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What do You Understand by Network Planning. How Network Planning is done for
Distribution of Power to Different Consumers.
What is Distribution Network Optimisation. Explain how the Distribution Network
Optimisation is carried out and what is its importance in energy efficient environment of
the country.
Give the Distribution system layout of a Network from 11 kV to 0.415 kV Supply with
necessary diagram. What is Sub-Transmission Distribution.
Discuss the Earthing System of a Distribution Substation.
Submitted By:
RAHUL MAKWANA
RAHUL RAI
SHRUTI CHANDOKE
SYSTEM PLANNING
Planning Process:
Planning is the process of taking a careful decision. The main input in planning is quality
systematic thought. It involves selecting the vision, values, mission and objectives, and
deciding what should be done to attain them. Basically, the objective of distribution
planning is to provide satisfactory service at the lowest possible cost. In a power utility,
this process seeks to identify the best schedule of future resources and actions to achieve
the utility’s goals.
Planning is driven by two inputs: Future needs and time to fulfill these needs with
defined priorities in Master Plan. Long-term planning (5-10 years horizon) determines the
power energy forecasts and optimum network arrangements. What investment would be
required and the timing of these to obtain maximum benefits. Network planning covers
individual investments in one or two years as a medium-term planning within the period
of a long-term plans. A short-term plan covers the current or next year i.e. Annual plans
for each year on the horizon. This covers engineering design of each network component,
smaller and more common type of investments for system improvements. The following
steps are involved in the planning process:
i. Feasibility studies are carried out to indentify, evaluate and finalize the best plan.
Define the problem Æ Find the alternatives Æ Evaluate the alternatives Æ Select
the best one.
ii. A project report for long, medium and short-term works along with the action
plan/pert chart/bar chart for leach activity/work is prepared. Dues are set for
milestones i.e. important events measurable along the path to the fulfillment of
the plan.
- It is more economical to transport power at a high voltage. The higher the voltage,
the lower the cost/Kw to transport power to a distant point.
- Electricity travels as per Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws. It follows the least
resistance path.
- Voltage drop occurs from the source point to the end location.
- When power is used for any purpose by the consumer, the responsibility lies on
the consumer to share the degradation of environment on this account.
- Nominal rated system voltage is the most efficient voltage for equipment
operation. A rise above this voltage tends to reduce the power factor of
equipment.
- Electricity market: Wholesale, select retail, bi-lateral contracts will cut-down the
cost of supply if adequate power surplus and grid links are available.
Steps in Network System Planning:
The initial system improvements can be very cost-effective in removing the above
inadequacies as compared to the other alternative of laying a new extended system. Thus,
there are two options.
a. System improvement:-Augmentation and strengthening of the existing system.
Improving the reliability and quality of supply, reduction of commercial and
technical losses, and /or
b. Expansion of the existing network:-The least cost optimal solution from various
alternative schemes may be worked out considering the capital cost of the
proposed works and present values of the kW and energy losses over the expected
life of equipment in case of expansion of network. When the augmentation and
strengthening of existing system are involved, the benefits of saving in losses (kW
and energy), net revenue increase due to additional sale of power and energy after
adjusting the expenditure incurred on generation of the additional energy. The net
w present values of alternate plans are compared to choose the least-cost solution.
Also financial analysis of the chosen scheme is done to satisfy the funding
organization.
It is the process by which power utilities quantity and assess programmers to alter
the pattern and level of their consumers’ demand for electricity. This is planning at the
consumer level and often has a long planning period, much longer than distribution
planning and often as long as that of generation. It can take years of slow progress to
obtain meaningful levels of participation. According to a study, the low-cost demand side
options can bi:
Numerous studies in India China and other countries have found that cost-effective DSM
programmes can reduce electricity use and peak demand by approximately 20 to 40 % .
DSM benefits households, industry, agriculture, utilizes and society in the following
ways:
• Reduces consumer energy bills.
• Reduces the need for power plant, transmission and distribution construction.
• Stimulates economic development.
• Creates long-term jobs that benefits the economy.
• Increases the competitiveness of local enterprises.
• Can reduce maintenance and equipment replacement costs.
• Reduces local air pollution.
• Reduces emissions that contribute to national and international environmental
problems such as acid rain and global warming.
• Enhances national security by easing dependence on foreign energy sources.
• Can increase the comfort and quality of work spaces, which in term can increase
worker productivity.
1. Conservation programmes:
Reduces energy use with programmes to improve the efficiency of equipment (like
lighting and motors) , buildings and industrial process as per the Energy Conservation
Act, 2001.
2. Load-management programmes:
Redistribute energy demands to spread it more evenly throughout the day. Some of
the ways of doing this are: Load-shifting programmes (reducing air-conditioning
loads, during periods of peak demand and shifting these loads to less critical periods),
time-of-use rates (charging more for electricity during peak demand) and interruptible
rates providing; rate discounts in exchange for the right to reduce consumers’
electricity allocation leach year during a few hours when electricity demand is the
highest.
Criteria and standards together form a set of requirements against which the
planning process can compare alternatives in the evaluation and final choice. A
distribution plan must prode good economy and also satisfies various criteria and
standards. Criteria are rules or procedures. Standards are the specifications to ensure that
the system is built with compatible equipment that will fit and function together when
installed and maintained in an economical manner. Standards and criteria and their
applications to the planning process depends; upon vision, mission and the value system
of the utility. Criteria and standards convey direction in the Master Plan. The following
can be the typical criteria for planning:-
• A Perspective Plan for the next 15 years to meet the anticipated load growth and
forecast load centers. The plan will be reviewed yearly on the basis of annual
plans with respect to targets achieved..
• Detailed Project Reports be framed to identify the system strengthening works on
long-term and short-term bases.
• The flowing voltage levels be used for release of power connection to consumers:
Connected load between 10 kW to be supplied at 230 V, single phase, two wire.
i. Connected load between 10 KW and 50 KW to be supplied at 415/230 V, three
phase, four wire.
ii. Load demand between 50 Kw and 5 MW to be supplied at 112 KV.
iii. Load demand between 5 MW and 30 MW to be supplied at 33 or 66KV..
iv. Load demand between 30 MW and 50 MW to be supplied at 132 Kv.
v. Load demand above 50 MW to be supplied at 220 KV.
Planning standards exist for reasons of efficiency, to achieve the greatest economy or
utility convenience. For example, code of practice for equipment design layout, loading,
performance, voltage land service quality standards, location of substations and methods
of economic evaluation assure the electrical needs of its consumers. The system may
conform to various Indian Standards, Indian Electricity Rules, Rural electrification
Corporation standards, IEC, ICO, ISO and the Electricity Act, 2003. Better , improved or
additional criteria and standards may be required by a power utility to achieve their
objectives. The Indian electricity Rules can be amended by a state government to serve
its ends in developing the power distribution network. The planning standards can be of
the following types:-
• Development of a standard cost structure for material and labour rates for
different voltage systems to be used in the estimation.
• Standards for system voltages as per Indian Standards and Voltage regulation as
per IE Rules.
• The load growth of at least 10 years will be taken into account to prepare new or
system improvement schemes.
• Shunt capacitor fixed/switched type shall be installed in the distribution system at
substations to improve the power factor and voltage profile and reduce
transmission and distribution losses.
• The size and location will be determined by load flow studies for maximum and
minimum load conditions. Fixed LT capacitors on the distribution transformers
shall be installed.
DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS-SITING:.
Planning of the substation is best done by considering the impact of an siting or sizing
decision on all four levels . The main criteria for selecting a substation site is:-
i. Proximity of load: Some sites are close to the existing transmission line or can be
reached at a low cost. Other sites require lengthy or underground access, thus
adding on costs.
e. Out –going feeder space: Getting a feeder out of a substation requires right-of-
way.
f. Geographic: Nearby terrain or public facilities may constrain feeder routing and
raise costs.
g. Site preparation: The slope, drainage and underlying still and rock determine the
cost of preparing the site for a substation and building the foundation etc.
h. Cost of land: Some sites cost more than others .
i. Weather exposure: Sites on hilltops are more exposed to lighting and adverse
weather, increasing some operation and maintenance costs.
Size:
As a thumb-rule (10) the minimum economical capacity (MVA) for a substation is
approximately equal to one-fourth of high-side voltage (kV) a 66 KV can serve about 16
MVA.
i. Draw a straight line between a proposed substation site and leach of the
substations surrounding it.
ii. Then draw a perpendicular bisect of each of these lines.
iii. The area enclosed by the perpendicular bisectors around the prop posed
substation will be the service area.
iv. The shifting of the load of nearby substations can be determined from the area
falling within the polygon. Let’s say the purpose is to shift the specific load of
a particular by substation. ‘C’. If this is not accomplished, then the proposed
site should be moved closer to that; substation and repeat the above three
steps.
v. So the ‘optimal site’ for a new substation is determined by an iterative
process.
OPTIMIZATION
INTRODUCTION:
For any particular situation there is a site, area and capacity best suited for an equipment
that meets all criteria and real world conditions. The impact of this approach on the total
system cost is minimum. This is optimization and is a challenge for distribution
engineers. The solution has to reflect the right balance between the practical issues to
addressed and the mathematical approaches that might be followed:-
Particular areas of interest in optimization are:
(i). Cost modeling of average networks,
(ii) cost modeling of idealized networks,
(iii). Studies of different network configurations and
(iv) optimization of a cable or feeder layout to suit a given pattern of the sub-station
(v) siting and sizing of transformers.
An important factor to realize in network optimization studies is that the minimum cost
attainable will depend on the configuration of the network to be lused. This, in turn, is
dictated by the minimum acceptable reliability for the network and the standard of the
supply to be adopted etc. Clearly, if one system is to be more reliable than another, then
its optimal cost is likely to be higher than that of a less reliable system. Similarly, if a
higher maximum voltage drop on the network is to be tolerated, la cheaper overall system
can be designed. Other factors which determine the minimum cost obtainable will be the
number of voltage transformations in the system (if this is fixed by other considertaions0
and on circuit limitations which may exist in congested urban areas. These considerations
have resulted in different design philosophies being adopted for high voltage
transmission versus sub-transmission and distribution and urban networks verses rural
networks. For example, in the latter case, a cheaper, heredity less reliable system will
often be adopted because the cheapest system obtainable would still be too expensive if a
designed along with same lines as a network for a well developed urban area.
COSTING OF SCHEMES:
When we speak of network optiminiztion we really mean the minimization of the overall
network cost. Therefore, the method of costing alternative network schemes is of great
importance in optimization. The costing of network schemes is a complex subject and a
number of recognized methods are available for this purpose. The method adopted should
incorporate recognized financial procedures. Interest rate discount, etc, will be affected
by external conditions which will often vary the result over different periods. Usually the
cost of establishing various items which make up an electric distribution system can be
broken into two parts: capital (or installation) cost and annual (or maintenance) cost. The
annual cost will cover such charges as interest, maintenance cost and costs of losses. As
the losses in a power plant do not change with age and the maintenance charges are
usually a constant percentage of the capital costs, the operating costs of a given network
component will be related to the size of the component rather than to its age.
The capital cost may be either treated as a lump sum cost at the time of commissioning
or be converted into an annual charge in perpetuity. This would cover the charges
provided for the depreciation of the plant as well as interest for financing the loan which
covered the purchase of the plant. The annual charges which represent the interest,
depreciation and maintenance cost, will be constant each year during the life of an asset,
provided that its ‘book’ life is not exceeded. For most items of plant, this will normally
be of about 15-40 years.A typical accounting procedure which is used when comparing
schemes involving different expenditures over periods of time, is the Net Present Value
technique (NPV) . In this method sums of money which are to be spent at sometime in
the future, are concerned into equivalent lump sums lat the commencement of the study
by calculating their present value.
TRANSFORMERS:
A transformer is the work-horse of the power system. Foil or sheet wound transformers
have better capability to withstand short circuits, better thermal characteristic tics and
better voltage distribution. They are at present produced up to 36 Kv, 8000 KVA. The
low voltage winding of this transformer is made with aluminum or copper foils/sheets of
large width, as compared to rectangular or circular conductors used in conventional
transformers. The improved performance results from the uniform stress distribution
(mechanical, electrical and thermal) made possible by use of foil conductors.
Dry type transformer of resin-impregnated and/or resin encapsulated design, are in vogue
up to 36 KV. 10 MVA in applications where fire hazard is a possibility and there is need
for non-inflammable equipments, In addition, dry type transformers are mechanically
more sturdy and occupy less floor space.
SF6 gas insulated transformers which are being made up to 66 kv, 30 MVA have major
advantages as they have increased reliability, compact size, extended service life and they
neither cause nor support fire.
The gas is net with high dielectric strength and thermal stability. It is also inactive and
harmless and not flammable. Any gas leakage is harmless. SF6 is a n on-toxic, inactive,
so-called liner gas, which due to its physical properties is very well suited for use in
transformers. It density is five times that of air, so that filling of transformer tanks is
simply done by slowly letting the gas flow in from below and thus displace air upwards.
PD discharge, dielectric strength, and the cooling properties of SF6 gas discharge,
dielectric strength, land the cooling properties of SF6 gas make these transformers
superior in working performance. These transformers are in use in many highly urbanized
cities such as Singapore, Hong Kong, London, New York etc. SF6 transformers are
maintenance-free/. The gas leakage rate is maximum I percent per year.
Thus an occasional check of the pressure gauge is sufficient to monitor; the operational
condition of transformer. The need to have complete reliability and continuity of service,
mainly in distribution networks, has given rise to the development of completely fail-safe
transformers which have an in-built circuit breaker, fuse and lighting arrester assembled
along with the transformer.
PLANNING TERMS:
Planning for the optimum power system can be classified into three main types: short,
mid and long term. The procedures involved for leach are somewhat different. In a power
distribution system ‘long term’ planning usually involves the ‘horizon years’ of twelve or
more years ahead of the present; this span is greater for major transmission generation
studies. Unless very little growth is expected, the existing assets will normally have
minor effect on decision making Quite often the decions are made with te aid of network
standardization studies, involving cost modeling. Short term or ‘tactical’ planning
involves 1-2 years period ahead and generally involves only practical implementation of
the recommendations of earlier long term lkstudies.
In mid term 3-5 years studies, the most economic methods of expanding the network are
considered generally within the framework of the plant parameters set by the long term
studies which would have usually considered the system development in a more
generalized manner.Thus, in network studies in the mid term, points of bulk supply,
system voltage and choice of ;sub-station sites are considered and at each stage of
network augmentation, only a limited number of alternatives are available. The engineer
is faced with a series of ‘decision trees’ at each stage of augmentation. Impractical
alternatives are quickly eliminated, leaving a small number of different augmentation
strategies to analyses.
Voltage Levels:
Selection of Voltage Levels
The selection of the voltage level is determined by the standards and safety regulations
applying in various countries as well as by economic considerations . The loads in rural
areas are generally scattered and the lines are very long . Thus the cost for rural systems
is mainly determined by the cost of overhead lines. The cost of overhead lines increases
slightly with the voltage, while the transmission capacity increases squarely. In addition
to this selection of the higher voltage and smaller conductor cross-sections brings about
an appreciable reduction in costs .The most economical voltage for rural, medium or high
voltage systems will generally by in the region of the higher values. In an urban network ,
the condition are different –with the overhead lines in rural systems , whereas the
number of transformer stations is much higher .The higher the rate of load growth in an
areas , the greater should be the difference in the stepping voltages ,since it can be
expected that the superimposed high voltage system will be economically loaded in the
foreseeable future , so that the capital outlay will pay for it self . where the rate of
development in the loaded is low ,the ratio of 1:3 can be taken as a criterion for a suitable
step from the medium to the high voltage. With normal growth in load , this ratio can
rise to about 1:6. If the growth on load is above average and there are others reasons in its
favour,, the step voltage may be increased in the ratrio of about 1;12.
A further decisive factor is the load density and its distribution in the area. The load
density in an area is not constant, but may vary within wide limits. Thus, for instance in
the center of a large city, the load density could be 20 MV A/Km square in contrast to the
value of only 0.01 MVA/KM sq. of the rural outskirts. In the center of the city, the
concentration of power would make the highest possible voltage economical e.g. 132/11
KV . This might be uneconomical for the rural outskirts with a low load density in these
areas. Generally, the following voltage levels are allocated. The study growth of lads also
makes it necessary that consideration be given to the load development, which may not
only vary with respect to time but could also vary geographically. Matching of voltages
to the standardized values is also important. The voltage application range is given in
Table:NUMBER OF VOTAGE LEVES.
The preferred standard distribution voltages in India are 240 V single phase and 415, 11
kv three-phase . However 33, 66 and 132 KV are considered sub transmission voltages at
present but are also being used as distribution voltage for very large consumers. In the
near future these voltages will be commonly used for distribution purposes in India.
Many authorities have conducted network optimization studies for different number of
voltages levels lto ascertain the optimal voltage for a given level, It has been found that
for transmission voltages, in the range of 300-400 KV stepping down lto distribution
voltages around l11 kv. , three-tier voltage systems will be considerably cheaper than
four tier voltage systems. For example, 400/132/11 KV is cheaper than 400/132/33/11
KV . The actual intermediate voltage chosen appears to have little effect on the overall
cost. There is little overall difference in cost between a 400/132/11 and 400/66/11 KV
system or between 220/66/11 and 220/33/11 KV system. The studies (11) indicate that
the ratio of two voltage levels in the supply system in general, should be higher than a
factor of 3 with regard to the transformation step from EHV level 220-500 KV
downwards. It should be higher than a factor of l5 with regard to lithe transformation step
from lHV level l50-150 KV downwards. This means that it is desirable to get the lowest
MV level in two or three steps from the highest voltage level used in the supply system-
for example 400/110/22 KV or l765/400/132/11 KV . Reduction in the number of voltage
l levels by leaving lout an intermediate voltage level between HV and MV (1KV-36KV)
in general, will not only lead to a deeper penetration of lHV systems but also lto an
increased length of MV systems.
LOAD CENTRES.
SUB-STATIONS
Sub-stations control power by means of transformers, regulating devices, circuit breakers,
isolators, etc. And their location is based on the following criteria; For minimum losses
land better voltage regulation, the sub-station should be close to the loads of its service
area, so that the addition of loads times; respective distances from the sub-station is a
minimum. The location should provide proper access for incoming sub-transmission lines
and outgoing primary feeders and also allows for future growth/expansion.
SUB-STATION SIZE
The size of sub-station depends upon:
• Load density.(e.g. MW/km sq.).
• Load growth
• Utilization of transformer capacity.
• Maximum fault levels.
• Flexibility
• Siting.
Normally, in city areas with higher load densities, the size of sub-station will be higher
than in rural areas. This is mainly because of the fact that, the cost to distribute the power
is lower when the load density is high. But the presence of intermediate voltage level
influences the sub-stations at size considerably. Seen from the upper; voltage level (for
instance HV), the size will be bigger because of the fact that the density of sub-stations at
that voltage level will be decreased. At the lower voltage level l(for instance MV), the
presence of the intermediate voltage level leads to la lower size. But a higher density of
sub-stations. In city areas, the values of the sub-transmission voltage levels can be
selected, in order to make it profitable to redevelop with fewer intermediate voltage
levels. In rural areas, because of much lower load densities this is a less likely option.
This means that both the network structure and lthe size and densities of sub-stations
significantly differ between urban and rural situations.
In most situations, the size and number or density of sub-stations is determined by a
technical-economic analysis. The average distance between sub-stations (N).
N= (Total areas/Number of sub-stations) ½.
The significant issues being the need for firm capacity within the sub-station itself, land
the implications on the reliability standards to be met.
Due to the general scarcity of available sites and other local environmental aspects, it
may be impossible to respect the optimal technical-economic solutions alone.
Nevertheless l, solutions should be looked for, so that the cost consequences are known
and the optimum conditions may be approached as near as possible.
In general, an (n-1) design criterion dominates the optimization process of sub-
transmission network planning. As a result of this, the majority of the sub-stations have
one or two transformers. If load transfer is possible between feeding points, one
transformer in a sub-station can often be found to be; adequate.
From the economical point of view, the optimal successive transformer size between the
same voltage levels, have a ratio of about 1.2 to 2.5. The resign of transformer half-way
through their life is sometimes part of the network philosophy. Reliability, quality,
criteria and loss reduction policies influence the time of changing transformers.
DISTRIBNUTION LSYSTEM-VOLTAGE
The distribution systems lcan be:-
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT:
Large amounts of power are generated at power plants and sent to a network of
high voltage (220, 132, 110, 66 or 33 kv) sub-transmission lines. This system deals with
longer distances and increased power requirements. These lines supply power to
distribution centers (distribution substations) feeding distribution primary system, which
supply power to the still lower voltage (0.415 kv) distribution secondary system Thus, the
total network is a complex grid of interconnected lines. This network has the function of
transmitting power from the points of generation to the points of consumption. Power
utilities should plan their investment programme 5 to 10 years in advance through annual
plans with a detailed list of investment. The route and locations of sub-transmission lines
and distribution sub stanchions is made after carrying the computer based load flow
studies of various alternatives. The distribution system is particularly important to an
electrical utility for two reasons; its proximity to the ultimate consumer and its high
investment; cost. The objective of distribution system planning is to ensure that the
growing demand for electricity, with growing rates, can be satisfied in an optimum way,
mainly to achieve minimum total cost of the distribution system expansion. Therefore,
the distribution system planner partitions the problem of planning the total distribution
system into a set of sub-stations that can be handled by using available, usually heuristic
methods land techniques.
Agriculture Load shedding:- Provide automated load shedding for agriculture load.
Line Ratio:- Reduce HT/LTR (11/0.415Kv.) line ratio to nearly one. Install more or de-
augment the existing distribution transformers. Introduce HAV distribution.
Load Forecast and DSM:- Carry out feeder – wise spatial load forecasting for each
category of consumer and global load-forecast for the next 5-10 years . Prepare a
Demand Side Management Project Report and implement it in selected areas.
Consolidate the DSM with load forecast projections.
Service: Ensure consumer complaint call management and provide an Interactive Voice
Response (IVR) telephone answering system; also set up a website providing information
land a variety of services to consumers (e.g. billing).
11/0.415 kv
66/11 kv distribution
substation bus transformer
LT main line
Service line
11 kv feeder Consumer
Soln.:
Under unbalanced conditions, additional losses occur in neutral wire/ earth of secondary
system due to flow of unbalanced current or due to circulating current in delta winding of
the distribution transformer. On balancing, these losses are also saved.