Unit 1 - Lecture 1 Material Behavior and Properties: Machine Design

Machine Design Unit 1 - Lecture 1: Introduction to material behavior
Machine Design
Unit 1 – Lecture 1
Material behavior and properties
Introduction to material behavior

Material behavior is the mean by which the force
and stress variables are related to the deformation
and strain variables.
© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 1

Tensile specimens
Basic definition of stress
Tensile test conditions
Basic definition of strain
Stress-strain curve and material properties
Examples of stiffness properties
Example of strength properties and
macrostructure of the fractured surface
Ultimate strain

Tensile specimens
Specimen geometry (1/5)
The test specimen is composed of a sample

of the material in question and is constructed
in the shape of a slender, cylindrical cross-
section bar.
LG
Head
Fillet LG: gage length
6

According to the European standard UNI EN 10002/1

Testing temperature: 23±5°C
Types of cross-sections:
d b b
d>4 mm b>3 mm h/b<8
7

Circular cross-section specimen
LG: gage length
LO: Length between reference marks (initial
length)
AO: area of the gage cross-section (initial
area)
AO
LO
LG
8


Rectangular cross-section specimen
LG: gage length
LO: Length between reference marks (starting
length)
AO: area of the gage cross-section (starting
area)
AO
LO
LG
9
Specimen shape (5/5)
Example of plane specimen
10

Specimen cross-sections
Area of the undeformed

cross-section: AO
11
Proportional specimen (1/2)
Proportional specimen
LO = 5d, rounded to the nearest integer
multiple of 5mm
LO + d/2 < LG ≤ LO + 2d
d
Lo
Lc
12

Proportional specimen (2/2)
Proportional specimen  π 2 
 Ao= 4 d 
L o = 5.65 A o , rounded to the  
⇒
nearest integer multiple of 5mm  4
 5.65 =5.0 
L o + 1.5 A o ≤ L G ≤ L o + 2.5 A o  π
LO
LG
13
Basic definition of stress

Stress on cross-section
Average stress
F F
σ=
Ao
Ao
15
Average and local stress (1/2)
Infinitesimal force dF on the

dF infinitesimal area dAo
dF
σLocal =
F dA o
h
Force on area Ao
F
σ Average =
Ao
b
16

Average and local stress (2/2)
dF
dF σLocal =
dA o
dAo If the local stress is the

same on each
h infinitesimal area of the
cross section then the
stress is uniformly
Ao
distributed over the
cross-section:
b σLocal = σAverage
17
Tensile test conditions

Testing machine
columns
mobile crossbar
specimen load cell
grip heads
base
19
Specimens clamping
Sect. A-A
A A
Plane
specimen
circular
specimen
wedge grip
20

Test rate
The force is assumed to be applied slowly and

then maintained at a constant level. The limits
to the rate of loading are:
∆σ N/mm2
For steel 6≤ ≤ 30
∆t s
∆σ N/mm2
For aluminum 2≤ ≤ 10
∆t s
21
Basic definition of strain

Elongation (1/2)
Elongation: ∆L = L − L o
L − Lo
Strain: ε=
Lo
Lo
23
Elongation (2/2)
Average stress Force

F
σ= F
AO
Strain Elongation
L − Lo
ε= ∆L = L − L o
Lo
Strain per cent

L − Lo
%ε = 100
Lo
24

Infinitesimal element within the specimen
Along the specimen gage length the stresses

σ and the strains ε are constant over any
cross-section
dF = σ dA O
dx
25
Transverse deformation (1/5)
Material undergoes both axial and transverse

deformation. (Here the tensile case is shown)
26

In the linearly elastic range every infinitesimal

volume within the gage length undergoes the
same deformation
dx
27
b dx
dx ( 1 + ε)
b (1 − ν ε)
h ( 1 − ν ε)
Isotropic material
28

b dx
This is true for any element belonging the cross-

section dx
dz
dy
29
dx (1 + ε ) − dx L − L o
ε= ≡
dx Lo
dx
dz
dy
Contraction Extension
dx (1 + ε )
dz (1 − νε )
dy (1 − νε ) 30

Generally speaking
y dx ⇒ dx (1 + ε x )
≡ε
z
dy ⇒ dy (1 + ε y )
ε y = ε z = − νε
dz ⇒ dz (1 + ε z )
31
Strain-stress curve and material properties

F-ε ductile material (1/4)
Ductile material with yielding

F
Fu fracture
local plastic
deformation
Fy
Fy,low uniform plastic
deformation
elastic
deformation ε
33
Yield load: FY
FY
elastic deformation: when

the load is removed the
material returns to its
original state
ε 34

Ultimate load: Fu
Fu
Uniform plastic deformation:

there is a permanent uniform
deformation upon removal of
the load
ε 35
Fracture load: FF
Fracture
Ff
Local plastic deformation
(necking)
ε 36

F-ε ductile material without yielding (1/2)
F
Fu
Fp0.2 Fracture
Local plastic
deformation
Uniform plastic
deformation
ε
37
0.2%
F-ε ductile material without yielding (2/2)
Offset yield load: Fp 0.2
Fu Fu
Fp 0.2 Fp 0.2
Offset strain
ε = 0.2%
ε ε
0.2% 0.2% 38

F-ε brittle material
F Fracture
Fu
elastic deformation
ε
39
From F-ε to σ-ε (1/2)
Unlike Force-strain curve F-ε, the stress-strain

curve σ-ε does not depends on the area of the
cross-section but only on the strain ε
SY or σy= yield strength
Su or σu= ultimate strength
F σ
Fu Su
Fy Sy
ε ε
40

From F-ε to σ-ε (2/2)

The indicated decrease in the stress level between
ultimate stress and fracture is due to the fact that the
undeformed original area is used for computing σ. The
stress computed using the actual area is called true
stress whereas the “conventional” stress computed
using the original area is called engineering stress.
F
σ
Fu Su
Fy Sy
ε ε
41
σ-ε curve for ductile materials 1/2
A material that behaves in ductile manner

experiences large amount of strain before fracturing.
The elastic range is much smaller then the plastic
range. A realistic plot scale is the following
F elastic
deformation
plastic deformation
ε
42
~0,1÷0,5% ~10÷25%

σ-ε curve for ductile materials 1/2
σ σ
Su Su
Sp0.2
Sy
ε ε
0.2% 43
Linearly elastic materials

Linearly elastic deformation
F
For many common
Fp0.2 engineering materials
there is a portion of the
force-strain curve that is
linear. The force is
proportional to strain
Proportional limit
F = Kε
ε
0.2%
45
Modulus of elasticity (1/2)
The constant of
proportionality is called
σ modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus
Sp0.2
σ=Eε
HOOKE’s LAW:
ut tensio sic vis
0.2% ε
46

Modulus of elasticity (2/2)
E - N/mm2 ν
Steel 2 105 0.3
Cast iron 1 105 – 1.8 105 0.27
Titanium 1.2 105 0.3
Aluminum 7 104 0.3
Material properties (E, ν) for some selected

metallic materials
47
Order of magnitude for strain
The maximum allowable stress on steel is

about σ = 1000 N/mm2
σ
The corresponding strain is ε = = 0,005
E
The area of the deformed section is:

A = dy (1 − ν ε ) ⋅ dz (1 − ν ε ) = A O (1 − ν ε ) ≅
2
≅ A O (1 − 2νε ) = A O (1 − 0,003 ) = A O ⋅ 0, 997
Then is justifiable to define the “conventional”

engineering stress as:
σ = F/A O
48

Strength of selected material

and macroscopic characteristics of failure
Strength of selected materials

Sy Su A%
Material (minimum values)
MPa MPa
STEEL - Structural S 235 235 360 26

S 275 275 430 22
(UNI EN 10025) S 355 355 510 22
STEEL – annealed C 30 400 600 18
(UNI EN 10083) C 60 580 850 11
41Cr4 800 1000 11
36NiCrMo3 1050 1250 9
CAST IRON G10 - 100 -
Gray G20 - 200 -
G30 - 290 -
CAST IRON Gs370-17 230 370 17

Spheroidal Gs500-7 320 500 7
Gs700-2 420 700 2
50

Characteristics of ductile failure (1/4)
Adjacent fractured parts of a specimen, from a

welded plate, placed together.
failure welding
necking
51
Characteristics of ductile failure (2/4 )
Plastic lips
52

Adjacent fractured parts of a Ductile failure on

specimen from rolled plate placed inclined cross-section
together. 53
Detail of the plastic flow
Thin rolled plate, plastic flow before failure

54

Characteristics of brittle failure
Specimen from cast aluminum, Fracture

after failure cross-section
55
Strain at fracture

Uniform plastic deformation
Within gage length every

σ cross-section behaves in
the same way
Uniform plastic deformation
Elastic deformation
ε 57
Permanent deformation at Rm
Uniform permanent
σ deformation:
Sy it is a distinctive
feature of the material
but
not standardized and

difficult to measure
εm ε 58

Localized plastic deformation
σ
Sy
A%: permanent
strain after fracture
Localized plastic Lu − Lo
deformation A% = 100
Lo
A% ε% 59
Necking and proportional specimens (1/5)
Initial shape
Lo
Up to σ = Su
At fracture L
60
Lu

aS
Lu
L f ≅ L o (1 + εm ) + as
Lu − Lo as
A% = 100 = 100 ε m + 100
Lo Lo
Uniform deformation due Strain due to

to maximum stress Su necking
61
Lu − Lo as
A% = 100 = 100 ε m + 100
Lo Lo
Depending on Depending also on cross-

material section shape and size
(with shape restriction
according to standard)
aS = K A O
M.J. Barba, Mem. Soc. Ing. Civils,
Pt. 1, p. 682, 1880
62

To compare strain measurements after

fracture of specimens with different size they
need to be proportional; indeed, as:
as
A% =100εm +100 aS = K AO
Lo
 AO 
A% = 100  ε m + K 
 L 
 O 
63
In order A% being indicative of a material

propriety
that is
to compare strain measurements after failure of
specimens with different size …
… the specimens need to be similar; from
which:
 AO 
A% = 100  ε m + K  L O = 5,65 AO
 L 
 O 
64

Unit 1 - Lecture 1 Material Behavior and Properties: Machine Design

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Unit 1 - Lecture 1 Material Behavior and Properties: Machine Design

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Machine Design Unit 1 - Lecture 1: Introduction to material behavior

Material behavior and properties

Introduction to material behavior

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 1

Material behavior and properties

Introduction to material behavior

Introduction to material behavior

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 2

Introduction to material behavior

Specimen geometry (1/5)

The test specimen is composed of a sample

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 3

Specimen geometry (2/5)

According to the European standard UNI EN 10002/1

Specimen geometry (3/5)

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 4

Specimen geometry (4/5)

Specimen shape (5/5)

Example of plane specimen

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 5

Area of the undeformed

Proportional specimen (1/2)

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 6

Proportional specimen (2/2)

Introduction to material behavior

Basic definition of stress

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 7

Average and local stress (1/2)

Infinitesimal force dF on the

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 8

Average and local stress (2/2)

dAo If the local stress is the

Introduction to material behavior

Tensile test conditions

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 9

specimen load cell

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 10

The force is assumed to be applied slowly and

Introduction to material behavior

Basic definition of strain

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 11

Average stress Force

Strain per cent

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 12

Infinitesimal element within the specimen

Along the specimen gage length the stresses

Transverse deformation (1/5)

Material undergoes both axial and transverse

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 13

Transverse deformation (2/5)

In the linearly elastic range every infinitesimal

Transverse deformation (3/5)

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 14

Transverse deformation (4/5)

This is true for any element belonging the cross-

Transverse deformation (5/5)

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 15

Introduction to material behavior

Strain-stress curve and material properties

© 2009 Politecnico di Torino Page 16

F-ε ductile material (1/4)

Ductile material with yielding