IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON BUILDING MATERIALS

P. Watkiss, N. Eyre1 and M. Holland

AEA Technology, UK

A. Rabl
Ecole des Mines de Paris
and

N. Short
Aston Material Services, UK

Draft, 1 Sept. 2000

Abstract
Damage to building materials causes some of the most visible and worrying damage linked to air
pollution, particularly where it concerns buildings of cultural worth. This paper describes the
analytical pathway for quantifying these damages in physical and economic terms, once the
dispersion of pollutants has been described.

Key words: air pollution, damage to buildings, historical monuments, soiling, corrosion, damage
cost, amenity loss, repair cost

1 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution damages materials, especially those used in buildings because of their long service life,
sometimes of the order of hundreds of years. Damage to other objects tends to be less important:
most cars, for instance, are replaced long before damage from air pollution has become significant.
The phenomena of the degradation of buildings are complex due to the numerous factors that
intervene. However it is generally recognized that man-made pollutants have greatly increased the
degradation rate of buildings. Of particular importance are soiling caused by particles (especially
soot) and corrosion or erosion caused by SO2.

This paper presents an overview of the methodology used by ExternE [1998] to estimate the cost of
air pollution damage to materials. We begin with a comment on the economic valuation. There is a
general consensus that the valuation should be based on willingness-to-pay (WTP) to avoid damage.
In general one can distinguish three cost components:
• expenditures to repair the damaged object, e.g. by cleaning or repainting,
• preventive measures, e.g. the cost of anti-ozonant additives to improve the ozone resistance of
tires,
• loss of amenity, e.g. the displeasure of having to look at a dirty building.
The total cost is the sum.

1
Now at the Energy Savings Trust, 21 Dartmouth Street, London, UK.

1
The first of these is the most straightforward, because cleaning and repair of buildings involve market
transactions. By contrast, the cost of preventive measures is very difficult to determine. There is
ongoing development of materials, technologies and management, with such a variety of costs and
benefits that it would be difficult if not impossible to keep account. For instance, over the years the
paint of cars has been improved so much that damage by air pollution has become negligible. What
has been the extra cost, if any, and what are the benefits in addition to protection from corrosion?.

The third component, loss of amenity, involves subjective perception and is not a market good. The
most commonly used tool to determine the value of non-market goods is contingent valuation
[Mitchell and Carson 1989], i.e. interviewing people about their WTP for a good. Unfortunately
there are essentially no studies that allow us to estimate the value of amenity loss due to building
damage in Europe. An alternative and much simpler approach has been proposed by Rabl [1999],
based on the fact that amenity loss is in fact reflected in market decisions about cleaning and repair,
and can be inferred by a simple rule from the expenditures for cleaning and repair. This rule says that
the cost of amenity loss is approximately equal to the cost of cleaning and repair, and it is probably
as accurate as contingent valuation, in view of the notorious uncertainties of the latter. However, so
far this rule has not been applied consistently in the estimates of ExternE.

For buildings of aesthetic or cultural merit, such as ancient cathedrals, estimating the effects of
damage requires further original valuation work based on the contingent valuation technique. Some
such studies already exist, but need to be supplemented to provide a reasonably comprehensive view
on the value of cultural assets. Consideration needs to be given to the amenity and existence values
for such buildings, as replacement costs do not adequately reflect the full cost of, for example, the
loss of fine carvings that are several hundred years old. Costs associated with damages of this type
are extremely site-specific, not only in terms of the merit of the item in question, but also in the way in
which it can be treated. A further problem is that there is currently no available inventory to describe
the stock at risk. So far damage to historical monuments and buildings has not yet been quantified by
ExternE, except for an extremely rough estimate in France [Rabl 1999].

2 The Effects of Air Pollution on Materials

For most materials the impacts fall into four categories:
• Discoloration;
• Material loss;
• Structural failure;
• Soiling.

There are no valuation studies or material inventories from which estimates of the costs of
discoloration can be estimated. However, such costs are probably very small. Structural failure
resulting from pollutant exposure also seems unlikely unless either the design of a building is
fundamentally flawed or maintenance has been grossly neglected. In either case, it seems
unreasonable to attribute costs to air pollution, at least in the context of affluent societies.

Therefore, the analysis presented here focuses on the effects of acidic deposition on corrosion.
Acidic deposition covers both the direct effects of sulphur dioxide and the effects of acid deposition

2
resulting from both SO2 and NOx emissions. In addition, a simple method has been used to quantify
the soiling of buildings due to deposition of particulates.

It should be noted that the effects of these air pollutants are set against a background of substantial
natural weathering forces including rain, bacteria, freeze-thaw cycles and sea salt (in coastal regions).
These natural constituents would lead to damage of materials even in the absence of air pollutants.
However, measured deterioration rates are a factor of 10 to 100 lower than in the presence of air
pollutants.

For a number of materials, the dry deposition of SO2 exerts the strongest corrosive effect of
atmospheric pollutants. Wet deposition of pollutants, expressed as rain acidity, also has a corrosive
effect on certain materials but is generally weaker. The role of atmospheric NO2 has not yet been
clarified. Although a strong synergistic effect with SO2 has been observed in laboratory studies, this
has not yet been observed in the field.

Ozone is known to damage some polymeric materials such as paints, plastics and rubbers (Lee et al,
1996). Of these, damage to rubber seems the most important (Holland et al, 1998, 2001). It has
also been observed to act synergistically with SO2 in the field (Kucera et al, 1993a; Kucera, 1994).
However, such effects have not been considered in the present phase of ExternE.

The materials for which damage has been considered are calcareous stone, mortar, paint, concrete,
aluminium and galvanised steel. Although not exhaustive, this list includes the most sensitive of the
materials commonly used by the construction industry. All non-galvanised steel is assumed to be
painted and is therefore considered as part of the paint inventory. No consideration has been made
of the loss of transparency for glass because modern glass is considered to be very resistant to
attack. A summary of the materials and their susceptibility to air pollution is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Sensitivity of Materials to Air Pollution and the Stock-at-Risk in Europe.

Material Sensitivity to air pollution Stock-at-risk in Europe

Brick very low very large
Mortar moderate to high very large
Concrete low very large
Natural stone (sandstone, high (severely affected by SO 2 ) large (especially culturally
limestone, marble) valuable objects)
Unalloyed steel high (severely affected by SO 2 ) very small
Stainless steel very low medium
Nickel and nickel-plated high (especially in SO 2 -polluted very low
steel environment)
Zinc and galvanised steel high (especially in SO 2 -polluted medium
environment)
Aluminium very low medium
Copper low low
Lead very low low

3
 Organic Coatings uncertain very large

2.1 The stock at risk

To quantify the corrosion impacts on building materials from acidic deposition, it is first necessary to
establish the ‘stock at risk’, meteorological conditions and ambient pollution levels. As acid
deposition is a regional scale phenomenon, the reference environment must be defined on a
European level.

The stock at risk is derived from building surveys. Such studies are generally performed for
individual cities; these can then be extrapolated to provide inventories at the national level. In cases
where individual country data is not available, in particular France and most countries of Southern
Europe, values have been extrapolated from other countries; this introduces significant uncertainties.
The data have been incorporated into the EcoSense software. Sources of data are as follows:
Kucera et al (1993b), Tolstoy et al (1990) - data for Prague;
Kucera et al, 1993b; Tolstoy et al, 1990 - data for Stockholm, Sweden, and Sarpsborg, Norway;
Ecotec (1986) data for UK;
NTUA (1997) data for Greece;
Hoos et al (1987) - data for Dortmund and Köln.

2.2 Dose-Response Functions

Dose-response (DR) functions, showing the rate of loss of material for the building materials
considered to be at risk, were identified by literature review. Considerable relevant literature now
exists both in the USA and Europe.

Estimates of pollution related damage rely on field studies on real buildings or upon studies on
idealised test materials either in the field or laboratory. There are obvious problems in relying too
heavily on test materials because real building materials are very varied in type and in the atmospheric
conditions they face. Also, the mechanisms as well as the rates of damage can vary with ambient
conditions. On the other hand, surveys of actual building materials do not allow the same flexibility in
control of individual pollutants in a multi-pollutant environment. A combination of controlled studies
and field measurement is therefore required to give reliable DR data.

All attempts to derive DR relationships require some assumptions to be made about the appropriate
functional form. For example, linearity with respect to time and to concentrations is frequently
assumed. In some cases the basis for these assumptions may be very weak as the empirical data
sets are often insufficient to test the hypothesis. In these cases, the functional form needs to be
justified on theoretical grounds by models of damage mechanisms.

The use of measured data to derive (via regression analysis) predictive equations with empirically
fitted coefficients does mean the coefficients only strictly apply to the experimental environment.
However, the chief source of functions adopted here, the work for the UNECE (United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe) by Kucera (1993a, b; 1994) is based on results from 39 test

4
 Edited by Foxit Reader
Copyright(C) by Foxit Corporation,2005-2010
For Evaluation Only.

sites across a number of European countries, and including 3 in North America. Results should
therefore be quite generally applicable, covering as they do a very wide range of pollution and
meteorological climates. Kucera’s work is here preferred to the results of others (e.g. Lipfert, 1987;
1989; Butlin et al, 1992) because of the size of the geographical area from which data were
collected, and because of the length of the experimental programme.
Table 2 lists the DR functions we have considered, in standardized format; the reader should refer
back to the original papers for the original form and discussion of the functions. In particular the
original H+ concentration term (in mg/l) of the ICP functions has been replaced by an acidity term
using the conversion P.H+ (mg/l) = 0.001.H+ (acidity in meq/m2 /year), and the erosion rate for stone
and zinc has been converted to mass loss by assuming respective densities of 2.0 and 7.14
tonnes/m3 .

Table 2. Comparison of the DR Functions for Material Damage Assessment. Annual rates for
functions giving mass loss (ML) or mass increase (MI) are derived by dividing by 4 (the number of
years for which samples were exposed).

Natural stone
ICP - unsheltered limestone (4 years) , stage I: (1)
ML = 8.6 + 1.49.TOW.SO2 + 0.097.H+
ICP - unsheltered calcareous sandstone or mortar (4 years), stage II: (2)
ML = 7.3 + 1.56.TOW.SO2 + 0.12.H+
ICP - sheltered limestone (4 years), stage III (without later damages such as exfoliation): (3)

MI = 0.59 + 0.20.TOW.SO2
ICP - sheltered sandstone (4 years), stage III (without later damages such as exfoliation): (4)
MI = 0.71 + 0.22.TOW.SO2
Paint
Haynie - carbonate paint: (5)
∆ER/tc = 0.01.P .8.7.(10-pH - 10-5.2)+0.006.SO2.f1
Haynie - silicate paint: (6)
∆ER/tc = 0.01.P .1.35.(10-pH - 10-5.2)+0.00097.SO2.f1
Zinc and galvanised steel
ICP - unsheltered zinc (4 years): (7)
ML = 14.5 + 0.043.TOW.SO2.O3 + 0.08.H+
ICP - sheltered zinc (4 years): (8)
ML = 5.5 + 0.013.TOW.SO2.O3
Key:
ER = erosion rate (µm/year)
P = precipitation rate (m/year)
SO2 = sulphur dioxide concentration (µg/m3 )
O3 = ozone concentration (µg/m3 )
H + = acidity (meq/m2 /year)
RH = average relative humidity, %
f1 = 1-exp[-0.121.RH /(100-RH )]
TOW = fraction of time relative humidity exceeds 80% and temperature >0°C
ML = mass loss (g/m2 ) after 4 years
MI = mass increase (g/m2 ) after 4 years

5
2.2.1 Natural stone

The types of stone commonly used for buildings and monuments include granite, sandstone,
limestone, marble and slate. Reviews (Harter, 1986; Lipfert, 1987; Lipfert, 1989; UKBERG, 1990;
NAPAP, 1990) have concluded that acid deposition damage to siliceous stones is negligible, and
therefore attention is confined here to calcareous stones, i.e. limestone, marble and calcareous
sandstones. These have been extensively used as building materials in Europe.

The deterioration of stone can be broken down into three processes:

• Stage I (short term). This involves simple dissolution of calcium carbonate. It includes (i)
normal dissolution of calcite in rain from CO2, (ii) acceleration owing to rain acidity as a result of
air pollution, (iii) attack by dry deposition of gaseous pollutants especially SO2. These processes
are relatively easy to characterize in terms of DR functions and have been taken into account by
ExternE.
• Stage II (medium term). This includes the dissolution of calcium carbonate plus the fall-out of
less soluble granular particles within the matrix e.g. for calcareous sandstones, the removal of
small amounts of the calcium carbonate matrix may loosen a considerable number of sand grains,
leading to more severe surface erosion.
• Stage III (long term). In sheltered areas where calcium sulphate is not intermittently washed
away, there is a non steady build-up of salts. This results in the formation of a crust which may
be followed by exfoliation. Whereas the formation of crusts is slow, exfoliation is very damaging.
No DR functions are available for these late processes of stage III.

2.2.2 Brickwork, mortar and rendering

The current opinion is that brick is unaffected by sulphur dioxide attack. However, the mortar
component of brickwork is not. Mortar consists of sand, calcium hydroxide and other carbonate
phases. The primary agent of mortar erosion is acid attack on the calcareous cement binder
(UKBERG, 1990; Lipfert, 1987). As no specific DR functions for mortar exist, preliminary
estimates have to be made on the basis of theoretical comparisons with calcareous stone. Therefore
equations (4) and (5) in Table 3 are recommended. However, it should be noted that this will
probably underestimate damages, since mortars are likely to be more porous than sandstones.

2.2.3 Concrete

Portland cement, the major binding agent in most concrete, is an alkaline material which is
susceptible to acid attack. Potential impacts to concrete include soiling/discoloration, surface
erosion, spalling and enhanced corrosion of embedded steel. However, for all these impacts (with
the exception of surface erosion) damages are more likely to occur as a result of natural carbonation
and ingress of chloride ions, rather than interaction with pollutants such as SO2 .

The main factor influencing the durability of concrete is the corrosion of embedded steel
reinforcement. In new concrete, these bars are protected from acid corrosion by the alkaline
characteristics of the cementitious component of the concrete. If the concrete layer covering the steel

6
is thick enough and the concrete is of good quality, the acidic pollutants only etch the surface. As
surface erosion does not affect structural integrity it has no impact on concrete durability. However,
in badly prepared concrete, when carbonation has already led to steel corrosion, cracks will develop
rendering the system more accessible to attack by SO2, as the corrosion products of steel occupy a
greater volume than the steel (Webster and Kukacka, 1986). In ExternE damage to concrete has
been considered negligible.

2.2.4 Paint and polymeric materials

Paints are complex mixtures of polymers, pigments, extenders and other additives. Damage to paint
and polymeric materials can occur from acidic deposition and from photochemical oxidants,
particularly ozone. Potential impacts include loss of gloss and soiling, erosion of polymer surfaces,
loss of paint adhesion from a variety of substrates, interaction with sensitive pigments and fillers such
as calcium carbonate, and contamination of substrate prior to painting leading to premature failure
and mechanical property deterioration such as embrittlement and cracking particularly of elastomeric
materials.

The direct reaction of acidic pollutants with the pigments and fillers present in paint can accelerate
erosion. The most serious impact studied involves the influence of SO2 on paints with calcium
carbonate fillers. Nitrogen oxides have only a minor effect on paints (Spence et al, 1975; Haynie
and Spence, 1984). Although ozone is known to damage some polymeric materials such as paints,
plastics and rubbers (Holland and Haydock; 2001) to date such damages have not been considered
within ExternE. Further development is needed to identify suitable DR functions for O3 .

The main pollution related impact for which DR functions have been derived is the erosion of paint
work (NAPAP, 1990) though this may not be the most serious mechanism of damage. Haynie
(1986) provides functions for carbonate and silicate based paints, showing a 10-fold difference in
acid resistance between the two. Careful selection of the appropriate function (see equations 5 and
6 in Table 2) is therefore required.

2.2.5 Metals

Atmospheric corrosion of metals is generally an electrochemical process only occurring when the
surface is wet. The rate of metal corrosion is determined by the interaction of different climatic
parameters, the most important of which are humidity, precipitation, temperature and levels of
atmospheric pollutants. Of the atmospheric pollutants, SO2 causes most damage, though in coastal
regions chlorides also play a significant role. The role of NOx and ozone in the corrosion of metals is
uncertain, though recent evidence (Kucera, 1994) shows that ozone may be important in accelerating
some reactions.

Although DR functions exist for many metals, the ExternE analysis is confined to those for which
there is good inventory data and which are widely used in construction, i.e. steel and aluminium. As
for steel, it is virtually always used either galvanised (i.e. zinc coated) or coated with paint. For the
latter we have used the DR functions for paint. Aluminium is the most corrosion resistant of the
common building materials. In the atmosphere aluminium becomes covered with a thin, dense, oxide

7
coating, which is highly protective down to a pH of 2.5. In clean outdoor atmospheres, aluminium
will retain its appearance for years, even under tropical conditions.

Zinc is not an important construction material itself, but is extensively used as a coating for steel
(galvanised steel), because it has a lower corrosion rate, thereby acting as a protective coating. In
the absence of pollutants, the initial reaction of zinc with the atmosphere results in the formation of
zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide which in turn are converted to the relatively insoluble zinc carbonate.
Such films are not completely protective since zinc hydroxide and carbonate (or bicarbonate) are
slowly washed away, but they do tend to inhibit continuation of the corrosion process.

2.3 Estimation of Damage Costs

2.3.1 Calculation of repair frequency

Most DR relationships are given in terms of weight or thickness loss as a function of time. To value
impacts, these losses must be converted into repair or replacement frequencies. This is typically done
using either engineering assessments or behavioural data on building maintenance practice, though the
uncertainties are large because there is a shortage of reliable information. In this study, published
information and expert assessment were used wherever possible. Where no information was
available, estimates based on common experience were used. A summary of the critical thickness
loss for maintenance and repair are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Averages of country-specific critical thickness losses for maintenance or repair measures
assumed in the analysis

Material Critical thickness loss

Natural stone 4 mm
Rendering 4 mm
Mortar 4 mm
Zinc 50 µm
Galvanised steel 50 µm
Paint 50 µm

For natural stone and mortar, it is assumed that maintenance action will be required after 4 mm of
surface is lost. This critical loss value was also used for the repair frequency of rendering.

2.3.2 Estimation of repair costs

Estimates for the repair costs have been taken from different sources. For the UK estimated repair
costs are taken from unit cost factors for each of the materials for which an assessment was
performed. These figures are based on data from ECOTEC (1996) and Lipfert (1987). For
Germany repair costs have been obtained from inquiries with German manufacturers. Finally,
damage costs given in a study for Stockholm, Prague and Sarpsborg (Kucera et al, 1993b) are also
considered. Table 4 summarises the damage costs used in this analysis in 1995ECU. We have

8
applied identical repair costs for all types of repainting, whether on wood surfaces, steel, galvanised
steel, etc.
2
Table 4 Repair and maintenance costs [Euro/m ] applied in analysis

2
Material Euro/m
Zinc 25
Galvanised steel 30
Natural stone 280
Rendering, mortar 30
Paint 13

To obtain a damage estimate, the frequency of replacement and the total area of each material in
each grid cell of the dispersion calculation were multiplied by these unit cost factors, and the results
were summed over all grid cells in Europe. Because of nonlinearities, both in the atmospheric
chemistry and in some DR functions, the damage due to incremental pollution was calculated as the
difference between the values calculated with and without the incremental pollution. Some results are
shown in Table 5.

Table 5: Damage costs to materials due to SO 2 for various sites in Europe.

Site mEuro/kgSO2 % of total SO2 Cost

Albi (Fr) 98 1.3
Barcelona (Es) 148 1.5
Bordeaux (Fr) 299 2.5
London (GB) 524 4.1
Nantes (Fr) 88 1.0
Paris (Fr) 335 2.2
Piacenza (It) 310 2.5
Stuttgart (De) 386 3.0
Vienna (Au) 345 3.6
Average 281 2.4

2.3.3 Estimation of soiling costs

DR functions for particulate soiling due to the deposition of particulates of a variety of materials were
given by Beloin and Haynie (1975), in terms of reduced surface reflectance. More recent functions
have been proposed for soiling (Hamilton and Mansfield, 1992) which predict the % change in
reflectance for exposed painted wood and sheltered painted wood. However, instead, we have
taken a simple approach to derive soiling costs. For example, in the UK, we assume that the total
impact of building soiling can be attributed to emissions in the UK. The total UK building cleaning
market is estimated to be £80 million annually (Newby et al, 1991). UK emissions of black smoke
in 1990 were 453,000 tonnes (DOE, 1991). The implied average cost to building cleaning is
therefore around 300 €/tonne of black smoke. It is interesting to compare this number with the
results of a more detailed analysis of soiling in France [Rabl 1999] where the typical repair cost due

9
to particulate emissions was found to be approximately 70 €/tonne. Clearly, these are average costs
per unit of emission. Damages linked to emissions in cities (e.g. from traffic) will therefore tend to be
much higher, whereas those linked to emissions in rural areas (e.g. from many power stations) will
tend to be much lower.

2.4 Conclusions

This chapter describes the methodology used by ExternE [1998] to quantify the air pollution damage
to materials in Europe. The method uses inventories of the stock of material at risk, derived from
building surveys in several European cities and extrapolated to the whole of Europe using population
data. The pollution data from atmospheric models is then used with the most up to date DR
functions to calculate the surface erosion on exposed material. These losses are then assessed using
data on repair and replacement frequencies, and the costs of such repair actions, to yield damage
cost estimates.

The results suggest that typical damage costs are in a range of 100 to 400 €/ton of SO2; this is a very
small percentage (about 1 to 4%) of the costs of health damages due to SO2. By contrast to the
rather detailed calculations for SO2, only very preliminary estimates have been made for the damage
costs from soiling caused by particulate emissions: they suggest values in the order of 70 to 300 €/ton
of particulates emitted by combustion; like for SO2, this is only a very small percentage of the
corresponding costs of health damages.

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