om the action of G as p e r m u t a t i o n s of the roots we get an action of G on
the fimctions, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the t r a n s l a t i o n on the left on G :

9._,(,,(.q,)) = g~o(a,) = ,~'(,~._,a,).

g. Differential Galois Theory.

We will limit ourselves to basic definitions a n d exmnples, a n d to the s t a t e m e n t
of t h e m o s t important, results for the linear case (Picard-Vessiot extensions). Wc
will explain how to deal w i t h non linear eqnations in a n o t h e r p a p e r [MR4,], with
new m e t h o d s involving a lot of Analysis.

DI~FINITION. - - A differential ring (A,O) is a ring A with a derivation 0 :

that is a map 0 : A -* A, satisfying

O(x + y) = Ox + Oy and
O(zy) = (0x)y + z(0y), f o r e,,cry x, y • A.

T h e sub-ring of c o n s t a n t s of A is

c = {x • A / O . ~ = 0}.
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In the foUowing we will suppose A commutative and C = C. Then the fiehl of

constmlts has characteristic zero and is algcl)raically closed.
When A = K is a field, (K, 0) is a (lilferelltiM fiehl. A morphisln of differential
rings f : (A1,01) ~ (A2,02) is a map f : Al ~ A2 commuting with the
derivations. W h e n Aa C A2 and 021AI = 01 we will say t h a t (A2,02) is a
differential extension of (A1,01).
Classical differential Galois theory uses differential fields by analogy with the
algebraic case. In fact it is bctter to work with differential algebras. An important
example is the linear ease : if f is a solution of a first order linear differential
equation, then -} is also a solution of a first order linear differential equation (that
is the adjoint equation), this is no longer true in general for a second order linear
differential equation : f ( z ) = sin z is a sohttion of the linear differential equation

y" + y = 0,

but 1S i l I Z satisfies no linear differential equation ([HS], [Sin2]). Then if (f, ' ' ' ' ~ f . )
is a fondamental system of solutions of a linear differential equation D, with
coefficients in the differential field K (fa . . . . , f , E L differential extension of K ) ,
it. is better to work with the C-algebra AD = K ( W ( f l , . . . , f n ) ) [ f l , . . . ,fn] than
(like in the classical way) with the differential fiehl K { f , , . . . , f , ) (I((g) denote
the differentiM field generated by It" and g, and l V ( f i , . . . , f , ) is the Wronskian
of ( f l , . . . , f n ) ) ; then each f E AD is a sohttion of a linear differential equation.

DI~FINITION. - - Let K be a differential field. We will say that a differential

extension 1~I of K is a Picard-Vessiot extension if
(i) 1~I = K ( U l , . . . , un) where u l , . . . , un are n solutions of a differential linear
equation Dy = 0 (in a differential extension of K) independant over constants
(i.e. W(u~,... ,~,,) # 0).
(ii) M admits the same field of constants as I(.

TttEOREM ( [ K o l ] ) . - - I] I ( has characteristic 0 and has an algebraically

closed field o.f constants there exists a Picard- Vessiot extension associated to each
linear differential equation, unique up to differential isomorphisms.

Examples.
1. Extension "by an integrat'.
Let. bc u' = a, a e K (such that there is no b i n / ( such that b' =-- a); (1,u) is
a fond,'uncntal solution of the second order linear differential equation

Dy = y " - ( a ' / a ) y ' = 0

and K(u) is a Picard-Vessiot extension.

2. Extension "by the exponential of an integraP.

Dg=y'-ay, uEK.
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I f / ( ( u } has the same field of constants than K , it is a Pieard-Vessiot extension.

DI~FINITION. - - Let K be a differentia!field and L a Picard- Vessiot extension

associated to a linear differential equation Dy -- O. The Galois differential group
o! D is the group of K-automorphisms of differential fields of L.

Wc will denote Galh-(D) = AutlcL.

For the above examples :
1. We get (cj. [Kap])

GalE(D) ~ C (additive group of constants) ;

L = K('u) and
ac E GalE(D)
a~:u~,u+e (cEC).
If K = C ( x ) , D = x(-gT)
., a ,2 + -JT,
,t we get L = C(x)(loga:) and GalE(D) ~ C.
2. We get (el. [Kap]).
GalK(D)) ~-. G C C*, G subgroup of the multiplicative group of constants. For
C = C, wc get G = {id}, G ..~ l / q l , or G = C*. The fi41owing examples are
siml)le but very imi)ortant :
a) It" = C(x), Do = x d - a ( a E C); the general solution is y = C x " ;
- if a ¢ Q : GalE(D) ~ C*
-ifaEQ-l:GalE(D)~l/ql (q E N ' )
- if a e Z : G a l , , ( n ) = {id}.

b) I ( = C(x) , D = 2 ax
'--t + 1 ; the general solution is y = C,;} ; GalE(D) ~ C*.
Let D be a linear differential operator of order n and ( u l , . . . , u . ) a fundamental
system of solutions of D (in a differential extension M) : Let a E Gab¢(D) and
u a solution of D (u is in the C-vector space generate(l by u l , . . . , u , ) . Then
D ( q u ) = a ( D u ) = 0, and au is again a solution of D. The map
a : Solutions --* Solutions is clearly C-linear and we get a map

G a l e ( n ) ---, a L( soh, tio,ts) ~ V L( n; C).

This map is injective and Gall¢(D) can be considered as a subgroup of the linear
group GL(n; C), just like in ordinary Galois Theory Gal(P) can bc considered
a subgroup of the permutatiou groaps ~),.
The following result ([I(ap], [Kol], [Be2]) is flmdamental :

THEOREM. - - Let D be a linear differential equatiou o] order n. Theu Gall,-(D)

is au algebraic subgroup o.f GL(n; C).

That is Gal~c(D) is defined by (a finite nmnber of) algebraic equations (in n 2

variables) in GL(n; C).
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Algebraic equations satisfied by the elements of Gali¢(D) correspond to "dig

fercntial invariants" (similar to the "rational invariants" of the ordinary Galois
Theory). In some cases it, is easy to get sudl an invariant using the Wronskian :
LetDy=y"+ayt+b=0;a, bEK.
Let (Yl, Y2) be a fundamental systeln of solutions of D and W = y, y.,_, .
W e g e t W ~+ a W = O.
If u = 0, W E (7 C K and Gal~,-(D) C S L ( 2 ; C ) . This result remains true if
a = d' with d E K : for
a E GalK(D),a(IV) = D6t(clj)W = IV ~ D6t(q)) = 1
(a with matrix (cij)).

Just like in ordinary Galois theory we have also a "Galois correspondancd' :

THEOREM. -- Let M be a Picard-Vessiot extension of I( associated to the

linear differential equation D. Then there is a natu'ral bijcctioe correspondance
between intermediate differential fields

KcLcM

and algebraic subgroups

H C Gal1,-(D).
Moreover normal extensions I( C L (I( C L C •I) correspond to normal
subgroups H C OalK(n) and G / H = ¢,~l~,-(i).

Among i m p o r t a n t applications of Galois differential theory we just mention the

following result (similar to solution of the problcnl of "integration by quadraturcs"
which motivated the work of Galois) :

THEOREM. -- Let ~I be a Picard-Vessiot cxtcusion of I~ associated to the

linear differential equation D. Then the following statements are equivalent :
(i) It is possible to get M from K by a succession of "elementary extensions":
a) Algebraic extensions, or
b) Extension "by an integral"
e) Extension "by an exponential of an integral".
Such an extension is called a "generalised Liouville extension".
(ii) The connected contponent (for the Zariski topology*) of the identity in
GalK(D) is solvable.

II. Differential Galois Theory : new methods.

Analytic differential equations have been divided in two classes by nineteen

century m a t h e m a t i c i a n s (Fuchs, Thorn6, Frobenius . . . ) :

* In this topology closed sets are algebraic subsets.

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a) Regular singular (Fuchs) equations

b) Irregular equations.
For the first class a quite complctc thcory was known at the end of the nineteen
century (for a modern exposition and generalisations see [De], [GL], [Katll,
[Kat3]). But for the second class a long time was necessary to get a satisfying
theory : c]. the remarks of [Gax], p. 100. Today such a theory is awailable in works
of [J], [S], [Mal2], [Mal3], [Mal4l, [BVll, [BV2], [Ra2], [Ra4], [Ra5], IRa7], [MR1],
[BJL1], [BJL2],... Unfortunately there exists no synthetic exposition ([Mal5] and
[RS] are in preparation).
Our purpose now is to cxplain thc principles of the analytic classification of
linear differential equations (for the first class it comes from works of RJemann,
Fuchs, Schlessinger, . . . , and for the second one it necds very recent tools), that is
to give a method to describe aU the analytic invariants of ~ut equation. \Ve will see
afterwards how to derive the Galois differential group (that is a particular set of
analytic invariants) from the knowledge of the analytic classification (that is from
all the analytic invariants), which seems, from an al)stract vlew-l)oint rct~sonablc
... There last results have been proved a.s far as we know by Schlessinger [Schl]
for rcgular singular equations and us for general equations [Ra3], [Ra5].
1. Regular singular equations.
Let Dy = a,~y(n) + ... + aoy = 0 b c a germ at 0 E C of linear differential
equation, with a 0 , . . . , a,, E C{x} (or C{x}[x-1]).

THEOREM. - - For D the following conditions are equivalent :

(i) D can be written (up to multiplication by a meromorphic germ ~ O)

X'~X ) ~ ba-1 ~ dx ] -~- "" ~- b°"

"with bo,..., b,t-1 E C{x}.

(ii) Every solution y oJ Dy = 0 admits a "meromorphic growth "neav the origin,
that is, for o~ < ~, there exists C, it > 0 (depanding only o] y and c~,/3) such that :

Ixl.ly(~)l < c / o r ~ < Argx </~.

If these conditions are satisfied D is regular-singular (or Fachsian).

A fnndamental cxamplc of rcgular-singular equation is tile famous differential
equation of Euler and Gauss, the hyperqeometrie equation (el. [R], [Gout, [Pool,
[L,,]) :

a, b, c E C;
D,,~,c y = x(1 - x)y" + [ c - (a + b + 1)x]y' - abg = 0 \ " x E P t ( C ) " ] "
 149

This equation admits a convergent solution in a disk centered at the origin with
radius one, the sum of the hypergeomctric pover serie :

ab
F(x) = F(a, b; c; x) = 1 + ~.cx +
a(a+l)b(bT1)x2 + - - . ( E ( 0 ) = l ) .
Let Dy = 0 be now a linear differential equation on the Riemann sphere
Pt(C) = X (or more generally on a connected Riemann surface X ) . Let a E X
be a regul,'tr point for D ; by Cauchy's Theorem D admits a fimdamental system
of solutions { y l , . . - , y , } holomorphic on a small disk centered at a. If b 6 y is
another regular point for D and if 7 is a continuous p a t h on X , 7 : [0,1] --* X ,
with 7(0) = a, 7(1) = b ~utd 7 ( 0 regular for D for t E [0, 1], each solution y
admits an aualytic co'nti'uuatiou Mong 7 and gives y~ holonmrl)hic on a small disk
centered at, b and solution of D. If we deform continuously the p a t h 7 leaving fixed
7(0) = a and 7(1) = b (homotopy with origin and extremity fixed) Y7 remains
unchanged. Wc can in 1)articular do that for a loop 7 (i.e. 7(0) = 7(1) = a);
then 7 induces a linear permutatiou of the solutions in a neighborhood of a, the
monodromy transformation along the loop 7 (in fact "along the homotopy class"
of 7) :
yfl4 7 = y~.
Wc have, using the classical composition of loops :

If we denote S o l , ( D ) the C-vector space of germs of sohttions of D at n, we have

M~. E GL(Sol,,(D)),

and
p,, : Homotol)y class of H M 7
p~: ~r,(X - S ; a ) - , G L ( S o L ( D ) )
(where S C X is the discrete set of singular points for D, and 7rt (X - S; a) is the
fundamental group of X - S with base point a).
We have obtained a linear representation of the flmdamental group, the
monodromy representation (with base point, a). If we change the base point a
in b, each homotopy class of continuous l)ath 7 from a to b gives isomorphisnls
Pa
7rl (X - S; a) ,) GL(SoIo)

1 Pb
"~rt(X - S;b) , GL(Solb)
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so we will speak improperly of "the" m o n o d r o m y representation

p : 7r,(X - S) .-, GL(Sol),

If we express j ~ , . through a fundmnental system { y l , . . . , y , t } we get a "mono-

dromy matrix" M~., and a linear representation :

p: - s;.) a L ( m C).

There is a local version of this situation : X = D is a germ of disk centered at 0,

S = {0}, X - S = D* = D - {0} : punctured disk. Then ~-1( X - S; a) .~ I (the
c l ~ s of a simple loop turning around 0 in the positive sense corresponding to l)
and we get a representation

p : Z ..~ G L ( n ; C).

E x l.
Let X - - p I ( C ) , D = D a =x~-a(o~•C).ThenS={0, co}, X - S = C*,
~r,(C*) ~ I ,'rod p(1) = exp(2iTra.) e C* = G L ( 1 ; C ) .
E z 2.
Let X = PI(C), D = x 2 ~ + I. Then S = {0¢}, X - S = C, ~h(C*) = {e} and
p(e) = 1 • GL(1; C) = C*. The monodromy is trivial.
Ex3.
Let X = PI(C), D = x ( d ) 2 + ~.4;,. Then S = {0, c~}, X - S = C*, 7r1(C*) ~ l

and p(1) = ( 0 2i~-)

1 in the basis { 1' l°g'~:}"

Ez 4.
Uypergeometric equation : D.,,,¢ -- x(1 - x) ~d~,j[dl2+ [c -- (a + b-t- 1)x]~7
'~ - ab ;
X -- P~(C), S = {0, 1,co}. The conqmtation of the m o n o d r o m y of the hyper-
geometric equation is due to Rienmnn [Ri] ( 4 . [Gou], [eoo]). The "exponents of
monodromy" (exp (exponent) -- eigenwflue of the m o n o d r o m y around a singula-
rity) arc given by the tal)le :

0 1 co

0 a 0

1 -c b c-a-b
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We get, a representation

p:~q(e'(c)-{ ,o¢};~)
' aL(2;c)
l*l.

For a well chosen basis we get :

~o (~,, - I ) c , I + (~, - I)C.., '

with wo ---- e-2ir'¢,Cdl ~- e2it'(c-a-b), and

- sinOra) sin(~rb) sin 7r(c - a) sin ~r(c - b)

C1 =
sinQrc) sin[2c(c - a - b)] ' sin(~c) sin[~(c - ~ - b)]"
It is also possible to c o m p u t e the m o n o d r o m y in a basis consisting of " K u m m e r
solutions". T h e forInulas arc more co,nplicatcd, using F function (c/. [Poo]).
By a well known elementary m e t h o d it is possible to replace a linear differential
equation of order n by a linear system of order one :

Dy = yi't) + - - . + aoy = 0 ;

y = / )
\ y(,,-1)
andAY=Y'-AY=O,

with
I 0 1 0 ... 0 !
0 0 1 ... 0
A =
° . ° . . . . . . . . .

\ --(! 0 . . . . . . . . . - - a n _ 1,

Conversely it. is possible, using a cyclic vector, to replace a differential system

A = ,-F;a, _ A, n E E n d ( n ; K) (IC differential fichl) by an equation (c/. [Del, IRa7],
[Ka~2]).
A system A = __d dx
_ A being given it. is possible to t r a n s f o r m it by an analytic
invertible "change of nnknown vector" or "analflic gauge transformation" :
Z = PY, P E GL(n; K). ~re get ~dZ = p_ d aY. .4- dd .t ' y- - , and ~ becomes ~XP = d--AP,
with A P - - - P A P -1 dPp-I
~ •

If ( ] ~ , . . . , Y,) is a flmdamental m a t r i x for ~ and 1 / ( 7 ) a m o n o d r o m y m a t r i x :

05,..., Y,,) ~ ( r , , . . . , Y,,)M(7),

(Zl,..., Z,) ~ P0~,..., ~;,)M(7)
(z,,..., Z,)M(7),
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and the monodromy is dearly invariant by gauge transformation. It is an analytic

invariant.
An equation, or system, modulo gauge transformation can be interpreted as an
analytic connection (flat with singularities). If a E X - S is fixed, we get a "fibre
functo~' :
Connection V ~ Sol at a (C-vector space) (c/. [De M]).
For regular singular equations we get the "Riemann-Hilbert correspondance "

Regular singular equations Representations of mouodromy (i.e.

modulo gauge group GL(n; K) linear representations of the fundamental
(or regular - singular connections) group ~'l (X - S; a)).

For these equations this correspondance is a bijection (and more : an equi-

valence of Tannakian categories). So monodromy gives in this case the analytic
cl¢~ssificat.ion of equations.
This result is no longer true for general equations :
Ex. Da = ~-~x,92 = x2~-~x+ 1 admit, the same monodromy (the identity).
Anyway t.he explicit conlputation of the rel)resentation of monodromy, well
known for classical equations, remains an open prol)lem, even for algebraic
equations on p l ( c ) . . .
The Galois differential group is a particular set of "analytic invariants" ; for
Fnchsian equations it. can be derived from the. analytic classification by the
following result [Schl] :

THEOREM. -- Let be D a regular singular equation with coefficients in I( (local

or global field of meromorphic fanctions). Then GalI¢(D) is the Zariski closure of
the group generated by the image of the representation of monodromy in GL(n; C).
Using D = x'b-~-t-1
- ,t - , it. is easy to verify that this result can he fitlse if we remove
the hypothesis "regular singular".
2. Asymptotic expansions and rcsommation ; savage 7r1.
The key to extend the preceding results to gem'ral equations with a sinfihtr
"geometric flavour" is a new theory of asymptotic expansions due to J. Ecalle
and J.P. Ram_is (following ideas of Euler, Borel, Stieltjes, Watson, Nevanlinna,
Carleman, Perron, Turrittin ... ).
Because lack of space I will be very sketchy aud refer to JEll, [E2], [E3],
[E4], IRa1], [Ra2], [Ra4], [Ra6], [MR1], [RS], [EMMR1], [EMMR2], and for a
detailed review to [MR4]. The cbLssical theory (Poincard's theory) of asymptotic
expansions presents a well-known flaw :
The eorrespondance : asymptotic expansions ~ actual fonctions (i.e. "formal
flmctions") is not bijective (infinitely flat. "errors") and not "Galois". A more
precise theory is "Gevrey asymptotics expansions theory" (then there arc only
 153

"exponentially fiat errors"). But in fact it is possible to get a "perfcct" theory,

using "polarised resummations" and taking into account if necessary "exponential
corrections" (or "worse" for non linear complicated cases) :
Working with asymptotic expansions wc get natural corrcspondance.
Polariscd summation.
"Transasymi)totic expansions" ~ Actual flmctions.
For "generic situations" the polarised summation is based upon Laplace-Borel
summation (up to some ranfificatiml). For "non generic ca.ses" or "multilevel
cases" (the phenomcnum of multil)licity of "levels" was first noticed in IRa2],
[RAT]) we need the "acceleration theory" of J. Ecalle [E4].
Example (with three levels : k~ < k2 < kl) :
Am, lyric continuation

f = pk-"1 L * Pk,/k~ * Pt.~/k~ * B pk= ]

+t +t +t I+
Ramification kl Laplace Accelerations Borel Ramification k+

"Polarisation" refers to it "direction of resmmnation" ~, starting from tit(;

origin and a sign + or - (intuitively a + and a - are directions "infinitely
close to" cr; (~+ is "after" and a - "before", turning in thc positive sense). We
have "natural summation processes" S,,+ and S,,_, each one is "Galois" in any
reasonable serzse (for largv cla.sses of linear or non linear functional equations).
Then (S,~+) -1 o S,~_ and S,~+ o (S,~_) -1 are Galois automorl)hisms : "formal
Stokes monodromy" and "Stokes nmnodromy" ("l)ointcd" at c~_). Intuitively (and
intuition can be transh~rmcd in a formal mathenmtical description) our Stokes
monodromy correspond to a "loop" around "singularities infinitely close to the
origin".
For wtrious qt,. •., q,, E 71C[~] (or more g('nrrally, in 7C[7
] 1 i with t ~ = x, u E N*)
we get an "exponential torus"

T - - G a b ¢ ( c q ' , . . . , c '1") ~ ( C ' ) " (p E N;It < ,t) ;

It" = C{x}[x-l]). These tori are abelian groups and we will use their abelian Lie
algebras Lie T.
Using resmmnation theory and tile projective limit of all the exponenti~d tori
we built a sort of "local fimdalnental group" taking into acconnt not only regular
singularities but all singularities. The exponential torus (i.e. the limit of) is a
sort of Cartan-subgroup of this "sava.qe 7rx" (for a formal d(,scriI)tion see [Ra6]).
Stokes n m n o d r o m y adnfits an i'nfiuitesimal generator; by a "Fourier aualysis" of
this generator, (which is a Galois derivation) associated to the adjoint action of
exponential tori we get "pointed alien derivations" in the sense of J.Ecalle [El].
So we build the Lie algebra of the savage ~rl by a direct product of Lie T and i~
 154

free infinite dimensional Lie algebra, the resurgence algebra. To get the savage 7rl
wc "add" by a direct product a formal monodromy to cxp (Lic savage 7rl).
Finally it is possible to gct a natural gencralisation of thc Rienmnn-Hilbert
correspondance (for local or global cases) :

Analytic linear differential eqnations Linear repcsentations of

modulo gauge group GL(n; K) sawtge 7r1
(or connrxi,,ns).

This correspondance is bijective (and an equivalence of Tannakian categories);

it gives an analytic classification of analytic diffcrentiM equations. It is possible
to comp~te explicitely thc representations for largc classes of equations (Mcijcr
equations in particular [DM]).
There is also a gencralisation of Schlessinger's theorem for the computation of
Galois differential group ([R~t3], [Ra5]) :

THEOREM. -- Let be D a linear differential equation with coefficients in K

(local or global field of me,vmorphic functions). Then Galh-(D) is the Zariski
closure of the image of the group generated by the representation of the savage rl
corresponding to D in GL(n; C).

COROLLARY. - - - In local or global situations the following statements are

equivalent:
6) Cab;(D) is Z riski-connected.
(ii) The Zariski closure of the group generated by the image of the representa-
tion of (ordinary) monodromy is Zariski connected.
(iii) (Oaly in the local case). The Zariski closure of the group generated by the
image of the representation of :'formal monodromy" is Zariski connected.
For global situations (i) ¢¢ (ii) is i)roved by O. Gabber using another method
[I,:at4].
Now it is possible to interpret solutions of diffcrrntial equations as functions*
not only of the usual wtriable but also of "hidden variables". Considering first
the Fuchsian casc : for 7 e r l ( X - S ; a ) we denote f ( x ) 7 = f ( x , 7 ) ; when 7
w~ries in 7 r l ( X - S;a) we get the diffrreut "branches" of the solution f; now
f is a function of f and 7 and the action of 71"1( X - S ; a) on this function i~
given by f(x,71)72 -- f(x,7172), that is by the right translation on the group
7 q ( X - S;a). E x a m p l e : l o g ( z , n ) = log z + 2ircn, n E Z. Evcry "reasonable"
analytic relation remains true by analytic contimmtion along a contimtous path,
so if f ( z ) satisfies an analytic functional equation ("rcasonablc"), f ( x , 7) satisfics

* More formally thase functions are living on a principal bundle with basis X and structure
group savage ~rl.
 155

the same equation : if g is "uniform" or "rational", g(x, 7) = 9(x). If H is the group

generated by the monodromy representation associated to D (a Fuchsian linear
differential equation), for D f = 0, we have Dr(x, 7) = 0 for 7 E H and g(x, 7)
makes sense for 7 E H and 9 obtained from f by "any construction of differential
algebra". Then f (and more generally g) can be "extended by continuity" (in
Zariski's top__ologysense) to the closure H of H in GL(n; C), but by Schlessinger's
theorem : H = GalI¢(D) = G, and f,g are "living" on the Galois ditferential
group G of D.
It is possible to l)erform the stone constructions in the general ease, replacing
7rl by the sawtge zrl. The variable 3' E 7rt is discrete but the variabh~ 7 E sawlgc a'~
is "partly continuous" : Lie (savage wl) is non trivial (it is infinite dimensional
...), and it is possible to develop an infinitesimal calculus with the "hidden
variables" 7. This was don(; (and discovcr('d) I)y J.Ecalh': he has intro(luced "alicn
calculus", "alien derivations"; his "hidden wtriablcs" correspond to the dual of
the cnvelopping algebn~ of Lic (savage 7r1). The "geometric ideas" devclopped
above can be extended, with a lot of t(,chnical diffieulti(,s lint quite little changes,
to uon lincar situations, of. [MIll], [Ml/2], [MR3], [E-i], . . . . For a dcscril)tion ()f
this extension (sketched in Nantes lecture) see [MR4].
As a conclnsion I would ask the reader to read the "Letter to Auguste
Chevallicr" writteu by E. Gah,is [Gal2] before his duel and ill particular the
paragraph at the end of the letter about the "Thdorie de l'ambigui'td" which was
considered a long time ,as a puzzle. My fi;eling is that the "Thdorie de l'ambigui'tg'
is what I have tried to describe above (my ctmviction is reinfl~r('cd 1)y the text of
E. eicard in [Gall] and of J. Dieudonn6 in [Gal2], and still more by the comments
at the end of the Thesis of J. Drach [Dr]).

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