Sigmund Freud (essay)

Sigmund Freud, a physiologist, clinical specialist, therapist and father of analysis, is

commonly perceived as one of the most compelling and legitimate masterminds of the twentieth
century. Freud's generally significant and as often as possible re-iterated guarantee, that with
therapy he had created another study of the psyche, in any case, remains the subject of much
basic discussion and debate.
Sigmund Freud was conceived on May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia. His dad was a
fleece dealer and his mom was a vivacious lady, who was twenty years more youthful than his
dad and furthermore his subsequent spouse. Sigmund was his mom first offspring of seven and
he had two more established stepbrothers. At four years old, his family moved to Vienna where
he lived the greater part of his life. Freud moved to England not long before World War II, as
Vienna became expanding perilous spot for Jews, particularly for ones as renowned as Freud.
September 23,1939, Freud passed on of disease of the mouth and jaw that he had experienced
the most recent 20 years of his life.
The id, the sense of self and the superego are another notable hypothesis that plays off
of the cognizant and un-cognizant psyche. Freudian brain science starts with a world loaded
with objects. Among them is an exceptional article, the life form. A critical some portion of the
creature is the sensory system. During childbirth, the sensory system is somewhat more than of
different creatures, an "it" or id. The id, or the sensory system, deciphers the necessities of the
living being into persuasive powers, or in any case called the essential cycle. The id works
related to the "joy standard", which is the interest to deal with the prompt need. A model, a
shouting infant doesn't understand that it needs food; it just comprehends that it needs
something now. The personality gets from the id, or the "it" to the "I" that happens during the
primary year of one's life. The sense of self relates the living being to reality by methods for its
oblivious, and looks for articles to fulfill the desires that the id makes to speak to the creature's
needs. This is known as the auxiliary cycle. The inner self, in contrast to the id, capacities as per
the truth standard, which says, "deal with a need when a suitable article is found." The
personality at that point battles to keep the id, or the creature, upbeat. The conscience keeps
record of the impediments, helps, prizes and disciplines, and from that point shapes the
superego. This hypothesis is normally not complete until the age of seven, if at any point.
There are two parts of the superego: cognizant and personality ideal. The cognizant is a
disguise of disciplines and admonitions. The self image ideal gets from remunerations and
positive models introduced to the kid. The cognizant and the superego convey their
prerequisites to the inner self with emotions like pride, disgrace, and blame. The id, self image
and superego lead to the way that, as though procured, that another arrangement of necessities
and wishes are of social, not natural, right now.
Despite the fact that there are numerous speculations encompassing Freud that could
be talked about, the last one, and the most disputable one that I'd prefer to examine us the
Oedipal emergency. The Oedipal emergency is named after the antiquated Greek story of King
Oedipus, who incidentally murdered his dad and wedded his mom.
The hypothesis works thusly: the clench hand love-object for people is out mother. We
need her love, her touches and her in an extensively sexual manner. In prior readings, I found
that Freud characterized "sexual" as intercourse, yet all pleasurable vibes of the skin. In
principle, the little fellow has an opponent for his mom's charms: his dad. His dad is greater,
more grounded, and more intelligent and gets the opportunity to rest in his mom's bed. Father is
the adversary. Now in his life, the by had perceived that that he varies from young ladies as
there is a distinction in hair length and attire style. From his point of view there is one significant
distinction, he has a penis and young ladies don't. This is the start of "mutilation uneasiness" or
a slight dread of loosing one's penis. To come back to the first issue, the kid perceives the dad's
predominance and takes part in a portion of his self image guards: he dislodges his sexual
motivations on from his mom to young ladies, later ladies, and relates to the assailant, his dad.
He endeavors to be more similar to him, or more like a man. The kid will at that point enter
immaturities and afterward the universe of heterosexuality. Freud additionally accepts that
ladies experience the equivalent.
The main thing more normal that obtrusive appreciation for Freud is the similarly visually
impaired disdain that individuals feel towards him. Out of the hypotheses recently talked about,
the Oedipal complex and the related thoughts behind mutilation uneasiness and penis envy is
the least top choice. It has been found that these principles generally apply in world in which the
families are broken and are not working in the methods proposed. These conditions incorporate
guardians discontent with one another that may utilize their kids against one another, or in
examples in which young ladies are scorned or compelled to imagine that there are not an
equivalent to men. These manifestations may likewise be found in conditions in which guardians
may take steps to "mutilate" a kid for specific practices. Eventually, these conditions apply in
broken circumstances. In the event that the Oedipal complex was seen in a figurative and not a
strict style the ideas could be viewed as helpful. Youngsters love their folks. Kids get familiar
with the principles of a relationship through the pictures that guardians depict in their
connections. Kids likewise copy the practices on the other gender parent along these lines
playing once more into the Oedipal complex.
Freud's accentuation on sexuality is another territory that is exceptionally reprimanded.
While investigating Freud's speculations further, I was astonished at the accentuation on simply
"sex" alone. In further exploring the significance, I found that Freud characterized "sexuality" as
a sensation to the skin. This definition put the hypotheses in context for me. People long for
sensations to the skin: an embrace, a kiss, and a touch. These kinds of expressions of love are
non-verbal types of adoration that people need to endure. I imagine that another critical factor is
the timespan in which Freud introduced his hypotheses. His hypotheses depended on the
serious evasion of sexuality, particularly among the center and privileged societies, and
particularly among ladies. Society today, overlooks that "sexuality" was something that was
peered downward on. Ladies who felt sexual wants were naturally viewed as a whore, and
another lady of the hour would be shocked on her wedding night (or could black out at the idea).
I firmly imagine that Freud assisted with opening a window of comprehension with respect to the
subject of human sexuality. Freud was sufficiently able to step from the standard and voice his
conclusions with respect to this exceptionally dubious issue and assisted with exploring the
manner in which the future would see sexuality. I feel that it is commendable that he had a
sufficient character to talk about a subject conceivably this deplorable to himself and his
profession.
Freud made individuals mindful of the way that human conduct depended on science
and basis. Freud indicated the effect that human conduct had on society when it was
understood that every individual is liable for his/her own activities. Freud demonstrated the
significance of relational peculiarities in a period where society accepted that God decided the
jobs of people. The id and the superego will be a piece of present day brain research starting
now and into the foreseeable future.
 Sigmund Freud (Work sheet)

1. What is nationality of Sigmund Freud?

• Austrian

2. In 500 words, What is Psychoanalysis?

• In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Sigmund Freud developed a technique
that he called psychoanalysis and used it to treat mental disorders. He
formed his theory of psychoanalysis by observing his patients.
Psychoanalysis is a method of treating emotional difficulties through
open communication between a psychoanalyst and a patient with the
goal of gaining insight into the individual's inner world and how it affects
his or her emotions, behaviour, and relationships. Psychoanalysis’ main
goal is to bring troubling unconscious forces into consciousness. With
the help of the insights garnered during the analysis, the patient can
then mend and improve current relationships, productivity, patterns of
selfdestruction and perhaps even unlock creativity within them. One
fundamental concept is the powerful effect of the unconscious part of the
mind on our feelings, actions, relationships, and endeavours. Conflicts
that are unconscious can cause anxiety, moodiness, or depressive
thoughts; troubling personality traits; or difficulties at work or in finding
or maintaining long-term relationships. Many problems may have rooted
from past experiences. Having an intensive schedule of one-on-one
sessions helps establish the psychoanalyst's office as a place where the
patient can safely free-associate which means the patient can talk about
whatever comes to mind and even develop a deep bond with the analyst.
With the frequent sessions, the patient will be able to show behavioural
patterns and attitude that is highly needed for mending the underlying
issues. Psychoanalysis sessions can last for many years for the old
habits, used feelings, patterns of maladaptive life to die off. It is a
collaborative effort. As the patient free-associates, the analyst listens
carefully and helps her grasp the underlying unconscious sources of her
difficulties. To encourage this awareness, the analyst not only interprets
on-going patterns, but also encourages the patient to reexperience them
in the safety of the analytic setting. Psychoanalytic parlance also known
as "transference." The patient reminisce her life's story by transferring to
the analyst feelings and attitudes she originally experienced in her
relationships with other people. Freud’s theory of development has two
primary ideas: one, Everything you become is determined by your first
few years – indeed, the adult is exclusively determined by the child’s
experiences, because whatever actions occur in adulthood are based on a
blueprint laid down in the earliest years of life (childhood solutions to
problems are perpetuated). Second, the story of development is the story
of how to handle anti-social impulses in socially acceptable ways. There
 may be many variations to work through the underlying problem. The
hope is that over time, the individual can recover lost emotional
connections, give up unhealthy ones, and adapt more effectively to her
current circumstances. Freud’s theories overemphasised the
unconscious mind, sex, aggression, and childhood experiences. Many of
the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic theorists are difficult to
measure and quantify. Psychoanalysis may help with such complaints as
work load problems, romantic relationship connection or finding the
suitable partner for them, personal life at home and in public, connection
with friends and family, unless these feelings are related to longer-
standing behaviour patterns. Distressing symptoms such as phobias,
anxieties, and depression also respond to psychoanalysis, sometimes
with the help of medications.

3. What is a defense mechanism? Enumerate at least 10 defense mechanisms

and expound on each item.
• DEFENSE MECHANISMS are psychological strategies that are
unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from
unacceptable thoughts or feelings.
a. Repression: Moving threatening thoughts and feelings from conscious to
unconscious. Individual may be aware of emotion but not associated with thoughts.
(Relapse, naïveté).
b. Displacement: Transferring feeling about a person or event onto someone or
something else (might be less threatening).
c. Sublimation: Channelling unacceptable thoughts and feelings into socially
acceptable behaviour. (With anger, you can clean the house; write a book)
d. Conversion: Strong emotional conflicts are converted into physical symptoms.
(Anxious =headache)
e. Regression: Returning to early stages of development, prompted by dangers or
conflicts. (Sucking of thumb and wetting the bed of a child again when in hospital; A
young wife going home to her parent’s house after the quarrel with her husband).
f. Projection: Attributing own unacceptable thoughts, feelings and motives to another
person. (You hate someone and hate to admit it, therefore you solve it by believing
they hate you).
g. Rationalization: Cognitive distortion of “facts” to make an event less threatening.
(Excuses) (Natural disaster as “God’s will”).
h. Denial: A person may respond by refusing to accept it or denying that it exists.
(Husband refuses wife’s signs of infidelity).
i. Reaction Formation: Behaving in a way that is opposite to the behaviour, feelings
or thoughts that are considered unacceptable. (Men have prejudice against gays are
defending their own homosexual feelings by harsh anti-homosexual attitude that
convince them of their heterosexuality).
j. Introjection: A person internalizes the ideas or voices of other people especially the
external authorities.(Dad telling his son “Boys don’t cry”)
4. What is the structure of personality of Sigmund Freud?

Structure of personality has two dimensions- Topographical and dynamic.

Topographical model is divided into;
i. Conscious: All experiences and activities which have to do it present.
ii. Subconscious: Experiences, desires, thoughts which are unavailable at the
level of conscious but can be accessed through deliberate effort.
iii. Unconscious: Represents the sexual, immoral, antisocial and hateful desired
which we can’t afford to express in daily life.
Dynamic model aspects of personality which are instrumental in resolution of
mental conflicts arising from basic instincts.
i. Id: Biological in nature and represents those instincts which are innate,
unorganised, sexual and unlawful.
ii. Ego: reality oriented. Ego remains at the driving seat of personality and
functions at all three levels (i.e. conscious, subconscious and unconscious.)
iv. Superego: is the moral aspect of personality and operates on idealistic
principle. It represents the dos and don’ts of behaviour. It grows out of process
of socialisation.

5. What is the focus of Psychoanalytic theory?

• The focus is on the unconscious mind rather than the conscious mind.
Psychoanalysis emphasizes the belief that all adult problems are directly
related to events in one’s childhood that are in the unconscious mind
and make it conscious.

6. Explain Freud's concept of the sexual and aggressive instincts.

• Freud used the German word Trieb to refer to a drive or a stimulus

within the person. The aim of the sexual drive is pleasure, but this
pleasure is not limited to genital satisfaction. Freud believed that the
entire body is invested with libido.
• The aim of the destructive drive, according to Freud, is to return the
organism to an inorganic state. Because the ultimate inorganic condition
is death, the final aim of the aggressive drive is self destruction.

7. Summarize the psycho-sexual stages of development and their possible

effects on personality.
• Oral stage, the focus of gratification is on the mouth and pleasure is the
result of nursing, but also of exploration of the surroundings (as infants
tend to put new objects in their mouths).

• Anal stage, According to the theory, the major experience during this
stage is toilet training. In this stage, the formation of ego continues.
 • Phallic stage, the time when the genital area becomes the leading
erogenous zone. For bothsexes, the parents become the focus of drive
Energy (Oedipus complex and Electra Complex).
• Latency stage, This latency stage is brought about partly by parents’
attempts to punish or discourage sexual activity in their young children.
The child has evolved from a baby with primitive drives to a reasonable
human being with complex feelings like shame, guilt and
disgust.(infantile amnesia).
• Genital stage, In this stage the focus is on the genitals, and the energy
is expressed with adult sexuality through opposite peers. (Puberty).

8. Trace the development of the Oedipus complex for both boys and girls.

• For boys
1. Oedipus complex (sexual desires for the mother/hostility for the father).
2. Castration complex in the form of castration anxiety shatters the Oedipus
complex.
3. Identification with the father.
4. Strong superego replaces the nearly completely dissolved Oedipus Complex.

• For girls
1. Castration complex in the form of penis envy
2. Oedipus complex develops as an attempt to obtain a penis (sexual desires for
the father; hostility for the mother)
3. Gradual realization that the Oedipal desires are self-defeating.
4. Identification with the mother.
5. Weak superego replaces the partially dissolved Oedipus complex.

9. What is free association?

• Free association requires patients to verbalize every thought that comes to their
mind, no matter how irrelevant or repugnant it may appear. The purpose of free
association is to arrive at the unconscious by starting with a present conscious
idea and following it through a train of associations to wherever it leads.

10. Do a profile of yourself using the theoretical framework of Freud?

• Oral stage
o I was still seeking for breast feeding.
• Anal Stage
o I was still seeking for breast feeding.
• Phallic Stage
o I was still seeking for breast feeding.
• Latency Stage
o I was still seeking for breast feeding.
• Genital Stage
o I was still seeking for breast feeding.
 Carl Jung (essay)

Carl Gustav Jung was born in 1875 in Switzerland, where he lived all his life. He was the only
surviving son of a poor country pastor and scholar of the Reformed church. Jung described his father as
conventional and kind, but weak. He respected his father even though he had difficulty communicating
with him, especially in matters of religion, which concerned Jung throughout his life. Skeptical of the
orthodox faith in which he was reared, he searched relentlessly for adequate answers. This search is
reflected in his psychology, with its interest in religion, mythology, and the occult. Jung described his
childhood as lonely and his personality as introverted. The young boy frequently played by himself,
inventing games and carving a small companion out of wood to console himself. These long periods of
solitude were later to find expression in his self-analysis. His psychology also reflected his predilection
for being alone. Maturity for Jung is defined not in terms of interpersonal relations, as it is for Freud, but
in terms of integration or balance within the self.
Although Jung’s journey into the unconscious was dangerous and painful, it was also necessary
and fruitful. By using dream interpretation and active imagination to force himself through his
underground journey, Jung eventually was able to create his unique theory of personality. He died June
6, 1961, in Zürich, a few weeks short of his 86th birthday. At the time of his death, Jung’s reputation was
worldwide, extending beyond psychology to include philosophy, religion, and popular culture.
Jung first met Sigmund Freud in 1907 after having corresponded with him about their mutual
interest for a short period. The two men were highly impressed with each other and with each other’s
work. That meeting began an intense personal and professional relationship. For some time Freud
regarded Jung as his heir apparent, and he looked on him with all of the affection that a father has for
his son. On several occasions when Jung disagreed with Freud, Freud became very upset and in a few
instances actually fainted. In 1913, Jung broke away from Freud and his school. Freud described the
break as “a great loss,” and it was also shattering for Jung, who entered a period of extensive inner
disorientation in which he could not read or write and which eventually led to his self-analysis. Many
reasons underlay the break with Freud; the most pronounced point of disagreement was Jung’s
rejection of Freud’s emphasis on sexuality. For Freud, all higher intellectual processes and emotionally
significant experiences are ultimately substitutes for sexuality and can be understood thereby. For Jung,
sexuality itself must be seen as symbolic. Sexuality and the creativity it represents have a mysterious
quality and cannot be fully analyzed or completely depicted. In early colleague of Freud, Carl Gustav
Jung broke from orthodox psychoanalysis to establish a separate theory of personality called analytical
psychology, which rests on the assumption that occult phenomena can and do influence the lives of
everyone.
Jung believed that each of us is motivated not only by repressed experiences but also by certain
emotionally toned experiences inherited from our ancestors. These inherited images make up what Jung
called the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious includes those elements that we have
never experienced individually but which have come down to us from our ancestors. Thereafter, Jung
developed his own school of thought, which eventually came to be known as analytical psychology. He
wrote extensively, and his unique theories were informed by a vast array of concerns, including Eastern
religions, mythology, and alchemy. Although such subjects are frequently considered scientifically
suspect, Jung felt that they were essential to the psychologist and indispensable in understanding the
mysterious forces of the unconscious.
 Whereas Freud described the structure of personality in terms of three forces that are in
conflict— id, ego, and superego—Carl Jung conceived of the structure of personality as a complex
network of interacting systems that strive toward eventual harmony. The main systems are the ego; the
personal unconscious with its complexes; and the collective unconscious and its archetypes. Jung also
described two primary attitudes toward reality and four basic functions, which together constitute
separate but related aspects of the psyche, or total personality. Here, psyche refers to all psychological
processes: thoughts, feelings, sensations, wishes, and so forth. Jung used the terms psyche and psychic,
rather than mind and mental, to avoid the implications of consciousness in the latter and to emphasize
that the psyche embraces both conscious and unconscious processes. Jung and Freud differed in their
approaches to the unconscious. Freud tended to view the unconscious essentially as materials that have
been repressed. Jung viewed the unconscious as the source of consciousness and the matrix of new
possibilities in life.
Like Freud, Jung relied primarily on the case study as a personality assessment technique. He
also showed his Freudian roots by utilizing dream analysis and by making use of patients’ self-reports
about significant early experiences. Yet, in a number of important respects, Jung’s use of these
techniques differed from his mentor’s . In Jung’s view, dreams are involuntary and spontaneous
eruptions of repressed materials that are rooted in both the personal and collective unconscious.
However, their manifest content is not always a disguised attempt at wish fulfillment of sexual or
aggressive needs. Instead, dreams are more often attempts at resolving current problems and conflicts,
and provide dreamers with a means of furthering their own development in a healthy direction.
In conjunction with dream analysis, Jung utilized an experimental technique called the word
association test, in which he presented patients with stimulus words and asked them to respond with
whatever words occurred to them. Jung recorded the time that elapsed between the initial presentation
of the stimulus and the eventual response and used the time latency as an indicator of possible areas of
resistance and conflict within the person. Another technique used by Jung in conjunction with dream
analysis was painting therapy. He relied heavily on paintings by his patients as a means of further
encouraging them to express their unconscious feelings or thoughts. The painting exercises were
conducted to help patients clarify the symbols seen in their dreams and to force patients to cope
actively with their problems. In Jung’s view, painting had real therapeutic effects. It moved patients off
dead center and started them on the road to self-realization.
 Carl Jung (Work Sheet)

1. What is analytical psychology?

• Analytical psychology approaches psychotherapy in the tradition of C. G. Jung. It is distinguished
by a focus on the role of symbolic experiences in human life, taking a prospective approach to the
issues presented in therapy. This means that while one’s life history is of great significance for
understanding one’s current circumstances, the current circumstances also contain the seeds for
future growth and development.

2. What is an archetype?
Archetypes are generalized and derive from the contents of the collective unconscious.
Archetypes have a biological basis but originate through the repeated experiences of humans’ early
ancestors. The archetype itself cannot be directly represented, but when activated, it expresses itself
through several modes, primarily dreams, fantasies, and delusions. Such collective memories are
universal in nature because of our common evolution and brain structure. Ancient or archaic images.
• Persona: The side of personality that people show to the world. The term is well chosen because
it refers to the mask worn by actors in the early theatre. Jung believed, should project a
particular role, one that society dictates to each of us
• Shadow: Darkness and repression, represents those qualities we do not wish to acknowledge
but attempt to hide from ourselves and others. Jung contended that, to be whole, we must
continually strive to know our shadow and that this quest is our first test of courage.
• Anima: Represents irrational moods and feelings. Like Freud, Jung believed that all humans are
psychologically bisexual and possess both a masculine and a feminine side. To master the
projections of the anima, men must overcome intellectual barriers, delve into the far recesses of
their unconscious, and realize the feminine side of their personality.
• Animus: The masculine archetype in women. The animus is symbolic of thinking and reasoning.
• Great mother: The great mother, therefore, represents two opposing forces— fertility and
nourishment on the one hand and power and destruction on the other. She is capable of
producing and sustaining life (fertility and nourishment), but she may also devour or neglect her
offspring (destruction).
• Wise old man: Archetype of wisdom and meaning, symbolizes humans’ pre-existing knowledge
of the mysteries of life. The wise old man archetype is personified in dreams as father,
grandfather, teacher, philosopher, guru, doctor, or priest. The wise old man is also symbolized
by life itself.
• Hero: represented in mythology and legends as a powerful person, sometimes part god, who
fights against great odds to conquer or vanquish evil in the form of dragons, monsters. In
conquering the villain, the hero is symbolically overcoming the darkness of prehuman
unconsciousness.
• Self: Jung believed that each person possesses an inherited tendency to move toward growth,
perfection, and completion. The self is the archetype of archetypes because it pulls together the
other archetypes and unites them in the process of self-realization. The self is symbolized by a
person’s ideas of perfection, completion, and wholeness, but its ultimate symbol is the mandala,
 which is depicted as a circle within a square, a square within a circle, or any other concentric
figure. It represents the strivings of the collective unconscious for unity, balance, and
wholeness.

3. Explain the Collective unconscious.

• Also known as “psychic inheritance.” The collective unconscious is responsible for people’s
many myths, legends, and religious beliefs. It has roots in the ancestral past of the entire species
which are from distant ancestors’ experiences with universal concepts such as God, mother,
water, earth. It represents Jung’s most controversial, and perhaps his most distinctive, concept.

4. What is Teleology?
• Teleology means goal-directedness, from Greek telos, or goal. It holds that present events are
motivated by goals and aspirations for the future that direct a person’s destiny. Jung insisted
that human behavior is shaped by both causal and teleological forces and those causal
explanations must be balanced with teleological ones.

5. What are Psychological types according to Carl Jung?

• Jung recognized various psychological types that grow out of a union of two basic attitudes—
introversion and extraversion—and four separate functions—thinking, feeling, sensing, and
intuiting.

6. Describe Jung’s method of investigation.

• Word Association Test: The basic purpose of the test in Jungian psychology today is to uncover
feeling-toned complexes.
• Dream analysis: The purpose of Jungian dream interpretation is to uncover elements from the
personal and collective unconscious and to integrate them into consciousness in order to
facilitate the process of self-realization.
• Active imagination: A technique Jung used during his own self-analysis as well as with many of
his patients. The purpose of active imagination is to reveal archetypal images emerging from the
unconscious.
• Psychotherapy: Four developmental stages of psychotherapy
Four developmental stages of psychotherapy
First: Confession of a pathogenic secret: Cathartic method practiced by Josef Breuer and
his patient Anna O. For patients who merely have a need to share their secrets, catharsis
is effective.
Second: Interpretation, explanation, and elucidation: used by Freud, gives the patients
insight into the causes of their neuroses, but may still leave them incapable of solving
social problems.
Third: The education of patients as social beings: Unfortunately, says Jung, this
approach often leaves patients merely socially well adjusted.
Fourth: Transformation: For patients who are in the second half of life and who are
concerned with realization of the inner self, with moral and religious problems, and with
finding a unifying philosophy of life.
7. Explain the concept of humanity according to Carl Jung.
• His view of humanity was neither pessimistic nor optimistic, neither deterministic nor purposive.
To him, people are motivated partly by conscious thoughts, partly by images from their personal
unconscious, and partly by latent memory traces inherited from their ancestral past. Their
motivation comes from both causal and teleological factors.

8. What are psychological types?

Attitudes:
Introversion: is the turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the
subjective. Introverts are tuned in to their inner world with all its biases, fantasies, dreams, and
individualized perceptions.
Extraversion: the attitude distinguished by the turning outward of psychic energy so
that a person is oriented toward the objective and away from the subjective. They tend to focus
on the objective attitude while suppressing the subjective. More influenced by their
surroundings than by their inner world.

Functions: Sensing tells people that something exists; thinking enables them to recognize its
meaning; feeling tells them its value or worth; and intuition allows to know about it without
knowing how they know.
Thinking: Logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas. Extraverted
thinking people rely heavily on concrete thoughts, but they may also use
abstract ideas if these ideas have been transmitted to them by parents or
teachers. Introverted thinking people react to external stimuli, but their
interpretation of an event is colored more by the internal meaning they bring
with them than by the objective facts themselves.
Feeling: (Valuing) the process of evaluating an idea or event. Extraverted feeling
people use objective data to make evaluations. They are not guided so much by
their subjective opinion, but by external values and widely accepted standards
of judgment. Introverted feeling people base their value judgments primarily on
subjective perceptions rather than objective facts.
Sensing: The function that receives physical stimuli and transmits them to
perceptual consciousness. Not identical to the physical stimulus but is simply
the individual’s perception of sensory impulses. Extraverted sensing people
perceive external stimuli objectively, in much the same way that these stimuli
exist in reality.
Introverted sensing people are largely influenced by their subjective sensations
of sight, sound, taste, touch, and so forth.
Intuiting: Perception beyond the workings of consciousness.
Extraverted intuitive people are oriented toward facts in the external world.
Introverted intuitive people are guided by unconscious perception of facts that
are basically subjective and have little or no resemblance to external reality.
9. Explain the levels of psyche according to Carl Jung?
• Conscious: Ego. Conscious images are those that are sensed by the ego, whereas unconscious
elements have no relationship with the ego. Comprises the thoughts, memories, and emotions a
person is aware of. The ego is largely responsible for feelings of identity and continuity.
• Personal Unconscious: It contains repressed infantile memories and impulses, forgotten events,
and experiences originally perceived below the threshold of our consciousness. Contents of the
personal unconscious are called complexes. A complex is an emotionally toned conglomeration
of associated ideas.(mother)
• Collective Unconscious: Jung felt that people are born with a “blueprint” already in them that
will determine the course of their live. The collective unconscious are inherited and pass from
one generation to the next as psychic potential. The collective unconscious is responsible for
people’s many myths, legends, and religious beliefs.

10. Do a profile on your seat mate based on the framework of Jung?

 Alfred Adler (work sheet)

1. In 500 words, what is inferiority complex?

• - A term used by Alfred Adler to denote strong feelings of inadequacy and insecurity stemming
from real or fancied deficiencies of a physical, mental, or social nature. He believed that such
feelings, together with the anxiety, resentment and overcompensatory drives they arouse, are
bound to affect the individual’s entire adjustment to life.In Adler’s theory, all persons have some
feelings of inferiority, arising partly from the helplessness of infancy and partly from a sense of
inadequacy in handling significant situations of life. These feelings are the major driving forces
which impel normal individuals toward improvement and achievement. They are often
manifested with special clarity by the physically handicapped who strive to compensate for their
defect by developing special skills or interests.Some people, however, develop a constellation of
deep-seated, exaggerated, and unhealthy inferiority feelings which distort their attitudes and
behavior. The special term “inferiority complex” is applied to this group of feelings. They usually
exist partially or wholly on an unconscious level, and arise from many sources: an actual “organ
inferiority” such as poor eyesight, short stature, defective sex organs; a position in the family or
birth order which the individual considers unfavorable; severe parental discipline; excessively
high standards imposed by the family; low social status; and, in the case of women, an inferior
position in society as compared to men. See MASCULINE PROTEST.According to Adler, many
personality disorders result from faulty reactions to the conviction of inferiority. Some individuals
react by avoiding competition or by getting sick when they are faced with situations that might
expose their inferiority. Others go to the opposite extreme and strive not only to compensate but
to overcompensate for feelings of inadequacy by becoming excessively ambitious, competitive,
aggressive, or domineering. All these reactions have a destructive effect on relationships with
other people and militate against what Adler called “social interest”—that is, the common good.
And if they are persistently expressed, they will eventually militate against the individual as well
and give rise to a clear-cut neurosis.

2. In 500 words, what is superiority complex?

• - A superiority complex is a psychological disorder in which the affected individual experiences

an exaggerated feeling of self-importance. He or she feels superior to other people and displays
a general disregard for the thoughts of others. Individuals with a superiority complex often
exhibit a sense of grandiosity. They typically maintain a feeling that they are better or more
important than other people, and often fail to take the opinions or desires of others seriously.
This disorder may also be referred to as narcissism or megalomania.

Individuals with a superiority complex have an exaggerated feeling of self-importance.

Individuals with a superiority complex have an exaggerated feeling of self-importance.
Traits of someone with a superiority complex include haughtiness, a lack of empathy, and a
tendency to brag. Individuals with a narcissistic personality often have a difficult time
maintaining close relationships. They exhibit an intense reaction to anything that is perceived as
an insult. Someone with a superiority complex flatters those who give him or her admiral
acknowledgment, but despise anyone who does not display admiration. The individual often
claims to be an expert in a number of areas and pretends to be more than he or she is.
 Individuals with a superiority complex feel superior to everyone else.
Individuals with a superiority complex feel superior to everyone else.

A superiority complex is generally the result of an underlying inferiority complex. The individual
likely feels inadequate or unimportant in some way and attempts to compensate for this with an
illusory superiority and egotism. If there is no underlying inferiority complex, the individual may
have received such praise and admiration as a child that feelings of superiority carried over into
adulthood. Other possible causes of a superiority complex include emotional abuse, excessive
criticism, and overindulgence from parents.

An individual with a superiority complex often has no regard for what others have to say.
An individual with a superiority complex often has no regard for what others have to say.

Individuals with superiority complexes will often interrupt people and generally have no regard
for what others have to say. They tend to bring conversations around to themselves in a
discussion, and frequently use the words “I,” “me,” and “my.” Those with a narcissistic
personality believe that the rules do not apply to them and will often defy authority. People
affected with this psychological condition will often use or manipulate others with no regard to
their feelings.

Verbal abuse from parents may lead to the development of a superiority complex in their
children. Verbal abuse from parents may lead to the development of a superiority complex in
their children. It is important to distinguish between a superiority complex and a healthy sense
of self-worth. Those who have a high confidence level in themselves may be inaccurately
described as narcissistic or as having a sense of superiority. Those who simply have confidence
in their abilities do not generally exhibit a complete disregard for others or a lack of empathy.
While these individuals may claim to be an expert or highly skilled in certain areas, they are fully
aware that they are not superior to others. Those with superiority complexes generally feel they
are superior in all ways.

3. What is the focus of personality theory of Alfred Adler and why is such?

• Adler called his theory Individual Psychology because he believed that people were unique and
that no theory created before his applied to all people. He originally followed Sigmund Freud's
teachings but left after a disagreement of Freud's theory which says that the drive of human
behavior is sex. Adler's Personality Theory is similar to that of Freud's Personality Theory except
that Adler's drive for human behavior is the need to overcome the feelings of inferiority.

4. What is the concept of Alfred Adler on birth order?

• Adler's theory of birth order was investigated as a preliminary step to using this theory as a
model to integrate the vast amount of empirical research on birth order. The present study
employed two different methods of analyzing the effect of ordinal birth position on personality
in a college population. Adler's hypothesis that the birth of a sibling has a more profound effect
 on personality if it occurs within a range of 3 yr. of his own birth was not supported in the
present study. The consideration of ordinal birth position irrespective of age difference appears
to be a more productive approach in this type of research. Regardless of the approach utilized,
Adler's theory of the effect of ordinal position on personality variables was not supported.

5. Explain the notion of safe- guarding tendencies?

• Adler believed that people create patterns of behavior to protect their exaggerated sense of
self-esteem against public disgrace. These protective devices, called safeguarding tendencies,
enable people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their current style of life.

6. What are subjective perceptions according to Alfred Adler?

• Which is the belief that an individuals subjective perceptions shape their behavior and
personality, a person's fictions can become reality and in some cases become many people's
realities.

7. What is individual psychology?

• A theory of human behavior emphasizing the drive to overcome feelings of inferiority by

compensation and the need to achieve personal goals that have value for society.

8. Explain the idea of social interest in the context of the theoretical framework of Alfred Adler?

• According to Adler, social interest protects individuals against feelings of inferiority and
promotes better coping and a healthier attitude toward stressful situations.

9. What is abnormal development in the context of the theoretical framework of Alfred Adler?

• According to Adler (1956), the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is
underdeveloped social interest. Besides lacking social interest, neurotics tend to (1) set their
goals too high, (2) live in their own private world, and (3) have a rigid and dogmatic style of life.
These three characteristics follow inevitably from a lack of social interest. In short, people
become failures in life because they are over concerned with themselves and care little about
others.

10. What is creative power?

• Adler believed, is empowered with the freedom to create her or his own style of life. Ultimately,
all people are responsible for who they are and how they behave. Their creative power places
them in control of their own lives, is responsible for their final goal, determines their method of
striving for that goal, and contributes to the development of social interest. In short, creative
power makes each person a free individual.

11. Give at least 2 applications of individual psychology.

• Dreams
• Recollections
 Alfred Adler (essay)

Born in Vienna, Austria, to Hungarian parents, Alfred Adler was the third child and the second
son in a family of seven children. He was a frail boy, developing rickets during his early years, before
being struck by a near-fatal bout of pneumonia at age 5. These serious health conditions, coupled with
his rivalry with his older brother, led to feelings of inferiority throughout his childhood. Adler believed
that these early life experiences were the major factors which drove him to become an excellent
physician. He went on to attend the University of Vienna Medical School and received his degree in
1895. Adler began his foray into the medical profession in the field of ophthalmology. Adler and his wife
fled Austria in 1932, after the rise of Hitler, and moved to New York where they remained until his death
in 1937.

Adler’s influence is still evident in the many branches of psychology that reflect his theories.
Adlerian psychology maintains that regardless of their childhood experiences, people possess the power
to transform their lives, their mental health, and their overall well-being. Alongside Sigmund Freud and
Carl Jung, Adler helped to pioneer depth psychology, which emphasizes the importance of unconscious
processes. He is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in psychology. Adler's
relationship with the renowned psychiatrist Sigmund Freud began in 1902, when he was invited to join
what would later become the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Though often referred to as a disciple of
Freud, Adler was, in fact, a very strong-willed colleague—agreeing with Freud on some issues and
disagreeing with him on others.

Although his influence in the society was impactful, Adler’s views on sociology and psychology
differed radically from Freud’s, and by 1911, the men’s differences in approach and opinion were
irreconcilable. While Freud castigated Adler for his emphasis on conscious processes, Adler denounced
Freud for his overemphasis on sexuality. Soon, intense social pressure from Freud’s most loyal followers
resulted in Adler’s resignation as the president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society and the editor of
the society’s journal. Adler developed his own approach and his School of Individual Psychology was
established in 1912 and was based on the belief that people’s relationships to their society were an
integral part of their individuality. The foundation of Adler’s theory revolved around a person’s pursuit
of superiority. Adler believed that each person entered the world with a definitive inferiority complex
and spent a lifetime trying to overcome it. This theory became known as “striving for superiority,” and
Adler’s school focused on exploring this motivating force in the development of human behavior.
Although the growth of individual psychology was somewhat hindered by Adler's military service in
World War I, his work did result in achieving worldwide recognition during his lifetime. Today, his theory
and methods are widely applied in the fields of education, parenting, psychotherapy, and counseling.

Adlerian psychology, as it is known today, continues to pursue the study of overcompensation

due to inferiority. A central premise of Adlerian psychology is that the unconscious works to convert
feelings of inferiority into feelings of superiority. Adler’s model suggests that behaviors, thoughts, and
processing mechanisms are well entrenched in a person by the age of five and that the relationships the
child forms in early life, along with social and environmental forces, are directly responsible for the
development of those traits. He also conducted research into the role that birth order plays in the
development of the psyche. Adler was one of the first psychiatrists to introduce mental health into the
realm of education. He advocated for prevention strategies designed to ward off the risks of mental
illness and inappropriate coping skills, and in this regard, contributed greatly to the field of social work.
Working within the schools, Adler assisted professionals in the practice of treating and counseling
students. During that time, Adler conducted an intimate therapy session in front of a small group of
people that was designed to treat parents, children, and teachers. This impromptu session is one of the
earliest records of family or community therapy. Adler went on to change the face of psychology by
innovating the use of therapy in the treatment of many sectors of the population that had been
significantly underserved. His methods became an integral part of criminal therapy, social work, child
development, and education. Adler combined theories of psychodynamics and teleology in his work.
Teleology is the study of final causes and the ways in which things are designed toward these causes. As
part of this belief, he emphasized that psychological processes are guided by an unknown, goal-oriented
force.

Adler developed a theory of personality, but did not believe in personality types and argued
that his theory was tentative. His personality types included: Getting or leaning types, who willingly and
happily take from others without giving anything in return. This personality type is correlated with a low
activity level. Avoiding types, who despise failure and defeat, and who are often hesitant to take risks.
They tend to have few social relationships. Ruling or dominant types who are on a perpetual quest for
power and willing to manipulate people in order to get it. This type tends to engage in antisocial
behavior. The socially useful types who tend to be outgoing, social, and active. These types strive to
improve the world around them. The first three types tend to have more mental health problems, and it
could be argued that a central goal of Adlerian psychology is to convert the first three types into the
socially useful type. Adler strongly influenced later psychologists such as Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,
Erich Fromm, and Albert Ellis
 Harry P. Sullivan (Essay)

Harry Stack Sullivan was born on February 21,1892 in Norwich, New York as the only child of farmers and
the nephew of a lesbian aunt. He graduated from Cornell University in 1911 and then earned a degree
from the Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery in 1915. In those years, psychiatry was in its infancy,
and Sullivan apparently received all of his medical training in internal medicine.

Sullivan first gained military experience in 1916 as an Illinois National Guard sergeant with an
infirmary attached to the Engineer and Signal Troops of the Twelfth Provisional Division. His service ended
in 1916, but he applied to the Army and gained a commission as a first lieutenant in the Army Medical
Reserve Corps in 1918.Mustered out at the cessation of hostilities a few months later, Sullivan spent the
next several years struggling to establish his career. In 1921, he went to Washington, D. C. to work at St.
Elizabeth's Hospital for the Insane. In 1933, he co-founded the William Alanson White Psychoanalytic
Foundation and, five years later, established the journal Psychiatry.

A slight, bespectacled man with thinning hair and a mustache who often displayed an abrasive
side, Sullivan never declared himself to be homosexual, but his living arrangements imply homosexuality.
In 1927, Sullivan met a fifteen-year-old boy, James Inscoe Sullivan, who became his lifelong companion
and was commonly introduced as his adopted son. Colleagues assumed that the two were romantically
involved.

By 1940, Sullivan had become one of the foremost psychiatrists in the United States and a
member of the American Psychiatric Association's Military Mobilization Committee. As World War II
approached, he sought to prevent the psychiatric casualties that had resulted during the brief
involvement of the United States in World War I. Sullivan had also long been interested in enhancing the
status of the psychiatric profession, and this opportunity to demonstrate the value of psychiatry may
have been a secondary motive for his actions.

During the later years of his life he more fully articulated his ideas in The Interpersonal Theory of
Psychiatry and The Fusion of Psychiatry and Social Science (published posthumously in 1953 and 1964,
respectively), among other works. After his death Sullivan’s theory of personality and his
psychotherapeutic techniques had a continually growing influence, particularly in American
psychoanalytic circles.

Much of Sullivan's work centered on understanding interpersonal relationships, and his research
became the basis for a field of psychology known as interpersonal psychoanalysis. Sullivan's interpersonal
psychoanalysis suggests that the way people interact with others could provide valuable clues into their
mental health and that mental health disorders may stem from distressing interpersonal interactions.

Sullivan steadfastly tried to avoid stigmatizing mental health patients, preferring to refer to
mental health disorders as “problems in living.” This catchphrase became the preferred method of
referring to mental health disorders among those involved in the anti-psychiatry movement.

Sullivan coined the term "self system" to describe the three components of a person, much like
Sigmund Freud’s conscious, subconscious, and unconscious. Sullivan identified the active self, or the
waking, conscious self; the eccentric self, which is the source of a person’s identity and personality; and
the state of sleep, or the dormant self.
 Sullivan developed the concept of “developmental epochs” to help explain the development of
personality across the lifespan. Like many other theorists of his time, his theory is stage-based. Sullivan
often emphasized the pivotal importance of friendship and connectedness, and his stage-based theory
sees social skills as a bridge to greater development and enrichment:

Infancy – Sullivan acknowledged that the developmental process begins early in life, though he
gave this phase less importance than Freud did.

Childhood, ages 1-5 – During this stage of development, speech forms the framework upon which
subsequent learning is built.

Juvenile, ages 6-8 – During this period, a wide variety of playmates and access to healthy
socialization and social skills become increasingly important.

Preadolescence, ages 9-12 – In preadolescence, the ability to form close friendships assists the
child in developing self-esteem and serves as practice for later relationships.

Early adolescence, ages 13-17 – Friendship takes on a sexual dimension, and the focus on
relationship with peers shifts toward romantic interests. An adolescent's sense of self-worth is based in
large part upon his or her perceived sexual attractiveness.

Late adolescence, ages 18–early 20s – The young adult struggles with conflicts between parental
control and the desire to form an independent identity, while beginning to focus on both romance and
friendship.

Adulthood – The primary struggles of adulthood include family, financial security, and a
rewarding career. Socialization continues to play a role in adult development.
 Harry P. Sullivan (work sheet)

1. What is intrapersonal?

• An intrapersonal theory, includes self-directed thoughts (particularly expectancy of success) and

self-directed emotions (pride, guilt, and shame). The second is an interpersonal theory and
includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and other-directed affects of anger and
sympathy.

2. Expound the concept of interpersonal relationship and the effect of loneliness on mental health?

• Interpersonal Relationship can transform a person into a healthy personality. Sullivan insisted
that anxiety and loneliness are unique among all experiences in that they are totally unwanted
and undesirable . “When you’re experiencing loneliness, your level of cortisol, a stress hormone,
go up.” Sullivan says. “Cortisol can impair cognitive performances.”

3. What is tension?

• Tension is a potentiality for action that may or may not be experienced in awareness. Thus, not
all tensions are consciously felt. Many tensions, such as anxiety, premonitions, drowsiness,
hunger, and sexual excitement, are felt but not always on a conscious level. In fact, probably all
felt tensions are at least partial distortions of reality.

4. What is energy transformation?

• Energy transformations transform tensions into either covert or overt behaviors and are aimed
at satisfying needs and reducing anxiety. It refers to our behaviors that are aimed at satisfying
needs and reducing anxiety—the two great tensions. Not all energy transformations are
obvious, overt actions; many take the form of emotions, thoughts, or covert behaviors that can
be hidden from other people.

5. Explain the good mother – bad mother equation?

• Bad mother refers to the infant’s vague representations of not being properly fed.
• Good mother is based on tender and cooperative behaviors of the mothering one.

6. Explain the bad – me, good – me and not – me equations?

• BAD ME is fashioned from experiences of punishment and disapproval that infant receive from
their mothering one. GOOD ME results from the infants experiences with reward and approval.
Infants feel good about themselves when they perceive their mother’s expression of tenderness.
NOT ME is the sudden severe anxiety.

7. What is the concept of self-system in the framework of Harry S. Sullivan?

• The self system is the most complex and inclusive of all dynamism, it is a consistent patterns of
behaviors that maintains people’s interpersonal security by protecting them from anxiety.
8. What is Anxiety?

• Anxiety is a cheap disruptive force blocking the development of healthy interpersonal relations.
Anxiety produces behavior that prevent people from learning from their mistake, keep people
pursuing a childish wish for security and generally ensure that people will not learn from their
experiences.

9. What is Malevolence?

• Malevolence is a disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred, characterized by the feeling of living
among one’s enemies.

10. Explain the idea of lust and intimacy in the framework of Sullivan.

• Intimacy is an integrating dynamism that tends to draw out loving reactions from the other
person, thereby decreasing anxiety and loneliness, two extremely painful experiences. On the
other hand, lust is an isolating tendency, requiring no other person for its satisfaction. It
manifests itself as autoerotic behavior even when another person is the object of one’s lust. Lust
is an especially powerful dynamism during adolescence, at which time it often leads to a
reduction of self-esteem.

11. Do a profile of yourself using the framework of Sullivan.

Stages Significant others Interpersonal process

Infancy Parents love
Childhood Parents and Siblings Love, fun
Juvenile Childhood Friends Fun, love, Interaction
Pre- adolescence Best friends, Close Friends Communication, trust
Early adolescence Close Friends, Lover Trust, Care, Love
Late adolescence Close Friends, Lover Intimacy, love