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Philosophy and Education: Integrating Curriculum, Teaching and Learning

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 Philosophy and Education: Integrating Curriculum,
Teaching, and Learning

Gilbert Burgh, Contemporary Studies Program, Uni of Queensland, and

Mia O’Brien, Teaching and Educational Development Institute (TEDI),
University of Queensland
e-mails: g. burgh@mailbox.uq.edu.au mia.obrien@staff.uqi.uq.edu.au

Philosophy has much to offer us in curriculum design and interpretation.

Underlying the aims and objectives of contemporary curricula are con-
cepts, themes, and ways of thinking that are fundamentally philosophical
in nature. Understanding the philosophical terrain and inquiry-oriented
approach that underpins these frameworks can bring clarity to the
curriculum itself, and the intentions within their educational objectives.

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a framework for curriculum

interpretation and design that reflects the approach of philosophy in
education as an embodiment of lifelong learning and transformative
thinking. Particularly as a point of reference in identifying the central
concepts to be understood within curriculum, and as a process by which
deeper learning and intellectual engagement may be managed and facili-
tated. This paper, therefore, seeks to provide readers with practical tools
and processes for designing and interpreting curriculum by focussing
upon the philosophical themes that are inherent within curriculum, and
the ways of thinking that are explicit to philosophical inquiry yet often
implicit within course objectives and assessment requirements.

In consideration of the renewed emphasis in education on understanding

“for the real world” and “lifelong learning,” we feel this framework offers
an integrated and conceptual interpretation of curricula, a means by
which to identify the ideas of significance within syllabus documents, and
the strategies by which to make them relevant to contemporary learning
and modern life.

The practice of philosophy in the classroom

Much of the literature on the practice of philosophy in the classroom,
which has its origins in Lipman’s Philosophy for Children curriculum,
places emphasis on process or building a community of inquiry, and
includes: techniques for getting started, setting the agenda, and conduct-
ing discussion. Those of you who have had some experience in practicing
philosophy in the classroom will be aware that the community of inquiry
is participant centred and that the teacher’s role is one of being a facili-
tator rather than an all-knowing expert.

Procedural questions
As a starting point for building a community of inquiry the literature has
attended mostly to the process of inquiry, e.g., bearing in mind that class-
room discussion must pay attention to seeking clarity, consistency, the
exploration of considering alternative points of view, the sharing of
discussion, engaging in self-correction and so forth (e.g., see Cam 1995;
Splitter and Sharp 1995; Lipman, Sharp and Oscanyan 1980). Many of you
may by now be familiar with what is commonly referred to as procedural
questions. These questions are important insofar as conducting a commun-
ity of inquiry is concerned. They assist the community to make reasonable
judgments through the exploration of underlying assumptions and the
structure of our thinking. Richard Paul’s taxonomy of Socratic Question-

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Burgh & O'Brien: Integrating curriculum 46

ing is an attempt to provide a framework for such questions. A usual

sample can be seen below 1 :

Questions of clarification
What do you mean by …?
Are you saying that …?
How are you using the word …?
Could you give me an example of …?
Does anyone have any questions for (student’s name)?

Questions that probe assumptions

What is she assuming?
Do you think that assumption is warranted?
Why would someone make that assumption?
Are there any hidden assumptions in that question?

Questions that probe reasons and evidence

Can you give an example/counter-example to illustrate your point?
What are your reasons for saying that?
Do you agree with her reasons?
But is that evidence good enough?
By what criteria do you make that judgment?
Do you think that source is an appropriate authority?

Questions about view points or perspectives

What would be another way of putting that?
Are any other beliefs on the subject possible?
Are there circumstances in which your view might be incorrect?
How are (student’s name) and (student’s name) ideas alike/different?
Supposing someone were to disagree with you, what do you think they
would say?
What is someone were to suggest that …?
Can you try to see the issue from their point of view?

Questions that probe implications and consequences

What would follow from what you say?
If we say this is unethical, how about that?
What would be the likely consequences of behaving like that?
Are you prepared to accept those consequences?
Do you think you might be jumping to conclusions in this case?

Questions about the question

Do you think that is an appropriate question?
How is that question relevant?
What does that question assume?
Can you think of another question that would highlight a different
dimension of the issue?
How is that question going to help us?
Have we come any closer to solving the problem or answering the
question?

These so-called “Socratic questions” or procedural questions are open

ended questions, which are intended to elicit students’ views and
stimulate further inquiry. These types of questions are frames which can
be applied across disciplines and subject matter as the context can be
filled out. Socrates, however, also asked open substantive questions.

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Burgh & O'Brien: Integrating curriculum 47

Substantive questions
In traditional classrooms, children rarely get the opportunity to reflect
upon open substantive questions. In classrooms where philosophy is
practiced, the opportunity to explore such questions is inherent within the
mechanisms of the community of inquiry itself, where students are
encouraged to formulate and ask substantive questions. However, a
common view of teacher as facilitator concerned solely with process
rather than the content and the nature of the concepts within the dialogue
itself seems to prevail. This misperception may lead to an over-use of
procedural questioning, and a reluctance on the part of the teacher to be
more involved in the substantive aspects of the inquiry. 2 Facilitating a
community of inquiry will be most powerful when teachers engage with
participants both procedurally and substantively. Facilitation strategies
should include questions that scaffold the integration of student’s
thinking across both process and substance.

Unlike procedural questions, the substantive questions are embedded

within specific contexts. As Splitter and Sharp (1995, p.57) point out,
“They grow out of one’s understanding of a discipline or subject, include-
ing an understanding of how experts in the field have responded one to
the other in the history of the discipline.” These questions are, nonethe-
less, open ended questions. They provide support for both teacher and
students attempting to formulate such questions, and as follow up
questions where more than procedural questions are appropriate.

The conversation below highlights the difference between open proce-

dural questions and open substantive questions. Note that substantive
questions are used to elicit deeper responses initially elicited by
procedural questions.

QUESTION: Can we have a just society?

John: It depends on what is meant by justice?
Facilitator (PQ): What is justice?
John: Justice is that which is right.
Sandra: But what is right?
John: What is right or wrong depends on how you were
brought up or where you come from.
Facilitator (PQ): What do you mean by that?
John: Well, something is right depending on what value or
meaning individuals, groups or communities put on it.
Facilitator (SQ): Are you saying that judgments of right or wrong are
relative?
John: Yes. Everyone has an opinion on what is right or wrong.
Sandra: I agree with John that everyone has an opinion on what is
right, but right is the interest of the stronger.
Facilitator (PQ): Can you give me an example?
Sandra: The government will ensure that citizens will behave in a
certain way that suits the interests of the rich and
powerful.
Facilitator (PQ): How else might we look at this?
Fred: Just because it might be the case that everyone has an
opinion on what is just, or it might be the case that the
powerful exact certain behaviour out of its citizens, but
that does not mean that it ought to be that way.
Facilitator (PQ): Who agrees with Fred?
Joanne: I do.

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Burgh & O'Brien: Integrating curriculum 48

Facilitator (PQ): Have you a reason for agreeing with Fred?

Joanne: Yes. Because everyone has a right to freedom from
coercion, including from government. Justice can only
come from having the freedom to do what is in your own
interest without interference from others.
Mary: I agree, but in order to have freedom we need to be able
to be free to be able to do those things.
Facilitator (PQ): Is that different from what Joanne is saying?
Mary: Yes, because freedom is more than the absence of
coercion. It is having the opportunity to participate in
politics.
Harry: I agree with Mary, but it is more than having the
opportunity to participate in politics. It certainly is more
than having the right to vote at regular intervals. To
really have freedom means having access to goods like
education, health and welfare so that we can develop the
capacity to make choices.
Facilitator (SQ): Is a just society one in which we have access to these things you
talk about?
Harry: Yes.
Facilitator (PQ): Do we require anything else for justice?
Harry: A just society is an egalitarian one.
Facilitator (PQ): What do you think Harry means by the term egalitarian?
Sandra: A society that seeks both liberty and equality.
Natalie: The only just society is a democratic one. However, I
don’t think that we live in democratic society. What I
mean is, for a society to be democratic it must abide by
the principles of non-tyranny and equality, but it must
also be deliberative.

Unlike procedural questions, to ask substantive questions requires the

actual formulation of such questions, and as Splitter and Sharp observe, it
is also a matter of timing, and of knowing when it is appropriate to
intervene in a discussion with such questions (p.59). More importantly,
substantive questions require a deeper understanding of the subject
matter or discipline, as well as the context of the conversation. In other
words, the use of substantive questions requires some knowledge of how,
when and where to ask such questions, and an understanding of the
concepts and themes inherent within the questions themselves. Table 1
illustrates the difference in emphasis between procedural and substan-
tive questions.
Table 1: Open questions
PROCEDURAL QUESTIONS SUBSTANTIVE QUESTIONS
Engages participants in thinking and inquiry Adds new ideas, content
“Socratic” questions aimed at encouraging Follow-up questions
inquiry
Questions which probe underlying structure Grows out of understanding of a discipline,
of thinking, and assist in making reasonable subject or domain – including understanding of
judgments method/responses in history of discipline
Stimulates further inquiry Directs discussion in a subtle direction
Schema or frame – filled by reference to Embedded within specific context
particular subject matter
Teacher models procedures of inquiry Teacher is involved as co-inquirer, but displays
“scholarly ignorance,” i.e., no claim to the
answer in advance but engaged in genuine
dialogue

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This raises a crucial question: How much knowledge of the discipline of

philosophy does the facilitator need? It would appear that one may bene-
fit greatly from an understanding of the key ideas within philosophy, so
as to make such questioning possible, i.e., one needs to be educated in the
discipline. However, Socrates himself was not schooled in the discipline.
It was the asking of both procedural and substantive questions that has
contributed to the development of philosophy. Philosophy now has a his-
tory. It would be a mistake, therefore, to insist that one becomes educated
in the history of philosophy, but on the other hand, such knowledge
should not be taken for granted.

Splitter and Sharp state that through example and practice, both teachers
and students can gain an understanding of how and when to ask substan-
tive questions (p.59). Like many things that we attempt in life, practice
makes perfect, or at the very least we gain some insight into that which
we practice. This advice is a little limited at the practical level. We discuss-
ed earlier the way in which procedural questioning can be accommodated
into pedagogical practice, as illustrated by Paul’s taxonomy (1990). With
practice, teachers come to understand their appropriate use, guided by
the taxonomy’s categories. Of course, it is possible to either over-use such
questions, or to apply them mechanically like a check list of things to ask,
which may result in the stifling of dialogue. However, this is avoided
when facilitators remain sensitive to context, and open to philosophical
possibilities. On the other hand, our concern with the inclusion of sub-
stantive questioning and facilitation remains. Can a framework be devel-
oped to support the integration of substantive inquiry into pedagogical
practices and the community’s inquiry in general? We think so, and offer
the beginnings of such a framework within this paper, albeit its use will
require more than the implementation of ‘a series of questions that with
practice can be appropriately applied to a context’.

Strands or sub-disciplines of philosophy

In the table below is a summary of the Strands or sub-disciplines which
structure philosophical inquiry. The first two strands ask what philoso-
phers call fundamental questions (see Table 2). The two strands are (1)
metaphysics, or put another way, the nature of things, the distinction
between the way things appear to be (e.g., a road surface may look wet
from a distance on a hot day) and the way they really are (the road is
actually dry); and (2) epistemology, or knowing about things. We cannot
emphasise enough that memorising the philosophical jargon is not the
aim of this exercise, although one should not fear using the language of
the philosopher. After all, as teachers we have become accustomed to
using the language of education and freely use terms such as “pedagogy,”
and “curriculum,” terms that might not be so familiar to others outside of
the discipline of education. Every discipline has its own terminology that
is particular to that discipline. Nevertheless, for our purposes the phrase
to the right of the colon is what we will concentrate on.

Take some time to understand each strand. How do they differ? In what
ways are they different? Do they overlap in anyway? If so, how? Can you
give further examples of questions for each strand? Write them down.

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Table 2: Fundamental Questions

STRAND DESCRIPTION
Metaphysics The way we think about
The nature of things the world.
Metaphysics attempts to
get behind appearances
and find out the truth
about the nature of things.
Epistemology Asks questions about the
Knowing about things nature and grounds of
knowledge and the
conditions by which we
assert things to be true or
false.
QUESTIONS
What is ultimately real?
Why does whatever is real exist?
What is the place of human beings
in the real?
What is knowledge?
What is it to know something?
What are human beings capable of
knowing?
How can we justify our claims to
knowledge?
Are there limits to human
knowledge? If there are limits, what
are they, and what fixes them?

The other strands drawn upon, ethics, social and political philosophy, and
aesthetics, we have called Asking questions about … (see Table 3). This is
because while they are sub-disciplines, these strands are underpinned by
metaphysical and epistemological considerations. For example, to under-
stand what ethics is, we may need to understand the nature of our beliefs
and values and where they come from, which is a metaphysical question
about ethics. We can also ask whether or not there are moral truths.
Because such a question asks if we can have knowledge about the nature
of ethics, it is an epistemological question. 3 Indeed, some philosophers
argue that we must tackle the metaphysical and epistemological problems
first, before we can ask any further questions. However, philosophy being
philosophy, you may not be surprised to find other philosophers in
disagreement with this point. Our concern is less about such disagree-
ments, and primarily with how important it is procedurally, and how
effective it is substantively, to apply good judgment and reasoning. What
follows are descriptions of ethics, social and political philosophy and
aesthetics.
Table 3: Asking questions about …
STRAND DESCRIPTION QUESTIONS
Ethics A form of values inquiry that How ought we to live?
Valuing things grapples with questions that arise What do moral concepts like good
from interpersonal relationships and and right mean? Are our moral
relationships between persons and judgments objectively true or false, or
the non-human world. do they express subjective
Concerned about questions of right preferences?
and wrong, the good and the bad, Can specific moral rules be justified?
and the nature of our beliefs about What motives do we have for living
such matters. morally? How should I balance the
pursuit of my own goals with making
a contribution to my community?
Social & political Examines the relationship between How do we connect with others?
philosophy individuals and communities, as well How should we organise society?
Individuals and as those questions that underlie our What is the relation of power to law?
communities thinking about social, cultural and Who should rule?
political institutions. What is the nature and purpose of
law?
Aesthetics A form of values inquiry that makes What is beauty?
Philosophy possible judgments of appreciation. Are aesthetic judgements objectively
and the arts true or false, or do they express
subjective preferences?

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Note that there is an overlap between these sub-disciplines, especially

across ethics and social and political philosophy. Arguably, all social and
political questions are underpinned by questions of an ethical nature. For
example, “Do we have an obligation to obey the state and hence its laws?”

When we engage in the practice of philosophical inquiry, and we pro-

pound a particular view, in order to defend this position we present
arguments intended to support this view. The enterprise of reasoning
about philosophical issues is known as logic (see Table 4). Logic is the
branch or sub-discipline of philosophy that involves the construction and
evaluation of arguments. Logic can be said to be procedural, as it deals
with the rules and procedures that underlie inquiry. We can, however,
ask philosophical questions about logic itself, e.g., What is truth?, Is
knowledge related to truth or falsehood? Moreover, logic, as taught in
universities, involves mainly formal reasoning. However, the practice of
philosophy in the classroom deals more with logical consequences and
drawing attention to reasoning tools as a means to promote quality
thinking and deep learning. It is the latter, or procedural considerations,
that we will be concerned with here.

Table 4: Construction and evaluation of arguments

STRAND DESCRIPTION QUESTIONS
Logic Logic deals with rules and procedures that How can we
Judgment and reasoning under lie inquiry; the study of valid inference. distinguish better
Embraces both critical and creative thinking reasoning from
worse?

For convenience, Table 5 below illustrates the overlap within the sub-
disciplines of philosophy. Note that the questions in each cell are not
exhaustive, but rather examples of potential questions within each strand.
Those questions that are fundamental to each strand have been high-
lighted in bold type. Other questions are those that might be asked when
at least two of the strands intersect. Some cells have been left open for you
to consider and construct your own questions. Read through them and
find time to discuss them with colleagues. Do others agree with you? If
yes, why? If not, why not? Remember that the purpose of this exercise is
not so much to fill out the cells “correctly,” but to reflect upon, and
become familiar with, the philosophical terrain through practice and
dialogue with others.

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Table 5: Mapping the sub-disciplines of philosophy

Metaphysics Epistemology Ethics Social & Aesthetics Logic
Political
Metaphysics What is …? What is What is What is
What things knowledge? beauty? truth?
exist?
Epistemology Is Are our Is beauty in Is knowledge
knowledge moral the eye of the related to
possible? judgments beholder? truth and
objectively falsehood?
true or false?
Ethics Are there Can we show How ought Should my
moral truths? that one we to live? behaviour be
moral view is consistent
better than with my
another? beliefs?
Social & What does it Do we have How do we Should art be Is liberty
Political mean to be a an obligation connect with politically compatible
member of a to obey the others? correct? with
political state? equality?
community?
Aesthetics Is there such How do we What things
a thing as judge are
beauty? beauty? beautiful?
Logic What do we How do we How can we
mean when decide distinguish
we say a whether or better
statement is not a reasoning
true? statement is from worse?
true?

Philosophy and Studies of Society and Environment (SOSE)

Philosophy relates in some way, to all eight key learning areas. Generally
speaking, every discipline presupposes answers to philosophical ques-
tions that cannot be answered by the disciplines themselves.
Here are some examples:
Mathematics: Do numbers exist? Is mathematics discovered or invented?
Science: What is scientific knowledge? How is scientific knowledge
different from knowledge in other disciplines?
Religion: Does God exist? What is the relation between faith and reason?
Languages: What is meaning? How does language relate to the world?

For this paper, our analysis concentrates on the key learning area of
Studies of Society and Environment (SOSE). SOSE attempts to bring
together various disciplines including history, geography, economics,
politics, sociology, anthropology, law, psychology, and ethics, as well as
studies such as civics and citizenship, cultural studies, and future studies,
in order to develop an understanding of society and our lives within it. In
doing so, there is currently an emphasis (particularly within Australia, the
UK, and Canada) on core societal values as key elements of social educa-
tion curriculum. For Queensland, this emphasis has been translated as Key
Values articulated as essential underlying concepts that integrate through-
out the curriculum’s conceptual strands. The four key values within the
Queensland syllabus (QSCC, 2000) are democratic processes; social
justice; ecological and economic sustainability; and peace. The four

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conceptual strands are time, continuity and change; place and space;
culture and identity; and systems, resources and power.

The task of planning a unit of work or series of lessons usually begins

with teachers establishing and identifying key learning objectives that
integrate with and/or facilitate the ‘learning outcomes’ endorsed within
the syllabus. This process of curriculum interpretation and design has
been the subject of a recent study, in which we identified the limitations of
a ‘content/outcomes’ only approach to planning (O’Brien & Burgh, 2001).
With substantial research into planning practices and case studies, the
project team developed materials that supported a more conceptual and
inquiry-oriented approach to curriculum planning. While this work is
ongoing, we alert the reader at this point that both the study and this
paper assume an inquiry-oriented approach to curriculum, teaching and
learning.

Thus, we might begin by asking the question: What is there to know? For
example, we may want students to turn their attention to the structure of
society and the cultural practices of Ancient Egypt. Next we consider the
central concepts and themes that are inherent within this topic, or concep-
tual understanding. In doing so, we must ask the question: What is there
to understand and why is it significant? In this case, students need to
understand how cultural and social values, and the structure of a society
are interrelated aspects of Ancient Egypt, and the way in which it is
governed. They might also consider the impact of these aspects on the
quality of life for members of that society, and build further on that
understanding by making comparisons to contemporary life in Australia.

By undertaking a brief analysis aimed at identifying key concepts, themes,

and understandings, we are now in a position to consider the sorts of
philosophical questions we may need to ask. An effective community of
inquiry (and indeed, classroom generally) stimulates students to analyse
concepts and issues, and to explore underlying assumptions and taken for
granted perspectives. If we look at Table 3 (see also Table 5), some of
these questions are readily adapted to the specific content of SOSE. For
example, the question which is at the heart of social and political philoso-
phy: How do we connect with others?, becomes: , How do different societies
reflect different models of citizenship and democracy through time? when
grounded in the Key Value of democratic processes, and integrated from
across the Strands of Time, Continuity and Change, Place and Space, and
Culture and Identity.

In Table 6 we have placed the Key Values and Strands of the Key Learning
Area as found in the SOSE syllabus, and mapped them generally onto the
relevant sub-disciplines of philosophy. We have provided examples of
some questions that directly relate to the SOSE syllabus. These questions
can be articulated more specifically when applied to particular subject
matter (as with the earlier example on the structure of society and the
cultural practices of Ancient Egypt).

Note that we have left blank the Key Values of Social Justice, and Ecologi-
cal and Economic Sustainability in relation to the sub-discipline of Ethics
for you to fill out. Use the questions in Table 3 (see also Table 5) as a guide
and adapt them to each of the corresponding cells in Table 6. Give reasons
for answers and why you placed them in each particular cell. Discuss with
others your reasons for doing so.

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Table 6: Relation of the sub-disciplines of philosophy directly related to

the strands and key values in SOSE
The nature of things Social & political
philosophy: individuals &
communities
Time, Systems,
continuity & Place & space Culture & Identity resources &
change power
Social & Democratic What is democracy? How are
political processes Can what happened in the past tell us anything about the different
philosophy: nature of democracy? models of
individuals How do different societies reflect different models of governance
& citizenship and democracy through time? implemented
communities What are the implications, if any, for the theory and and sustained
practice of democracy? within
different
societies?
Do we have an
obligation to
obey the state?
Social justice What is What has been the impact of these What role
justice? changing concepts on people and should the
How has the societies over time? processes of
concept of In what ways do cultural and social citizenship,
justice perceptions of rights, equality and liberty government,
changed over shape and define the practice of social business and
time? justice in societies? economy play
What in the
influence has articulation of
this had on justice in a
concepts of society?
liberty and
equality?
Ethics:
valuing
things

Ecological &
economic
sustainability

Social & What is Can we How do the Should democracy be

political environment? make sense underlying extended beyond the
philosophy: What has been of the perspectives human community?
individuals the impact of environmen and beliefs held
& ongoing social, t by by different
communities cultural, respecting cultures and
economic and its intrinsic societies
political nature influence
development rather than people’s
on the acting on its relationship
environment behalf? (eg with the
over time? Indigenous environment?
world views
vs Western
thinking)
Peace What is peace? Should we What are the influences of difference and
Is it merely the foster both diversity on human flourishing?
resolution of human and How should we manage different values
conflict? environmen and beliefs?
Do we need to tal How should we resolve conflict that arises
reconsider flourishing? from difference and diversity?
questions of How can we
social justice in achieve this?
order to attain
peace?

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Concluding Discussion
It would be a mistake to assume that the Key Values identified in the SOSE
syllabus should go uncontested. Indeed, the curriculum documents and
related literature may be interpreted as presenting such ‘shared values’ as
unproblematic and inherently inclusive. As Tim Sprod (1997, p.43)
indicates, there is an assumption that these values ought to be shared.
Hence, while Table 6 gives examples of substantive questions that can act
as springboards for exploring the Key Values, children need to explore
these values further. We need to ask fundamental questions that seek to
unpack and examine the underlying assumptions of these ‘values’ in a
critical and socio-culturally informed manner. Questions that get to the
heart of the issues. In other words, we need to ask questions about the
nature of things, of the values and beliefs that we hold, and on what
counts as evidence. We begin by developing, and adapting or building on
the general or broader questions found in Table 2 (see also Table 5),
fundamental questions such as: What do we mean by …?, or How do you
know …? These questions are important as they provide the means by
which we may question and critically examine the underlying
assumptions of the stated values and conceptual strands, and the tools
with which children may reflect upon and thoughtfully negotiate their
own values and beliefs, as well as those of others.

Tables 7 and 8 provide further examples of some fundamental questions.

These examples are not intended to be used as a list of questions for
teachers to use in the classroom. Their development lies within an
intention to support and stimulate our thinking and understanding of
why and how we come to ask these questions.

Our main concern has been the need of the facilitator to intermingle both
substantive and procedural questions. Guiding a community of inquiry to
explore such questions and issues, requires teachers as facilitators who are
actively engaged in both the process of inquiry, and the conceptual
substance of the dialogue. Such a model of pedagogy requires teachers to
be sensitive to context, and to ask questions which assist students in
making reasonable judgments. This task involves strategies that
encourage students to explore philosophical issues and express points of
view, as well as to construct and evaluate arguments. When we are
focused upon the development of student’s capacities to make
judgements based upon scholarly thinking, and the engagement of their
intellectual and reasoning skills, high quality dialogue and deep
understanding are more likely to occur.

In sum, integrating philosophy into a subject area or KLA requires an

understanding of the procedural and substantive nature of philosophy.
This may be a more complex task than simply supplementing pedagogy
with procedural questions. Indeed, it is one that must engage the
teacher’s expertise as a thinker and curriculum designer, in order to
identify and draw upon those most valuable concepts and themes within
curriculum areas. Extending our classroom beyond the ‘outcomes’ may
not be easy, however this paper has presented some ideas and a
framework from which to begin this process. With practice in the
classroom, and further collegial discussion in the staff room, the
philosophical terrain will become more familiar. With time and
perseverance, the partnership between philosophy and education,
particularly when applied throughout curriculum, teaching and learning,
will be an enriching and valuable one for our students. 4

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Table 7: Conceptual strands

Time, continuity and change
What is continuity, and what counts as continuity? What is change, and what counts as change?
What counts as evidence in order to understand changes and continuities over time from ancient
to modern times?
How can an understanding of causes and effects inform changes and continuities, in both past
and future perspectives? What counts as a cause? What counts as an effect?
How do we establish what contributions by people have affected the present?
What contributions should count towards future perspectives?
Should we place more importance on the dominant perspective?
Should we consider the role of marginalised groups?
What impact have ideas on social environments had on heritages?

Place and space

What do we mean by place and space? Are there natural processes that shape both place and
space?
What are natural processes? Are all human-environmental interactions natural processes?
To what extent do human-environmental interactions impact on place?
How do spatial patterns affect human development and environments?
What is the significance of place on human values?
What is the impact of built environments on natural environments?

Culture and identity

Who am I? What does it mean to be me?
Is our identity constructed by culture to which we belong or vice verse? What is culture?
What does it mean to belong to a culture? What do we mean by a sense of belonging?
Is it necessary to be a member of a group to have a sense of belonging?
Is it possible to belong to one group or culture and yet not share all the same values?
Does difference and diversity affect our perceptions of self and what it means to belong to a
culture?

Systems, resources and power

What is the relationship between ecological and other systems?
Should economy and business have an influence over the future of the environment?
Is it important that citizens participate in social and political decisions?
What is the relationship between citizenship and government?
Should citizens have access to power? If yes, in what way?
What is power?
What is the relationship between power and access to systems and resources?
Who should control natural resources and the means of production?

Questions overlapping one or more conceptual strands

What are historical facts?
Do facts change over time?
What is the connection between space, time and change?
How does change affect culture?
Can we have culture without continuity?
What is the significant of time and spatial patterns on human identity and culture?
How much of human nature is shaped by natural or innate forces, and how much is conditioned
by the social environment or culture?
How does identity and culture affect social and political structures?
Does identity and culture affect how we view history and our place in the world?
How can historical facts be established?

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Table 8: Key Values

Democratic processes
What is democracy? Does democracy imply respecting the integrity and the rights of all people?
If so, is democracy possible in a pluralist society?
What is the relation between democracy and civil and political rights?
Should all people be involved in democratic decision-making in all aspects of life?
If yes, can we respect the rights of all people and promote equal participation and access for
individuals and groups? If not, what does it mean to be a citizen in a democratic society?
Social justice
What is social justice? What are some ways in which we might challenge injustices?
Is it possible to share a common humanity and value diversity?
Should all people have a right to equitable treatment?
What role do human rights play, if any, in achieving social justice?
What do we mean by the tem “rights”?
Does social justice entail a fair allocation of community resources?
What do we mean by fairness? Is justice fairness?
Ecological and economic sustainability
What is the nature of the interrelationship between ecological systems and economies?
What do we mean by the integrity of natural environments?
Can natural environments have intrinsic value or inherent worth, or do they have value or worth
because they are important as the basic sources of life support?
Peace
Is the promotion of positive relations with others and with the environment integral to peace? If
so, is it possible to act out of self-interest and yet achieve cooperative and peaceful relations with
others?
Is the promotion of spirituality and optimism necessary to peace?
Can we have peace without a sense of belonging in local, national and global communities? If so,
is a sense of shared destiny and stewardship of the Earth necessary for peace?
Questions overlapping one or more key values
Is democracy possible without social justice?
Can we have social justice without democracy?
What is the relationship between citizenship and democratic processes?
Can we have citizenship without rights or responsibilities?
How should we decide on what might be a wise, equitable and sustainable use of resources?
Is ecological and economic sustainability necessary for peace?
Is peace possible without social justice?
Is democracy necessary for peace?

Endnotes
1 Taken from Splitter and Sharp, 1995, p.56-7. Adapted from Paul 1990, Ch.19; Paul et al.

1989a,b; 1990a,b.
2The question of teacher intervention and substantive involvement continues to be

discussed. It raises the general problem of impartiality, and of whether or not substantive
contributions by teachers subvert the course of inquiry. Moreover, if agreement could be
reached on these issues, it still leaves open questions of when it is appropriate for teachers to
make substantive contributions. For further discussion on the issue of teacher intervention,
see Splitter and Sharp 1995, pp.135-9.; and see esp. p.148, Figure 3: Teacher involvement in
classroom dialogue; and p.149, Figure 4: Aspects of growth in the classroom community of
inquiry.
3 The enterprise of asking these sorts of questions is sometimes called meta-ethics.
4 For an introduction to discussion plans and exercises see, Lipman 1997. For discussion

plans designed to stimulate discussion on the philosophical underpinnings of both history

and moral values, which can be used as stimulus material for lesson plans in SOSE, see
Sprod 1997.

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 Burgh & O'Brien: Integrating curriculum 46

References
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Lipman, M., “Philosophical Discussion Plans and Exercises,” Critical & Creative Thinking,
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O’Brien, M. & Burgh, G., “Revisioning SOSE: Examining the role of philosophy in
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Sprod, T., “The Cape Grim and Emu Bay Incidents: an historical community of inquiry,”
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