Museum

collection storage
E.Verner Johnson
and Joanne C.Horgan
I
Protection of the cultural heritage
Technical handbooks
for museums and monuments 2
 Titles in this series :

1 The guarding of culiural property

by William A. Bostick
2 Museum collection storage
by E.Verner Johnson and Joanne C.Horgan
Museum collection storage
11
E.Verner Johnson
and Joanne C.Horgan
Published in 1979 by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization,
7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by Union Typographique,
Villeneuve-Saint-Georges(France)
ISBN 92-3-
101632-6
Q Unesco 1979
Printed in France

Unesco has long shown an interest in and concern
about the problems of museum collection storage.
In December 1976, it co-sponsored the first Inter-
national Conference o n M u s e u m Storage, held in
Washington, D.C., where E. Verner Johnson
joined twenty other participants interested in find-
ing solutions to the complex problem of protecting
the valuable objects housed in museums through-
out the world. The conference recommended that
a technical handbook on museum collection stor-
age, based on current research and technology,
should be prepared so as to identify the major
problems and offer some solutions. A draft of a
manuscript summarizing the results of this five-
day meeting of experts was prepared by the
authors, and it was presented by Mr Johnson to
other members of the ICOM International C o m -
mittee for Architecture and Museum-Techniques
at their first meeting in Cologne, Federal Republic
of Germany, in October 1977. This committee
shared the opinion that there was an urgent need
for this kind of handbook. Its publication is indeed
overdue, for museum professionals throughout the
world have been concerned about the inadequate
attention given to the complex problems of collec-
tion storage. Ideal storage systems can be prohibi-
tively expensive, but with some application and
imagination a range of intermediary solutions can
be devised, provided that knowledge and ideas
can be exchanged and compared among specialists
in this field throughout the world.
E. Verner Johnson is a principal of the archi-
tectural and planning firm of E. Verner Johnson
and Associates, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, in the
Preface
United States. H e has been concerned with m u -
seum planning, design and research for the last
sixteen years. During this period he has done
extensive research into museum systems, including
collection storage facilities, and has been involved
with the planning or design of over twenty mu-
seum projects. Joanne C.Horgan is also a principal
of E. Verner Johnson and Associates, Inc., and
has been involved in all of its museum planning
and research projects over the past thirteen years.
She has researched,photographed and documented
many museum storage facilities.
This handbook is the second in a n e w series
which aims to give practical and technical guid-
ance on the conservation and restoration of
cultural property. Intended to contribute to the
international spread and exchange of professional
knowledge and experience, the series is destined
in particular for museums and monuments ser-
vices whose resources are limited and which must
find solutions to their problems of conservation
that are more in line with locally available means
and resources. It is hoped that the information in
this handbook will succeed in providing practical
information in this sense. It should be noted that
a second handbook dealing specifically with stor-
age in the light of local conditions in developing
countries will be prepared for publication in
1980-81.
The authors are responsible for the choice
and the presentation of the facts contained in this
book and for the opinions expressed therein,
which are not necessarily those of Unesco and
do not commit the Organization.

The preparation of this handbook would not have
been possible without the co-operation of staff
members of many museums, whose storage areas
have been visited, researched, measured and pho-
tographed over the last sixteen years as part of
an ongoing research effort related to our museum
planning and design projects and the preparation
of this handbook. It is impossible to name all
of the persons w h o have helped, or to give credit
for many of the storage-system ideas and concepts
that are shown or described in this book. Many
of the storage systems were first constructed in
one museum and then refined in others. Author-
ship is not nearly as important as the dissemination
of knowledge about the systems. We would like
to mention a few of the people w h o have been
most helpful in supplying information about spe-
cific systems: Jon Ericson, Curator of Collections
at the Heard Museum, Phoenix, Arizona, w h o
has developed several innovative storage systems
built by the museum staff; at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York, John Buchanan,
Registrar, for his assistance in ‘opening the doors’
to the museum’s storage areas, Cynthia Lambrose
in the print and drawing area, and Anne Seebach
Acknowledgements
in the Costume Institute; and John Davis at
Colonial Williamsburg, Williamsburg, Virginia, for
showing us the extensive storage areas housing
the museum’s fine decorative arts collections.
Some information and ideas for storage systems
came from participants at the Washington Confer-
ence, particularly information on high-density
mobile storage systems.
W e also would like to thank William R.
Leisher, Assistant Paintings Conservator at the
National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.,for
the use of his listing of ‘Humidity/Temperature
Requirements for Museum Collections’, and our
friend and colleague William Bricken for the
excellent illustrations included in this handbook.
These illustrations were developed from photo-
graphs, slides, in many cases our memories, and
an occasional creative inspiration. Finally, we
would like to thank Paul Perrot, Assistant Secre-
tary for Museum Programs at the Smithsonian
Institution, and Luis Monreal, Secretary General
of the International Council of Museums (ICOM),
for their support and encouragement in taking
on this task.
E.V. J. and J. C.H .
 Contents

Introduction 9

I Planning 11
Museum roles and how they affect
the planning of storage systems
and areas 12
Planning relationships between the
collection storage areas, collection
support areas and other museum
facilities 13
Determination of the amount of
collection storage area required 16
Planning storage areas for collections
growth 17

I1 Records, accessibility and retrieval 18

Records 18
Accessibility 19
Retrieval 20

I11 Security 22
Security aspects of physical planning 22
Protection against theft and vandalism 23
Fire protection 23
Other hazards 26

IV Conservation 27
Air-conditioning 27
Lighting 31
Fumigation 32
Vibration 32
Conservation factors that affect
selection of storage systems 32

V Storage systems 34
Introduction
The preparation of a handbook on museum stor-
age is long overdue. The storage and conservation
of many museum collections have received inad-
equate attention in the past, and in most cases
are still receiving inadequate attention. In fact,
probably more harm has been done to museum
collections through improper storage than by any
other means. It is crucial for the future of all
museums, as the custodians of a substantial part
of mankind‘s natural and cultural heritage, that
steps be taken to improve storage practices and
facilities. Most problems of inadequate collection
storage can be traced to a lack of funds, know-
ledge, or resources, or any combination of these
causes. Many museums lack the funds to provide
adequate storage for their collections, or they
spend their funds on other things because of ill-
defined roles. Many also lack the technical know-
ledge about conservation, storage systems, record-
keeping, or security needed to care properly for
their collections. And, finally,numerous museums
lack the technical and human resources necessary
to provide adequate care for their collections.
It is apparent that there are major differences
between the needs and resources of museums in
more technologically advanced countries and those
in developing countries. Such differences often
exist between large and small museums anywhere.’
Steps must be taken to increase co-operation be-
tween different types of museums, and to accel-
erate the open exchange of ideas and knowledge
about this critical problem throughout the museum
profession. The publication of this handbook is
an attempt to initiate this vital exchange of infor-
mation about collection storage practices. In the
past, when such exchanges of information did
take place,they most commonly occurred between
museums sharing the same discipline.Our research
has shown that there are many innovative storage
systems being used in one discipline which could
be used in an entirely different type of museum-
some with minor modifications and some with no
modifications at all. Some of the creative storage
systems which have been devised by museums
with too little capital and a very resourceful staff
might profitably be emulated by large museums
with substantial budgets. Some museums in devel-
oping nations have come up with creative solu-
tions to conservation and collection storage prob-
lems without the use of expensive or sophisticated
systems. These solutions have much to offer in
the light of rising energy costs, power cut-backs,
and occasional power failures. Finally, a better
communication between industry and the museum
profession will add important technological input
to the effort of solving these complex problems
that confront all museums.
Collection storage involves more than a phys-
ical facility. It reflects the museum’s roles and
programmes in exhibition,education and research.
Section I, devoted to ‘Planning’,describes how the
museum’s roles affect the planning of the storage
systems and areas. The physical relationships be-
tween the collection storage areas, collection sup-
port areas and other museum facilities are illus-
trated and described. This section also deals with
methods for determining the amount of area
required for collection storage and planning of
storage areas for collection growth.
Section I1 on ‘Records, Accessibility and
Retrieval’describes how the protection of cultural
property involves the need for registration and
cataloguing, and how these records can influence
the types of storage system that can be used.
Recent and continuing advances in computer
technology offer enormous potential for the rapid
retrieval and exchange of information about
museum collections. The use of such technology
can enable scholars and museums to co-operate
more closely and aid the mutual enrichment of
cultures. Such technology can also increase the
efficiency of the way the collection storage areas
are used. Examination of specific accessibility and
retrieval requirements for each group of objects,
artefacts or specimens helps to determine the best
system for its storage.
Section I11 on ‘Security’deals with the threat
to museum collections from theft, vandalism, fire
and other hazards.
Section IV on ‘Conservation’ deals with the
influence of air-conditioning (temperature, humi-
dity and filtration), lighting, fumigation, and
vibration on museum collection objects.It includes
a tabulation of recommended humidity temper-
1. Unesco is now preparing, as a follow-up to this
publication, a handbook devoted specifically to small
museums, particularly those in developing countries.
18 Introduction

ature requirements for a wide range of materials
and a check-list of the conservation factors which
should be evaluated before selecting a storage
system.
The last section deals with the design of stor-
age systems to house museum collections. M a n y
different generic types of system are described
and illustrated, including fixed, mobile, simple,
complex and sophisticated systems. In a few in-
stances, simple modifications and variations to the
systems are also shown. Both commercially manu-
factured systems and systems that can be made
by museum staff are included.
I Planning
M u s e u m roles and how they affect
the planning of storage systems
and areas
A museum’s storage facilities cannot be planned
in a vacuum. Too often museums view their
storage areas as if they were an isolated unit,
unaffected by, and having no effect on,the other
museum activities. This kind of approach cannot
result in satisfactory and workable collection stor-
age facilities,since most museums have other roles
beyond that of a repository and preserver of
collections. Other typical areas within which most
museums have roles are exhibition,education and
research. The museum collections may, in fact,
exist primarily to serve these other roles rather
than existing as an end in themselves.
It is obvious that the collections must be
preserved in good condition, good records must
be maintained, and both the collections and
records must be accessible if they are to be of
value in serving the needs of the museum’s other
roles. However, each museum will emphasize its
various roles differently. It is the way in which
these various roles affect the storage of the collec-
tions that is significant when planning the collec-
tion storage facilities.
Comprehensive planning is the process by
which a museum determines its individual roles
and the emphasis each will have with respect to
the others. Ignoring the interrelationship of a
museum’s various roles is a common but very
significant mistake made by many institutions.All
museums have finite resources with which to
carry out several different but interrelated roles,
and planning is the method by which a museum
determines how much of its resources can be
spent on each of these respective roles. The
amount of resources allocated to the collection
role directly affects the type of storage systems
the museum can afford and the extent and quality
of space which can be made available for storage.
Because comprehensive planning is not widely
practised, many museums find they cannot ad-
equately fulfil all their selected roles. Unfortuna-
tely, in most cases it is the collection storage
facilities which suffer most.
In order to establish a clear framework for a
museum’s comprehensive master plan, all of its
roles can be grouped into the traditional cate-
gories: exhibition,education,research,collections,
etc. At one time all museums were considered
to have identical roles in each category, and each
museum would,in theory, differ only to the extent
each role was pursued. Each institution was judged
on the merits of how well it performed in each
of these universal role categories. The possibility
of a museum limiting itself to only one or two
of these roles was not even considered. In more
recent times, however, it has been recognized
that different museums can emphasize different
roles. In fact, one or more of these roles can
be eliminated completely so that a museum with
limited resources can present quality programmes
which fulfil its chosen roles, This role selection,
and the extent to which each role is pursued,
will have a significant effect on the museum’s
collection storage programme. Since each museum
has unique roles, each also will have a unique
storage programme.
In order to develop an appropriate collection
storage facilities programme the following factors
must be assessed:
What kind of museum is it? Art,science,natural
history, cultural history, or a combination of
these disciplines?
What are the museum’s roles within these disci-
plines? These roles will determine the types
of collection that will be used.
How will the collections be used in the museum’s
exhibition, education, and research program-
mes? These determinations establish how
visible the collection must be, its accessibility
and retrieval requirements, and its frequency
of use.
If there is an existing collection, how much space
is required to store it adequately?
What is the museum’s acquisition policy, and how
will this policy affect the future expansion of
the storage facilities?
What is the ideal physical relationship of the
collection storage facilities to other museum
areas?
In the broadest sense, a museum’s collections
exist primarily to meet the needs of the other
roles. As such, the collection role is the last role
to be defined. With few exceptions, a museum’s
12 Museum collection storage
collection programme is determined by what is
needed to carry out the exhibition, education and
research programmes. For instance, if a museum
has decided to limit its exhibition and education
roles to a certain period of history and to eliminate
research altogether, then ideally the collection
programme should be limited strictly to objects
relating to that particular period of history which
can be used in either the exhibition or education
programmes. A museum which allows its collec-
tions to expand without control will,in the end,
compromise its conservation standards to a point
where the entire collection will suffer, including
the objects that are necessary to carry out the
museum’s programmes. Admittedly, it is difficult
for museums to limit their collections in this
rational manner: h o w can a museum refuse
artefacts which are irrelevant to its collection
programme and still meet its ethical mandate to
preserve and protect artefacts of historic, scien-
tific, or artistic value? There are no easy solutions
to this problem. It is up to the individual institu-
tions to decide h o w they can best deal with this
dilemma. The way each museum handles this
particular problem will,of course, have an effect
on the collection storage programme, so it is
best to deal with this issue at the same time as
all the other planning issues are being considered.
A museum’s exhibition programmes can affect
collection storage in the following way. Artefacts
that are temporarily housed before being installed
in a permanent exhibit require a different type of
storage to those which are used occasionally in
temporary exhibits. In the first instance, a sophis-
ticated storage and retrieval system is unnecessary,
whereas objects to be used in temporary exhibits
require a permanent home, good retrieval systems,
and accessibility. T h e practice of rotating artefacts
within a permanent exhibit, which enhances the
interest of repeat visitors and helps to protect the
collection artefacts, also creates a need for more
efficient storage and retrieval systems. Sometimes
the rotation of exhibit materials is the only
practical conservation technique that is available
to museums, as the lack of funds precludes the
possibility of providing a satisfactory environment
in all areas of the museum. In some museums
utilizing historic houses for exhibition, it m a y
not be possible to create ideal environments for
the collections because of the construction of the
buildings. Therefore, the rotation of the artefacts
is the only solution. In this instance, the decision
might be made to exhibit more valuable artefacts
only during winter months, when they are less
likely to be damaged by excessive heat, light and
humidity. Museums should always balance the
protection afforded to objects through rotation
of display against the increased risk of damage
by handling.
The museum’s education programmes will
also affect the type of storage that will be required.
For instance, collection artefacts which might be
used in education programmes range from real
objects to be used as examples for lectures and
classroom programmes, to expendable materials
for classroom projects. Artefacts used in the
education programme m a y be quite different from
objects used in exhibitions. Again, it is clear that
the museum’s education programmes must be
defined before a suitable storage programme can
be formulated for the artefacts to be used in these
programmes.
Collections used for research vary greatly from
museum to museum, depending on the type of
museum and the extent of research to be carried
out. The w a y the collection will be used by
researchers, h o w visible and accessible it must
be, and its frequency of use in research are all
major factors affecting the criteria for the collec-
tion storage programme. M a n y different and
conflicting programme criteria can be developed,
depending on h o w the collection will be used.
The following examples illustrate h o w the
research programmes can affect collection storage
areas.
A n anthropological collection can be arranged
in cultural groupings, which allows the researcher
to browse in one area containing the entire
collection related to a single culture. Since
most researchers study within a single culture,
such an arrangement creates a more efficient
information retrieval system for this type of work.
However, because of the great range in size of
collection artefacts within a single culture, some
difficult storage problems arise. These problems
are further complicated when museums group
single collections together rather than integrating
artefacts from a single collection with similar
artefacts from other collections or cultures. An
alternative solution is to arrange the collection
artefacts strictly by size and type, regardless of
their cultural source, as in commercial storage.
Although this is less efficient for the researcher,
it greatly simplifies the storage system and it
also allows for artefacts with similar environ-
mental requirements to be stored together, a
decided advantage from the standpoint of conser-
vation. T o some extent, most museums find this
course of action necessary, at least in some areas,
in order to utilize more efficiently their constantly
shrinking storage space. These types of storage
problem do not exist with scientific collections
(biology, botany, mineralology, etc.) since these
kinds of collection are grouped more logically by
size and preservation requirements.
Research programmes that require frequent
removal of objects from storage create n e w criteria
for other areas as well as the collection facilities.
For instance, the efficiency with which an object
can be located and retrieved from the storage
area can greatly influence the usage of laboratory
and research space. In some institutions, the inac-
cessibility of collection artefacts results in the
creation of secondary storage areas within the
 Planning 13

laboratories.The size of the laboratories is affected age facility unit. Perhaps the most critical area
by this. If it is easy to locate and retrieve objects shown in this diagram is the registration and
from a central storage area, the laboratories will holding area (7), which serves as a control point
be smaller-only the artefacts being used in for all artefacts and people entering or leaving the
current research need be kept there. collection storage facilities. It is here that all
Once basic research has been completed on museum artefacts are accessioned,where out-loans
a given object, it may be stored in more compact are handled, and where artefacts on loan from
and less accessible storage space. The required other museums are processed. Large work-tables,
frequency of access should be determined as part
of the programming process. If it is determined
that after this basic research an object will not
be needed for many years, it can be considered
to be a dead storage item and treated accordingly,
that is, stored in very compact systems where 15
accessibility is not a critical factor,although even
‘dead’items should be examined periodically lest
they decay away unnoticed.
The accessibility and visibility requirements
of a museum’s collections, which are determined
by how the collections will be used, will affect
how efficiently the volume within the storage
areas can be used. The possibility of using above-
eye-level volume in the storage areas, the use
of a high-density mobile storage system, or the
use of mezzanines within the storage areas all
can be evaluated on the basis of access and
retrieval requirements.
In summary, it is clear that the museum’s
roles in exhibition, education, and research all
have a direct effect on the planning of the storage
systems and areas. Therefore, the clear definition
of these roles should be an initial step in planning
for good storage facilities. In the final analysis,
the collection artefacts or specimens are being
preserved for a reason,be it exhibition,education,
or research. If the storage facility is not designed
to satisfy the needs of these programmes, then it
will not be satisfactory.

Planning relationships
between the collection storage areas,
collection support areas
and other museum facilities
The importance of the physical relationship be-
tween the collection storage areas, their support
areas, and other museum facilities cannot be
overemphasized. Since the support areas function
in a manner so integrally related to the collection
storage areas, their requirements should be pro-
grammed as part of the total collection storage
facility.The successful integration of these spaces
will allow the required processing of museum
artefacts to be carried out efficiently, thereby
minimizing the potential for damage or loss
through human error or a lack of adequate se-
curity (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1 illustrates the relationships between
the various areas that make up the collection stor-
14
FIG.1. Area relationships for collection storage facilities.
For planning purposes, the areas that make up the total
collection storage facility can be considered as one unit.
The collection storage facility unit includes: 1. Service
yard; 2. Loading dock; 3. Receiving area; 4. Fumigation
or specimen washing area; 5. Crating area; 6.Crate stor-
age area; 7. Registration and holding area; 8. Records
vault; 9. Reception and secretarial area; 10. Curatorial
offices or laboratories; 11. Collections research area; 12.
Photo area; 13. Conservation laboratory; and 14. Collec-
tion storage areas.
This entire unit has very specific and critical require-
ments with regard to how it is connected to the other
museum areas: 15. Outside night entrance; 16. Security
control station; 17. Public and staff entrance; 18. Connec-
tion to exhibition preparation areas and exhibition gal-
leries.
14 Museum collection storage
supply cabinets, shelving, hanging racks, storage
space for mobile carts to m o v e artefacts, and a
sink for washing one’s hands should be provided
in this area. There must be adequate space to
hold temporaliry the collection artefacts awaiting
these kinds of processing, but care must be taken
to ensure that the registration and holding area
does not become a permanent storage area for
parts of the collection because of overcrowding in
the actual storage areas. This is a c o m m o n prob-
lem in many museums.
Off the registration and holding area there
should be a fireproof records vault (8) to store
the collection records. It is recommended that a
duplicate set of records be kept at a remote loca-
tion so that in the event of a fire, theft, or some
other disaster, this valuable information will not
be lost.
A loading dock (2), preferably covered to
facilitate operations during inclement weather,
should be provided, with truck height access
approximately 1 m above the service yard (1)
to allow for the loading and unloading of heavy
objects from the back of a truck. In extremely
hot or cold climates, the loading dock can be
enclosed within a completely covered and air-
conditioned area. T h e doorway connecting the
loading dock with the receiving area (3) should
be large enough to receive the largest objects that
the museum’s collection might contain. The receiv-
ing area should be large enough to receive incom-
ing crated shipments and hold outgoing ship-
ments awaiting pick up. A large scale for weighing
materials prior to shipment is useful. Large work-
tables should be provided, as well as sealed cabi-
nets with adjustable shelving to hold contaminated
artefacts awaiting fumigation or washing.
Off the receiving area there should be a crat-
ing area (5) for the crating and uncrating of
shipments. Crating or uncrating should never be
done in the storage rooms because of the dust
and dirt generated by these activities. Cabinets to
store the necessary tools for assembling and disas-
sembling crates should be provided in this area.
Adjacent to the crating area there should be a
crate storage area (6)to store the crates in which
loaned objects were delivered, crates for the ship-
ment of artefacts to other museums, and the mate-
rial required to make n e w or repair old crates.
S o m e museums require special support areas
such as a fumigation chamber or a specimen
washing area (4).If these facilities are necessary,
they also should be located adjacent to the receiv-
ing area, since contamined items should not
be allowed beyond this point without having been
washed or fumigated. After uncrating and pos-
sible fumigation or washing, artefacts should then
proceed to the registration and holding area (7).
In large museums a reception and secretarial
area (9) can be provided adjacent to the regis-
tration and holding area. All persons entering the
registration and holding area would first pass
through the reception and secretarial area, provid-
ing an added security check of persons entering
the collection storage facilities. In small museums
this screening is done in the registration and hold-
ing area, in which case the space should be plan-
ned so that one person can have control over
people entering it. In addition, provision must
be made for securing the area if, for any reason,
constant supervision is not possible. T h e space
must be large enough to accommodate all artefacts
entering or leaving the storage area.
Generally, it is necessary to have a separate
but secured access (18) connecting the registra-
tion and holding area (7) to the exhibition prep-
aration areas and the exhibition galleries. Objects
m a y pass from the collection storage areas (14)
through the registration and holding area to an
exhibition preparation area before proceeding to
the exhibition galleries. After an exhibition is
over, these artefacts m a y be returned directly
through the registration and holding area to the
collection storage areas, or they m a y need to go to
an exhibition preparation area first for dismount-
ing or disassembly. In either case, the artefacts
must pass through the registration and holding
area before being returned to storage. T h e objects
should be checked carefully for damage, the con-
dition recorded and, if needed, conservation work
undertaken before return to storage.
All museums should have a security control
station (16), where the security system is moni-
tored and all alarms are received. It can be loca-
ted adjacent to the reception and secretarial
area (9) if such an area exists, or adjacent to the
registration and holding area (7). T h e security
control station should have an exterior entrance
where museum personnel can enter after normal
hours. The criteria for this area were covered in
a technical handbook entitled The Guarding of
Cultural Property.’
Other collection storage support facilities
include the curatorial offices or laboratories (lo),
the collections research area (1 11, the conser-
vation laboratory (13), and the photo area (12)
used to photograph the collection artefacts.
The curatorial offices or laboratories (10)
serve as research areas for the individual curators.
The size and furnishing requirements for these
spaces depend on the discipline of the individual
curator. The collections research area (11) is
used by non-staff members engaged in research
using the museum’s collections. As a security
control, persons using the collections research
area must first pass through the registration and
holding area (7). T h e conservation laboratory
(13) and the photo area (12) are also controlled
by the registration and holding area so that once
an artefact has passed through the registration
1. William A.Bostick, The Guarding of Cultural Propere,
Pans, Unesco, 1977 (Protection of the Cultural Hent-
age. Technical Handbooks for Museums and Monu-
ments).
 Planning
and holding area it can move to the photo area
(121, the conservation laboratory (13) or the
curatorial offices or laboratories (10) and still
be within the secured area controlled by the
registration and holding area (7). The movement
between each of these areas should always be
recorded, and this information should be kept
in the registration and holding area. The security
control that can be provided through proper plan-
ning and location of the registration and holding
area cannot be overemphasized.
The conservation laboratory (13) and the
photo area (12) (if film development and print-
ing are done here) are potentially dangerous areas
because of the fumes generated in the perfor-
mance of these tasks. Special precautions must
be taken to ensure that the exhaust systems from
these areas are completely separated from those
serving the collection storage areas or any other
of the support facilities where artefacts may be
kept on a temporary basis. This separation of
exhaust systems also is critical for other dirty
areas of the museum which are part of the exhi-
bition preparation areas, such as the carpentry
shop,a paint spray area, an exhibit finishing area,
a graphic arts studio where silk-screening is
done, taxidermy areas, fibreglass areas, welding
areas, etc.
There can be a direct connection between the
collection storage facilities and other museum
areas if the entire museum is contained within
one structure. A direct connection is extremely
desirable from a Conservation standpoint,since it
greatly diminishes the potential for damage to
collection objects due to excessive handling or
movement from one building to another. W h e n
a direct connection is possible, care should be
taken to ensure that passageways are large enough
to permit the movement of all objects and that
there is a minimum of level changes from the
collection storage facilities to the exhibition prep-
aration areas and the exhibition galleries (18).
Adequate goods-lifts must be provided for the
movement of artefacts from on floor to another
if the collection storage facilities and other
museum areas are located on separate floors. If
very large objects are to be moved, these goods-
lifts must be of adequate size, which is quite
costly. These considerations are important when
planning the museum. If the collection storage
facilities are located in a building separate from
other museum functions, then artefacts entering
or leaving the facility would utilize the loading
dock (2). Wherever the collection storage facil-
ities are located, they should have the same envi-
ronmental criteria as the exhibition areas.
W h e n planning a new museum building, each
area can be given a location best suited to its
use. However, existing buildings are often used
for museums and some of the less desirable spaces
must be used for museum functions. Areas less
accessible to the public, such as basement areas,
15
are often considered for the collection storage
facilities.
The advantages and disadvantages of using
the basement for the collection storage facilities
should be carefully weighed. The load-bearing
capacity of the basement floor will allow for the
dense storage of collections not possible on upper
floors of the building unless it has been specifi-
cally designed to take such an excessive loading.
The basement’s relative inaccessibility to the gene-
ral public is an advantage from the standpoint of
security and control.
There is another often overlooked advantage
of basement areas. In some climates it is neces-
sary to provide on other floors of the build-
ing a vapour barrier within the structure’s exter-
ior walls. This vapour barrier protects the build-
ing structure during the dry months of the year,
when the relative humidity within the building is
artificially increased to protect the collection
artefacts. Without this vapour barrier, the added
moisture will penetrate the exterior walls, causing
damage to the wall itself and the outside finishes
of the building. This problem exists in older build-
ings which have not included a vapour barrier
as part of the building’s structure. The addition
of a vapour barrier to an existing building is
generally extremely costly. W h e n ancient palaces
and other buildings of historic importance have
been refurbished to serve as museums, a special
problem emerges. Since the building’s architec-
tural character cannot be altered,it may be impos-
sible to add a vapour barrier. However,the below-
grade masonry or concrete walls of the basement
do not require a vapour barrier.
Some potential disadvantages of using existing
basements for storage facilities include a lack of
adequate ventilation,excessive dampness, and the
potential for damage due to flooding. Another
major disadvantage of basement storage is its
undesirability as a space in which people must
work. All of the support facilities such as the
registration and holding areas, the curatorial
offices or laboratories, the conservation labora-
tory, collections research area, etc., are ‘people’
areas, where a feeling of connection with the
outside environment is highly desirable.T o satisfy
this requirement, it would be necessary either to
separate the collection storage area from its sup-
port facilities,a distinct disadvantage, or to find
some way in which a connection with the outside
environment can be established through the addi-
tion of light wells extending to the basement
level,etc. In many of these support areas, such as
the conservation laboratory or collections research
area, it is important to have some natural light
for the work that is to be performed in that
area.
16 Museum collection storage
Determination of the amount
of collection storage area required
The task of determining the amount of storage
area required by a museum is very complex. The
first step is to assess the extent of the museum’s
existing collections, and since few museums have
finite collections, the rate of collection growth
must then be estimated. T h e amount of the col-
lections that must be stored m a y vary as a result
of the different needs for long-term exhibitions,
travelling exhibitions, loans to other institutions,
etc. T h e size of the collections for a n e w museum
m a y be even more difficult to determine because
of a lack of knowledge about the number of arte-
facts that m a y be made available to the museum
and because of an unplanned exhibition pro-
gramme. T h e best approach here m a y be to visit
other museums with similar roles, which are
similar in size to the kind of facility planned, to
see h o w m u c h collection storage space is required
in these other institutions. This is not a comple-
tely foolproof method, since each museum exists
in very different circumstances.The best method
for the n e w museum is to consult with people
experienced in this field, as expert judgements
will have to be made.
In the past, attempts have been made to relate
the size of the collection storage areas to the
amount of exhibition space by using some sort
of magical factor. There really is no basis for a
standard factor. The extent of exhibition space
depends on h o w the exhibits are designed, the
subject-matter of the various exhibitions, h o w
m u c h area is used for temporary exhibits, the
number of visitors to the museum, etc., all of
which are related to the particular programmes
unique to each museum. Since the area of exhi-
bition can vary because of so many factors, its
proportional relationship to the collection storage
areas also will vary from museum to museum.
Sound planning, which takes into consideration
the collections that are needed, makes a realistic
assessment of the availability of artefacts, and
evaluates all the ways the collections will be used,
is really the only way to judge h o w m u c h space
is needed for the collection storage facilities.
T h e following steps should be taken in order
to evaluate h o w m u c h area is needed for collec-
tion storage. These steps can be applied both to
n e w museums with collections around which they
are planning their facility, and existing museums
experiencing collection storage problems or plan-
ning for future needs.
1. Divide the existing or contemplated collection
into appropriate categories, i.e. furniture, cos-
tumes, paintings, textiles, invertebrates, m a m -
mals, etc.
2. Determine the most important criteria for the
storage of each category. Conservation and
security will significantly influence the way the
artefacts will be stored, but consider also
access, retrieval, and visibility requirements.
3. Refer to Section IV, which illustrates many
different types of storage system and describes
h o w they are used, to determine appropriate
systems for each category of artefact. Although
this is only a representative sampling of storage
systems that are available or that can be con-
structed, most collection artefacts can be hous-
ed suitably in one or several of the systems
shown. These examples should be thought of
as a starting-pointor as generic types. It is pos-
sible to make refinements or modifications to
create more suitable storage for the unique
artefact that must be stored in a particular
museum. Since there are several options for
systems in each collection category, some pre-
liminary decisions must be made in order to
assess the extent of storage area needed.
4. Determine the extent of the storage systems
required in each category to house the existing
or initial collections. By making a layout of the
storage systems, with proper aisles and access,
the amount of space required for each type of
object can be determined. W h e n planning for
existing collections, it is possible that certain
categories of objects will require less space
because of increased efficiency as a result of
using a different storage system, whereas other
categories of objects will require less space
because they are at present overcrowded,
accessibility to the objects is difficult, or the
existing storage conditions are unsatisfactory
in some other way. Therefore, before dealing
with expansion needs it is important to deter-
mine if existing storage is overcrowded and
to estimate the amount of increase necessary in
each storage system in order to provide proper
storage for the existing collection.
5. Estimate the annual increase in the collection,
by category, and determine an estimated n u m -
ber of objects in each category for a final target
date. For planning purposes, ten years is a
reasonable time span to plan for unless par-
ticular circumstances indicate that a longer
time span can be projected and accounted for.
This is an extremely difficult task unless the
museum has a strict collection policy or has
experienced consistent growth within the col-
lections for several years. Generally, an educa-
ted estimate by the curators or outside experts
will have to be relied upon.
6. Following the procedure described in step 4,
determine the necessary space increase in each
category to accommodate expansion of the
collections.
After determining the amount of storage area
required for both existing or initial collections
and the estimated expanded collections, the size
of the collection support areas must then be deter-
mined. Since these support facilities are just as
important to the conservation of collection arte
 Planning
facts as the storage areas, they should not be
overlooked w h e n an existing museum is to be
renovated or a n e w museum is planned. Plan-
ning guidelines and criteria for these support
areas, which include the registration and holding
area, conservation laboratory, photo area, collec-
tion research area, etc., vary considerably from
museum to museum depending on the discipline
covered, the roles, location, etc. For this reason
they are beyond the scope of this handbook. If
the museum does not have personnel expert in
these areas, they should use experienced consul-
tants to assist them in determining requirements
for these areas and in the planning and design of
these facilities.
Planning storage areas
for collections growth
The problem of planning for the expansion of the
storage areas for n e w museums, still in the plan-
ning stages, and existing museums planning for
growth can be approached from several directions.
O n e method of providing for future expansion
is to construct more area than is required at that
point in time. This extra space could take the
form of unused space adjacent to the storage
areas to be utilized initially. Another way to
gain extra space is to design the storage spaces
with ceilings high enough to accommodate the
construction of mezzanines at some future time.
If the latter solution is chosen, provision for easy
access to these mezzanines is important to ensure
that the use of this additional space will not be
too limited. Storage spaces with high ceilings
also will accommodate both shelving and drawer
systems extending above eye level. Although this
kind of storage will require ladder access, this
drawback may be more than compensated for by
the additional storage space that is gained, al-
though the increased risk to the artefacts due to
ladder retrieval must be considered. The cost of
providing excessive volume within the storage
areas should be weighed carefully, as it might be
just as expensive as building additional floor
area if the land is readily available to the museum.
The major problem with the overbuild solution is
money. Sufficient funds are often not available to
build even the first necessary phase of storage
area to house the collections adequately; it is
even more difficult to raise enough money to build
for anticipated future growth.
Assuming that adequate land is available,
another approach is to plan for exterior future
17
expansion. Care must be taken to ensure that
these n e w storage areas will be integrated effi-
ciently with the initial storage facilities, and that
the artefact processing flow and the security con-
trols are not compromised by the construction
of more storage area in a building addition. Care-
ful consideration with regard to site use also is
very important when planning for future building
expansions, since land adjacent to the building
might be used for outdoor exhibitions, parking,
etc., which might be displaced by these future
building additions. With this approach, although
the initial construction cost is lower, the long-
range cost of building in stages is greater, and it
may be difficult to get funds at a future date
when additional space is required. Overcrowding
and a compromised storage system can result when
these funds for expansion are not readily available.
Another way to expand the storage space is
by acquisition and conversion of other spaces in
the museum. This method should be used only if
the space to be appropriated is no longer required
for its intended purpose, since the construction of
replacement space might be more expensive than
the construction of n e w storage space.
Yet another possibility is to expand the capa-
city of the storage area by installing high-density
mobile storage systems, sometimes referred to as
compaction systems. This conversion will allow
for the elimination of most of the aisles that are
required in conventional storage areas. By switch-
ing over to high-density mobile systems, a museum
can postpone and perhaps completely avoid any
expansion of the collection storage areas. The
necessity of a high load-bearing capacity in the
building structure to support this kind of system
might present a problem, especially in older build-
ings. The manufactured compaction systems can
be quite expensive, and if a simple building
expansion is possible, the cost and advantages
of both approaches should be weighed carefully.
It is possible for a museum to build its o w n
compaction systems, which would greatly diminish
the capital investment required. Section V shows
some examples of manufactured systems and some
simple high-density mobile systems that most m u -
seums could build. The use of a high-density
mobile system can increase the collection storage
capacity by approximately 50 per cent for some
categories of objects. However, most museums
have several categories, and not all can appro-
priately be housed in mobile systems; therefore,
it is unlikely that a 50 per cent increase in total
storage capacity will be achieved.
TI
Records
When an object enters the museum it should be
given a unique and permanent code, typically a
number, which will clearly establish its individu-
ality and link the object to its written collection
records. Good museum collection records should
contain at least the following information: the
name of the institution responsible for document-
ing the object; the name of the object; its classifi-
cation(s); unique markings; condition (i.e. good,
suitable for display, requires extensive conserva-
tion, etc.); physical description; history of owner-
ship; date of collection (this applies primarily to
natural science specimens and archaeological arte-
facts); precise geographic location of collection;
method of acquisition (purchased, donated, etc.);
date of acquisition; the last owner; registration
number; a history of use, and any restrictions with
regard to how the object can be used. A complete
description of the type of information that collec-
tion records should contain and the manner in
which it should be recorded is outside the scope
of this manual. However, this kind of detailed
information is available in a book entitled Museum
Registration Methods?
A location register should be established as
part of the collection records, so that the exact
location of any object in the collection can be
determined. There are many places where collec-
tion objects may be at any point in time-in the
conservation laboratory, the research area, a cura-
tor’s office, the fumigation or washing areas, the
photo studio, on exhibition in the museum, on
loan to another institution, undergoing conserva-
tion outside the institution, in the collection
storage areas, etc. Whenever an object is moved,
whether the purpose be for exhibition, photogra-
phy, conservation,etc. a receipt should be filled
out in duplicate giving the reason for the move,
the new location, the dates involved, the name
of the person responsible for the object during its
absence from the collection area and, finally, the
authorization for the move by the museum director
or a curator. If the object is in the collection
storage areas, it is critical that its exact location
be specified.In order to describe its exact location,
the storage areas must be systematically arranged,
and both the storage rooms and the individual
Records, accessibility
and retrieval
storage systems should be coded and clearly
labelled.
The availability of pictorial records of collec-
tion artefacts such as photographs, video tapes,
or microfilm, etc. can diminish the necessity for
browsing through the collections to find an object
which the searcher can identify only by visual
means. Pictorial records also may affect the
demand for access to the actual artefact, and this
in turn could influence the choice of an appro-
priate storage system.
Although few museums would be willing to
admit it, many have a relative lack of control
over the objects that are stored in their collec-
tions. The word control, in this context, means
any system of record-keeping that will locate a
museum artefact when it is needed. The sheer
numbers of artefacts found in large ethnographic
or history museums throughout the world present
an almost overwhelming problem to be solved
using manual record-keeping systems. Computers
may be the solution.
Tremendous technological advances in compu-
ter techniques have been made over the last few
years, and there has been a gradual maturing of
our knowledge of how to use them effectively in
museums. A n increasing awareness of their amaz-
ing speed and versatility has stimulated a re-
evaluation of the kind of records museums should
keep? The way that museums are using their
collections today is significantly different from
that of twenty years ago. Museums change their
exhibitions more often. The number of loaned ex-
hibitions travelling from one institution to another
is continually increasing, and the demand for
access to the records and the collection artefacts
by serious researchers and an interested public is
steadily growing. Even the expanding knowledge
about the conservation needs of collection arte-
facts has had an effect on the extent of artefact
mobility, since the rotation of the display of
delicate artefacts has become a common practice.
Finally, one of the most significant factors
1. Irma B. Wilkinson and Dorothy H.Dudley, M u s e u m
Registration Methods, rev, ed., Washington, D.C.,
Smithsonian Institution and the American Association
of Museums, 1968.
1. See in particular M u s e u m , Vol. XXX, No. 3/4, 1978,
‘Museums and computers’.
 Records, accessibility and retrieval
which point to the inevitable widespread use of
computers in museums is the world-wide demand
for more information about our cultural heritages.
Objects from many cultures are scattered among
the thousands of museums throughout the world.
Information about these cultures and about where
specific artefacts can be seen should be made
available to everyone-a task of staggering pro-
portions which could be handled only by the use
of computer technology.
All these indicators point towards the neces-
sity to change museum collection records so that
when the inevitable switch to computer technol-
ogy occurs, the change-over can be handled in a
smooth and efficient manner.
The concept of visible storage, which is dis-
cussed in more detail later in this section, is still
very much in its infant stage. Should this type
of storage become a widespread practice, it will
have a significant effect on the kind and amount
of information which must be made available to
the general public about the collection artefacts.
It quickly became apparent at the Museum of
Anthropology of the University of British Colum-
bia in Vancouver, one of the first major instal-
lations of a visible storage system, that the more
the people saw, the more they wanted to know
and, in some cases, the museum’s records have
not been adequate to meet the public demand.
A final note on the subject of collection re-
cords: the historical or scientific significance of
an object lies not in itself alone, but also in the
information relating to it.’ In fact,natural science
specimens or archeological artefacts, without the
availability of attributed data, are practically
worthless. It is for this reason that the collection
records should be stored with the same security and
conservation safeguards as the collection objects.
They should be stored in fireproof filing cabinets
equipped with a locking mechanism,and a dupli-
cate set of records should be kept outside of the
museum so that in the event of a fire,vandalism,
or some other kind of disaster, the information
in the records will not be lost.
Accessibility
The extent of accessibility to collection objects
that is required for each museum will help deter-
mine what kinds of storage system are appropriate.
Each museum has its own philosophy with regard
to who will be allowed into the collection storage
areas. If only curators and serious researchers
accompanied by curators are permitted access,the
use of simple storage systems,like open shelving,
can be considered.However,if the general public
is allowed into the collection storage areas, the
collections must be stored in more secure systems.
The kinds of object found in each museum’s
collections also will affect the public demand for
access. For example, row upon row of long
shelves holding jars of biological specimens pre-
19
served in alcohol probably will not attract as
many curious museum visitors as a major deco-
rative arts collection. Often, the decisions about
storage systems are strongly influenced by the
number of visitors who wish to see the collections.
For instance, from a strict conservation point of
view, the standard technique of rolled storage is
better for bedspreads, quilts, etc. However, if
there is a constant demand by researchers and the
public to see the collection, the continual rolling
and unrolling of these artefacts may ultimately
by very destructive. By hanging them on sliding
racks, properly supported with interlinings, in a
room with a carefully controlled environment,
they can be viewed easily and quickly. This solu-
tion is a compromise which addresses both the
issue of conservation and the demand for access.
In Section V, Figures 16, 17, and 18 illustrate
some examples of rolled storage while Figure 19
is an illustration of the sliding rack storage.
The number of visitors to each museum also
will influence the demand for access to the collec-
tions by the public. A large museum located in a
metropolitan area which attracts large numbers
of tourists will most likely receive more demands
for access to the collection storage area than
a small museum in a less densely populated area.
The proximity of other institutions of learning
will increase the demand in a similar way.
Problems will arise if a clear policy is not estab-
lished with regard to who will be permitted to
visit the collection storage areas.
It has been proposed by some museum pro-
fessionals that a uniform set of criteria be
established in order to screen people who request
permission to visit the collection storage areas,
This may be too universal an approach,since the
frequency of requests would differ so greatly
depending on the institution and where it is
located. In addition, whether a museum receives
its funding from a municipality or the national
government as opposed to the private sector
probably will influence the manner in which
these requests are handled. It also has been
suggested that some sort of additional fee be
charged to those who wish to visit the storage
areas. This fee would help defray the cost of
museum staff time, since visitors to the storage
areas should always be accompanied by either a
curator or some other museum staff member. It
might also discourage idle curiosity seekers from
making excessive demands on the time of busy
museum staff.If this type of control were applied,
some discretion would have to be used so that
otherwise qualified people wouId not be kept
out simply because they could not pay the fee.
As a result of the public’s interest or demand
to view a museum’s collections, some museums
1. Carl E.Guthe, Documenting Collections: M u s e u m Re-
gistration and Records (American Association of State
and Local History Technical Leaflet No. 11).
20 Museum collection storage
have adopted the conkept of visible storage, a
radical departure from traditional collection stor-
age. Visible storage simply means allowing the
general public total visual access to the museum’s
collections or, in other words, the elimination of
collection storage areas which are out of bounds
to unauthorized persons. T h e application of this
concept of storage has been limited to museums
with culturally oriented collections. Art museums
generally must limit the total exhibition of their
works of art because of the amount of gallery
space it takes to exhibit them. For instance, the
amount of space used to exhibit a painting in a
gallery, where it can be viewed properly, m a y
take fifty times more space than would be used
to store the paintirig with others on sliding
racks in the collection storage areas. It makes
little sense to store the collections found in natural
history museums in visible storage, since m u c h
of these collections are comprised of hundreds of
duplicate specimens used for research by serious
scholars and would be of little interest to the
typical museum visitor.
The concept of visible storage is a contro-
versial issue which has triggered m u c h debate
over the past several years. Proponents claim that
the limited access to closed collection storage
makes research difficult for scholars and presents
a distorted view of the cultures that are represen-
ted in the exhibition are&. They feel that exposing
the entire collection, and its documentation, can
have a catalytic effect o n students, researchers
and artists, as well as on the general public, and
that it is easier to compare regional styles and
investigate minute variations within a style.
T h e opponents of visible storage claim that
the disadvantages outweigh the advantages.
Because this concept is so new, it is difficult to
judge what the impact will be on the conservation
of collections. All the collection artefacts are
exposed to light the entire time the museum is
open to the public, whereas in closed storage, the
c o m m o n practice is to light the storage rooms
only when there is a need to see a particular
object. Opponents also feel that scholars have
better access to materials when they are in closed
Storage, where the diskretionary handling of indi-
vidual objects can be allowed. This kind of flexi-
bility is difficult with visible storage because the
general public m a y not understand h o w to handle
the objects properly, thus increasing the potential
for damage.
’
Whether or not a large percentage of museum
visitors are interested in seeing many examples
of one type of artefact is also open to question
and, in fact, it is possible that this kind of over-
saturation m a y result in confusion as opposed to
enlightenment.A few good examples of a type of
artefact, integrated into a well-designed inter-
pretative exhibition, m a y be far more beneficial as
an educational tool than row upon row of objects
displayed without this kind of interpretation.
Although some museums m a y feel they can do
both-provide interpretative exhibits and still
have visible storage-this m a y be difficult to
achieve because of the costs involved.
The increase in the museum of public space
filled with valuable collection artefacts must have
some effect on the number or security staff
required, and it obviously costs more to light the
entire collection area during museum visiting
hours. Visible storage will influence the storage
systems from an aesthetic as well as from a
security standpoint, thus adding to their fabrica-
tion cost. Yet another cost implication is the
way the collection is documented and h o w this
documentation can be made available to the
museum visitor. The display of any cultural cot-
lection is of little educational value without its
documentation or some sort of interpretation, and
the kind of information that would be of interest
to the average museum visitor m a y be different
from what interests the serious scholar. If all of the
information is offered, the casual visitor may be
overwhelmed by data that mean little to him.
No matter h o w it is handled, this level of infor-
mation dissemination will probably necessitate
a change to computerized documentation.
Museums have access to a limited amount of
money, and their resources are rarely adequate to
carry out their programmes in the way they would
like. Adopting a visible storage system could
result in a major redirection of these resources
and result in an imbalanced use of funds. If this
happens, then the quality of the museum’s
exhibition and education programmes could
suffer. Therefore, it is essential to examine all
the museum’s roles in a comprehensive way and
to assess what percentage of museum visitors will
truly benefit from the adoption of the visible
storage system.
In spite of the seemingly overwhelming
disadvantages of visible storage, the philosophical
question of whether the public has a right to total
access to their cultural heritage is one that m u -
seums must deal with. For museums with limited
collections of certain types of artefact, the open
storage system m a y be an exciting and viable
solution so long as the disadvantages are carefully
weighed.
Retrieval
The retrieval of objects from the collection stor-
age areas creates another set of criteria to be con-
sidered when designing collection storage facilities
and selecting appropiate storage systems.
O n e important consideration is the size of
the objects to be retrieved, because the movement
of small objects and that of large objects present
different problems. W h e n dealing with small
objects, consideration should be given to the utili-
 Records, accessibility and retrieval
zation of containers which can be stored within
the system. If the container holds many objects,
it is desirable to be able to see its contents without
unpacking it. Containers can be boxes with covers,
drawers which can be removed and carried with
ease, trays which can be stored on open shelving,
or even jars containing specimens preserved in
alcohol. S o m e examples of containers commonly
used in museums are solander boxes for the stor-
age of prints, photographs, or valuable docu-
ments; clear plastic boxes, which allow for a
visual examination of contents without having to
open the box; plastic or wooden trays or remov-
able drawers with dividers to hold small arte-
facts, mineral specimens, small biological spe-
cimens, pottery shards, etc.; and trays or remov-
able drawers without dividers to hold samplers,
small fabric samples, small retables, or virtually
anything that can safely be stored in a drawer.
If objects can be removed from the storage area
inside their o w n containers, there is less risk of
damage provided the container is not overcrowded
and it is handled as carefully as a single, delicate
artefact.
Museums without containerized storage often
utilize carrying boxes for the same purpose. This
of course involves additional handling, since the
objects must be removed individually from their
shelf or storage space, packed in the box care-
fully, unpacked at their destination, repacked for
their return to storage, and unpacked yet again
before going back on the shelves or in the
drawers, cabinets, etc. T h e provision of mobile
carts is extremely helpful when large numbers of
small objects are to be removed. If these carts
are provided, space must be available for their
storage when they are not in use.
If the objects to be moved are quite large and
heavy, such as pianos, heavy furniture, architec-
tural elements, etc. it m a y be practical to store
them on only one level. If they are stored o n
more than one level on open heavy-duty shelving,
removal may require the use of a fork-lift truck.
Large, heavy pieces of furniture can be stored on
carpeted pallets, with wheels, so that the objects
can be rolled out of the storage areas on their
o w n pallets. Figure 36 in Section V is an illus-
tration of this kind of storage system.
The width of the aisles within the storage
rooms and main access aisles to and from the
collection storage facilities must be adequate to
allow for efficient object retrieval. In rooms where
only small objects are stored, 1-mpassage aisles
should be adequate. This space will allow for the
use of small mobile carts if space outside the
aisles is allowed for them when they are not
being used. If large mobile ladders are needed
21
within an area, additional aisle space will be
necessary. In rooms where large heavy objects
are stored, the aisles must be wide enough to
accommodate not only the size of the largest
object, but also mobile pallets and the additional
space required to maneuvre a fork-lift truck if
one is to be used. Sometimes flexible storage
systems are used which accommodate both small
and large objects. If this kind of system is
selected, the aisles must be planned for the largest
object. Therefore, it is advantageous from an
efficiency standpoint to group the largest objects
in one area. This will allow a hierarchy of aisle
sizes to be developed, which should increase the
efficiency of storage space use. Finally, the main
access passages to the storage rooms must all be
wide enough to accommodate the largest object
in the collections.
Access aisles within the collection storage
areas should always be kept clear. Where sliding
racks are used for the storage of paintings, mir-
rors, spears, etc., adequate space must be provided
for the racks when they are pulled out. A problem
sametimes arises when conditions in the storage
area become overcrowded and the space that is
necessary to slide out the racks is taken over for
additional storage space. This makes it very diffi-
cult to use the rack storage and creates extremely
hazardous conditions for the staff and for the
artefacts in that area.
T h e frequency with which collection objects
are removed for exhibition, loan, conservation, or
research is another important consideration. In
addition, it is necessary to assess whether actuaI
retrieval or visual access is the most important
criteria to be satisfied. Earlier, under the ‘Acces-
sibility’ portion of this section, an example was
given of a bedspread and quilt collection for
which there was a constant demand for visual
access. In that instance this was the most import-
ant criterion. If there are relatively few requests to
look at collection artefacts, then the expense of
‘see-through’containers or unusual storage-display
systems is unnecessary. A good example of this
is rug storage. In a large rug collection, where
there is no frequent demand to look at the
individual rugs, they should be stored in the way
that is best from a conservation standpoint and
allows for their easy retrieval-in this particular
case, rolled on long poles (see Figures 16, 17, 18
and 21 in Section V).
Although the museum should never make any
serious compromises concerning the conservation
of its collections, all of the collection artefacts
should be evaluated so that successful storage
compromises between conservation, visual acces-
sibility and retrieval can be arrived at.
 I11
This section deals with protection of the museum
collections while they are in the collection storage
areas.The security hazards discussed include theft
and vandalism, fire and other major catastrophes.
Because of the extraordinary losses suffered
by museums through theft and misappropriation,
vandalism, fire and flooding, the International
Committee on Museum Security was established
in 1974 as part of the International Council of
Museums. The Committe produced a book entitled
Museum Security in 1977.‘This book and T h e
Guarding of Cultural Propert$ deal with impor-
tant security matters, such as the delegation of
responsibility for security,establishing and train-
ing security staff, details about mechanical and
electrical security devices, etc.,which are beyond
the scope of this handbook.
Certain security risks increase considerably
when an object is in the storage area. Periodic
inspections of the exhibition gallery areas, a rou-
tine task carried out by museum security staff
on a regular basis, affords a security protection
that is not readily available to objects in storage.
W h e n an object is being studied or conserved,
the person working on it is aware of where it
is and assumes some degree of responsibility for
its safety? That is, some person is paying particular
attention to that object. W h e n collections are
being transferred from one museum to another,
special precautions generally are taken to ensure
their safety. It is only in the storage area that
security might possibly be taken for granted. Some
storage areas are both vast and understaffed.They
are examined infrequently, and such potential
threats to the collection as a roof leak, air-condi-
tioning failure,or fire could grow to considerable
dimensions before being discovered. In addition,
the loss of an object,possibly through theft,could
go undetected for months, or even years. For all
these reasons, periodic inspection of all storage
areas,the general security of the collection storage
facilities,and rigidly enforced policies on access
to the collections take on paramount importance
in the preservation of museum colIections.
Overcrowded or poorly organized collections
will compromise the effectiveness of this visual
inspection because the signs of tampering or miss-
ing objects cannot be as easily detected by the
guards or the curatorial staff. Therefore, it is
Security
extremely important that the collection storage
areas be arranged in an orderly fashion, with
adequate space to house the collection artefacts.
Security aspects of physical planning
The physical planning of storage areas, their rela-
tionship to other areas within the collection storage
facilities, and their relationship to other museum
areas is critical to the control of theft or vandal-
ism.Visitors to the storage areas should always
be accompanied by a curator and should pass
through the registration and holding area as a
control entry point, as shown in Figure 1 and
discussed in Section I on Planning. Building and
fire codes require emergency exits, and it is often
possible for unauthorized people to gain entry
if precautions are not taken. Alarm systems and
television monitoring are two possibilities, but
they are relatively expensive solutions.
Good planning and design of the physical
facility can, in many cases, eliminate the need
for these elaborate and costly electrical and me-
chanical control devices. Some storage systems
can add another level of security. For instance,
many high-density mobile storage systems can be
locked together, preventing access to the contents
when they are not in use. Many cabinet or drawer
systems also can be provided with locks. These
specific storage systems are discussed and illustra-
ted in Section V.The philosophical departure from
an ‘out-of-bounds’and ‘secure’ storage area
brought about by a desire for ‘visible’storage has
brought with it new security problems relative to
safe-guardingthe museum’s collection. This sub-
ject has been discussed in Section 11.
1. International Committee on Museum Security, M u s e u m
Security, Paris, International Council of Museums,
1977.
2. Rostick, op. cit.
3. A new Unesco technical handbook, Conservation
Standards for Works of Art in Transit and on Exhib-
ition. deals in detail with this subject. It is also dealt
with in Museums, Imagination and Education. Vol. XV
in the Unesco ‘Museums and Monuments’ series.
 Security
Protection against
theft and vandalism
The following is a general description of the
basic types of protection of collection storage
facilities using mechanical and electrical security
devices. The types of protection described are
broken down into the following categories: peri-
meter protection, interior protection, object prc-
tection, trap protection and auxiliary systems.
Although w e are concerned here with protection
of the collection storage facilities,many of these
devices must be used in other parts of the museum
in order to provide protection for the storage
areas. It is very important that the security of
the entire museum be considered so that the
security system for the collection storage areas
is co-ordinated with the systems for the rest of
the building.
Perimeter protection is used to prevent access
to the interior of the museum. Here, attention is
concentrated on the doors, windows, roofs, venti-
lation ducts and penetrable walls. The exterior of
the museum should be guarded against mechan-
ical forced entry, and windows and doors should
be made resistant to this approach. There are
many types of electrical and electronic protection
devices for the perimeter of the building, most
of which are included in the list below:
Magnetic contact switches on doors and movable
windows.
Metal foil tape which is glued around the edges
of windows or other openings.
Built-inwires in glass windows or doors.
Piezo-electric glass-breaking sensors, which are
sensitive to high frequency mechanical vibra-
tions generated by cutting and breaking glass.
Vibration detectors, such as piezo-electric devices
or contact microphones implanted in walls,
ceilings, or floors,to sense mechanical vibra-
tions.
Inertial vibrations sensors installed on a wired
fence.
Photoelectric eyes, where a field of active infra-
red light or laser beams is used to provide a
screen of protection.
Absorption radar systems.
Pressure-sensitive underground cables used to
sense pressure or vibrations caused by people
walking on the ground near-by.
Magnetic induction systems,which consist of two
parallel cable loops hidden under the ground.
Access control by remote door control, where
sensory devices monitor the conditions of door
openings.
Interior protection systems are required in the
event that the perimeter protection systems have
failed to prevent penetration or if a potential thief
has concealed himself in the building until after
it is closed to the general public. Simple mech-
anical systems such as locks for doors are import-
ant devices which should be employed to close
23
off collection storage areas from the other mu-
seum areas. Electronic and electrical systems that
can be employed for interior protection include
magnetic contact switches on doors,built-inwires,
vibration detectors, contact mats installed under
rugs or carpeting, television surveillance, micro-
wave motion detection, absorption radar, ultra-
sonic motion detection, absorption ultrasonic
systems,photoelectric eyes, and passive infra-red
devices that are used to detect moving objects
emit thermal radiation.
Object protection is generally used in the
exhibition areas rather than in the collection
storage spaces, although special circumstances or
highly valuable objects may require this extra
measure of protection within the storage areas.
Again, there are many electrical or electronic sys-
tems to be considered. Mechanical contact swit-
ches, magnetic reed switches, vibration switches,
displacement sensors, electromagnetic induction
devices, rate sensors, pressure sensors, proximity
sensors, audio sensors, ultrasonic devices, photo-
electric eyes and built-in wires are only some of
the systems that are available.
Trap protection systems refer to devices which
are used to give back-up-protection within a
secured area, while auxiliary systems include
periodic inspection by museum guards, hold-up
panic alarms, and telephone tape recordings.
Each museum has different security require-
ments and budgetary limitations,and the sophisti-
cated nature of many security systems makes them
difficult to understand and evaluate. Therefore,
it is recommended that each museum seek expert
consultation on the type of system which would
be best suited to its needs and budgets. In cases
where experts on museum security are not avail-
able, the museum staff might contact the local
police for advice.
Fire protection
Damage by fire is usually irreparable. For this
reason, protection from such a disaster should
be considered to be the most critical part of any
collection conservation programme. Whereas sto-
len or damaged objects often can be recovered
and repaired, fire can permanently eliminate the
object from the museum’s collection.Most museum
fires result from defective heating plants, unsafe
handling of flammable liquids,faulty wiring, and
careless smoking.A fire can take place when three
conditions are present: combustible materials,
oxygen, and a temperature high enough to cause
ignition of the material. If one of the conditions
is missing, a fire is impossible. Fires are divided
into three classes. Class A fires involve ordinary
combustibles such as paper, textiles and wood.
Class A fires can be extinguished by cooling,
blanketing, or wetting. Class B fires involve oils,
greases,paints and flammable liquids.These fires
24 Museum collection storage
can be extinguished by smothering or blanketing.
Class C fires are caused by energized electrical
equipment. Class C fires can be extinguished by
means of a non-conducting extinguishing agent.
T h e amount of damage caused by fires in
museums has increased for a number of reasons.
The use of electrical inStallations in museums has
become commonplace, and these are potential igni-
tion sources. Overcrowding of valuable objects is
another reason-even small fires can cause con-
siderable damage when they occur in overcrowded
storage areas. There is a lack of fire protection
engineering expertise, and not enough emphasis
is placed on prevention and responsibility.
FIRE D E T E C T I O N
There are two basic system types of fire detection.
O n e uses thermal detectors which respond to
heat. A fixed temperature heat detector triggers
st signal or alarm when the temperature rises
above a certain point. Another kind of thermal
detector reacts to a sudden increase in temperature
but does not respond When the temperature rises
slowly. These are called ‘rate-of-rise’detectors.
Smoke detectors react to aerosols which are
released during combustion.A photoelectric smoke
detector uses a light source which directs a beam
into a chamber. T h e presence of aerosols within
the chamber affects the light and triggers the
alarm. Ionization smake detectors measure the
concentration of particles by measuring variations
in electrical current caused by particles when
they are ionized. Phatoelectric smoke detectors
are relatively sensitive to smouldering fires, but
are slower to respond to smokeless flaming fires,
whereas ionization detectors respond quickly to
invisible products generated by flaming fire, but
react more slowly to smouldering fires.
FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT
Three basic types of fire extinguishment will be
discussed: sprinkler systems, gas systems and port-
able fire extinguishers. Each will be described
generally, and their advantages and disadvantages
examined.
Sprinkler systems
T o date, the most effective method of minimizing
the probability of fire loss is through the installa-
tion of a properly designed sprinkler system.
However, there is considerable disagreement on
the advisability of its use in collection storage
areas. T h e potential of water damage from these
systems has been greatly exaggerated by the
museum community, and this threat is generally
outweighed by the protection afforded. Each case
should be investigated on its o w n merits, but all
things considered, sprinklers probably offer the
best available protection for the entire collection.
Compartmentation, or storage of combustible
materials within individual cabinets, works very
well in conjunction with automatic sprinkler
systems. Although a sprinkler will not react to a
fire inside one of the cabinets, it will prevent the
fire from spreading to another cabinet. Compart-
mentation also protects other materials near by
from water spray in the event of a sprinkler being
discharged.
Where there are large amounts of combustibles
stored, or where high-rack storage is used, it is
necessary to install more than just ceiling level
sprinklers, and it is c o m m o n in high-rack w a r e
houses to install sprinklers within the racks them-
selves. A fire protection engineering consultant
should be called upon if special problems exist.
With automatic sprinkler systems, the sprinkler
heads are fused individually, and only those heads
which are exposed to temperatures in excess of
their operating point will be activated. Most fires
are controlled or extinguished by only a few
sprinkler heads. Of all fires in buildings with
sprinkler systems in the United States, 80 or 90
per cent are either controlled or extinguished with
less than ten sprinkler heads, and in many cases
it is only one or two heads that operate. Sprinkler
heads have the advantage of applying water only
in the area where the fire occurs, as opposed to
the total saturation technique employed by many
fire departments. W h e n considering the possible
water damage that can be inflicted by sprinkler
systems, a comparison of the alternatives should
be made. A n automatic sprinkler will discharge
water at an average of about 571/min. W h e n the
fire department must be resorted to, the hose
streams they use have flow rates of about 750-
9501/min. T h e water is not always applied in
the immediate area of the fire, and it has tre-
mendous force. The major concern of the firemen
is protecting near-by structures and preventing the
fire from spreading; they are not always careful
about h o w water is applied in the area where
the fire is occurring. It has been a long-time dream
of fire protection engineers to develop a sprinkler
head which activates when there is a fire and
shuts d o w n when the fire is extinguished. N o w
there are some sprinkler heads available which
have this capability and which have demonstrated
fairly good performance under carefully controlled
test conditions. However, their use in museums
should be considered carefully until more field
experience is obtained.
There are special types of extinguishing sys-
tems which are referred to as pre-action, or dry
systems. The sprinkler piping is dry. A small
amount of air pressure is maintained in the
sprinkler piping, and the water is held back at
a remote point by a deluge valve. T h e deluge
valve is controlled by a smoke detector or a heat
detector in the protected area. W h e n the detector
is activated, it causes the deluge valve to be
released and the water enters the piping system,
 Security
but no water is discharged at this point because
the sprinkler head has not fused. All the heads
are closed heads, just as in any other system, so
that even if a false alarm comes from the smoke
detector, water simply enters the piping, thereby
changing the dry system to a wet one. Because
of the built-in safeguard of a dry sprinkler system,
if someone is working in an area equipped with
this system and physically damages a sprinkler
head, or the piping, water will not be discharged-
it is being held in check by the remote deluge
valve. T w o conditions are necessary to activate
the system: enough heat or smoke to activate the
detector, and high enough temperatures in the
area of the fire to fuse the sprinkler head, thereby
causing water to be discharged. In addition, the
pressure in the piping is monitored mechanically.
A loss in pressure due to a leak or damage in the
piping causes an alarm to be sounded, thus
affording an additional safeguard. These systems
require a greater degree of maintenance and care
than do conventional sprinkler systems, and, like
any equipment, they are only as good as the
maintenance procedures that are employed in their
care. However, this type of system should be
strongly considered when there is the potential
of the collection being damaged by water.
Sprinklers are inappropriate for some storage
areas, such as small rare book or valuable manu-
script rooms, print storage rooms, or rooms
containing valuable stamp collections. In these
areas, systems employing fire quenching gases are
a better solution.
Gas systems
T w o kinds of gas fire extinguishing system will
be discussed here. O n e is a carbon dioxide system,
which is a total flooding system utilizing a supply
of CO2 in fixed pipes. T h e COZ, which leaves no
residue, reduces the oxygen in the air, thereby
eliminating one of the three critical elements which
must be present to sustain a fire. Since this system
depletes the oxygen content beyond that which
sustains life, immediate evacuation of people from
the area is critical. Carbon dioxide is both in-
visible and odourless, and for this reason, some
CO2 systems include a fog agent to alert personnel
that the gas is present in the air. This fog reduces
visibility to the point of disorientation, which can
create a state of panic. It is important that every-
one working in areas using this kind of fire
extinguishing system be made aware of h o w
dangerous the gas is, that alarm signals are
installed to alert them before the gas is emitted
from the system, and that everyone understands
where all the exits are in the event of disorienta-
tion due to fog.
Halon, referred to as a ‘special extinguishing
agent’, has similar quenching properties but is not
quite as toxic to h u m a n beings. It can be used
to protect objects of extreme value stored in a
2S.
small room, perhaps a stamp vault or something
similar. O n e system has been devised in which
a series of metal cabinets are connected internally
to a Halon system. If sprinklers in that general
area of the room are set off by a fire, the Halon
system is activated within the storage cabinets.
Halon is extremely expensive compared to
other extinguishing agents-in fact, it is about
eighty times more than the cost per pound for
carbon dioxide. An additional disadvantage is
that its extinghishing potential is related to the
concentration of agent, and one cannot be assured
that a class A fire (a fire involving textiles or
paper), would be extinguished with a concentra-
tion of less than 20 per cent by volume of Halon.
It is commonly recognized that a point of concen-
tration above 7 per cent by volume is not safe
for h u m a n occupancy except for an extremely
short period of time. Halon is a relatively clean
agent, but in order to guarantee extinguishment
of class A materials, it must be installed in higher
concentrations than those usually installed. The
effects of Halon gas on different materials are
now being tested.
O n e can achieve some degree of control with
low concentrations, say a range of 5-7 per cent,
but at this concentration flames are merely
knocked down, and it is possible for glowing
embers to continue smouldering. Opening the
door to the storage area for investigation will
deplete the agent concentration. T h e fresh air
which rushes in m a y rekindle the fire, which
will remain unchecked because the extinguishing
system has been discharged. This experience has
occurred many times when Halon systems have
been tested.
Another negative feature of Halon systems
is a tendency to activate unnecessarily. In essence,
they are false-alarm prone and should definitely
be cross-zoned to two different sensors, one for
smoke and one for heat. They should also be
wired to an abort switch with a delayed alarm
signal. This feature will prevent unnecessary
discharging of the system, since a fire can often
be controlled by the museum security staff using
portable extinguishers.
Portable fireextinguishers
The availability of unobstructed portable fire ex-
tinguishers is critical in the attempt to stop an in-
cipient fire. Building codes specify the minimum
number of extinguishers for a particular area,
but these specifications are based only on the
value of the structure and the level of human
occupancy, not the value of the contents. There-
fore, it is clear that the number of extinguishers
for collection storage areas should exceed the
minimum specified in the building codes.
There are four basic types of fire extinguisher.
Soda ash extinguishers have become obsolete
because soda ash is damaging to collection objects
26 M u s e u m collection storage
and the cylinders are too cumbersome. High
pressure water extinguishers are good for class A
fires but can cause water damage.Carbon dioxide
extinguishers do not cause water damage,but the
gas is a hazardous material and can damage glass.
Dry chemical extinguishers can be used for class
A, B, and C fires. Therefore, no time need be
wasted determining what kind of fire it is. The
dry chemical leaves a powdery residue that does
not damage most collection objects. It is the best
of all extinguishers on the basis of its weight
versus extinguishing capacity.
Cylinders range in weight from 0.9to 9 kg.
-The ease of handling is a critical consideration.
The cylinders should be light enough to be used
by any of the museum staff.
The local fire-departmentexperts should test the
available water pressure and provide assistance
with the museum’s fire protection training pro-
gramme. Ideally, fire detection and alarm equip-
ment should be installed which is connected to
a central station that will automatically alert the
fire departement in the event of an emergency,
since the possibility always exists that, in spite
of the type of fire protection equipment employed
by the museum, its help may be required. As
stated earlier, water from fire hoses causes almost
as much damage as the fire itself. By establishing
a good rapport with the fire department and
familiarizing it with the collection storage areas
and the value of the collections stored therein.
the firemen may be more sensitive to the method
by which they attempt to stop the fire.
In summary, the first aim of any fire protec-
tion programme is to prevent the fire from starting.
Detection and prevention from spreading is second
in order of importance and, finally, a way must
be devised to extinguish the fire with the least
amount of harm being done to the remaining
collections.
Other hazards
The last type of security to be addressed comprises
conflicts, war, or natural disasters. Some current
opinions hold that wartime measures are a waste
of both time and money, because if a major war
should occur, rapid and total destruction will be
the result. However, in many countries collec-
tions have suffered losses due to local wars, smaIl
civil uprisings,and lootings. Contingency planning
for this sort of emergency is necessary.
In order to mitigate losses under such circum-
stances,a list of the objects to be evacuated first
should always be kept in the storage areas. All
members of the department concerned should have
copies of this list. In addition, drawers or boxes
containing the pieces of utmost importance should
be clearly marked for easy identification in the
event of an emergency. All of the museum staff
should know the whereabouts of these especially
valuable objects so that,in the event of a disaster,
their help may be enlisted to save them.
IV
In the broadest sense of the term, conservation
of museum collections is the protection of objects
against destruction by man of by the environment.
The conservation of museum collections in storage
is only one part of their total care, but it is one
of the most significant. Collection objects should
be in a proper environment at all times,no matter
where they are located in the museum. Conditions
of erratically changing humidity and temperature,
as well as dust, pollution, stagnant air, and light
can contribute enormously to the ultimate destruc-
tion of museum collections.Therefore,the environ-
mental conditions of collection storage facilities
are just as important as those of the rest of the
museum.
It is beyond the scope of this handbook to
discuss the conservation requirements for every
type of artefact which a museum’s collections may
include. W e will discuss generally the factors
affecting the environment of the storage areas and
the possible effect of this environment on collec-
tion objects.Later in this section there is a general
listing of materials with their tolerances to environ-
mental changes, and a list of questions which
should be answered before collection storage
systems are selected.
While it is unrealistic to expect a moratorium
on collecting until all museum storage facilities
have been upgraded technically, there are many
measures which can be taken immediately to
improve existing facilities in order to meet mod-
erate conservation standards. These same con-
siderations are important when new facilities are
being planned. This section includes a discussion
of some problems which arise as a result of an
inadequate environment and some recommenda-
tions for simple safeguards.
There are many reasons for the inadequate
physical environments found in museum storage
areas. The collection storage facilities are usually
the only areas not accessible to the general public,
and since many museums are more concerned
with the parts of the building seen by the public,
collection storage facilities are often relegated to
the bottom of the list of areas to be improved.
When a new museum is being constructed, funds
sometimes run out because of inadequate planning,
and when this happens the storage areas are often
the first to be cut. Similarly, when a building is
Conservation
being renovated or is undergoing an expansion
programme, before the storage areas can be up-
graded or moved to a more desirable location,the
money runs out. Potential donors are far more
likely to give money for a theatre,exhibition area,
or other publicly used museum area than for the
collection storage facilities.
Poor storage areas also may be the result of
a simple lack of knowledge about what constitutes
a proper storage environment. This kind of
inexperience often is found in small museums or
museums in developing countries which may have
limited access to technical information regarding
the conservation of museum objects.
T w o major factors determine the criteria for
an adequate physical environment in the storage
areas-air-conditioning and lighting. First we will
address the issue of air-conditioning.
Air-conditioning
Air-conditioning,in this instance, includes tem-
perature and humidity control, ventilation, and
filtration to eliminate atmospheric pollutants such
as dust, chemicals and micro-organisms.
Energy conservation measures precipitated by
the recent energy crisis have encouraged museums
to allow temperatures to rise in the summer
months in order to reduce air-conditioning loads.
This creates a less than desirable atmosphere for
the storage of museum collections. The on-off
cycle of heating and cooling systems between day-
time use and night-time inactivity, a practice
adopted in order to conserve fuel, creates yet
another problem-considerable and rapid fluctua-
tions of temperature and relative humidity twice
each day. In general, fluctuations or extremes in
temperature can cause damage in several different
ways. A n increase in the temperature accelerates
the rate of chemical reactions (the rate of reaction
can double for each 10°C of temperature increase).
Therefore,higher temperatures increase the ageing
process of materials and can cause them to lose
various mechanical properties. For instance,
fibrous materials lose flexibility and become stiff
and embrittled. Some materials such as waxes,
resinous coatings and some plactics will soften:
others lose part of their substance and become
28 Museum collection storage
unnaturally hard; metal and some other types of
plastics will expand at these same high tempera-
tures. An additional result of high temperature is
a loss of viscosity, which results in seepage from
otherwise sealed joints. Extremely low tempera-
tures can cause materials to solidify and become
brittle, thereby increasing the danger of fracture
and cracking. Moisture condensation, which cor-
rodes various metals, also m a y take place at low
temperatures.
Slow and moderate changes in temperature,
however, are generally of secondary importance,
as long as the relative humidity is kept constant.
Removal of cold-conditioned objects to w a r m areas
should be done after a period of slow warm-up
in order to avoid condensation. The idea of
storing certain objects in a permanent deep-freeze
environment has long been proposed. This type
of storage would preserve some types of artefact
longer and helps to reduce the insect population.
If this storage technique is adopted, however, a
buffer room must be provided for the re-acclimat-
ization of such objects w h e n they are removed
from their cold storage environment for study or
display. Usually, one day for 1°C of difference
is required.
In the general storage areas the temperature
levels should be held within a range of 15" to
22°C. For energy conservation, the temperature
and humidity can vary slightly with the season,
but they must be programmed to change gradually
over the whole year, not abruptly. These factors
must be dealt with carefully when seasons change,
when objects are moved from storage to other
museum areas and, particularly, when they are
loaned to another museum.
Every museum should have a plan to control
the collection storage environment in the event
that energy curtailments or cut-offs occur. There
are many steps that can be taken to minimize
the changes in temperature and relative humidity
should this problem arise. S o m e of these steps
include closing of all vents, doors, windows, or
any other passages which allow an exchange of
air between the interior and the exterior: storing
objects in cases; bagging objects that cannot be
stored in cases; and making a priority list of
organic objects in terms of their critical responses
to environmental change.
Change of relative humidity levels within the
storage areas is perhaps the most complex problem
and, in most cases, it is the most important of
all the air-conditioning factors. It is well k n o w n
that fairly low or very high relative humidity
levels can have a disastrous effect on certain
materials. Since the relative humidity is affected
directly by the temperature level, this adds to
the significance of maintaining relatively uniform
temperature control within all parts of the
storage area, sun-exposedor not, that are supplied
from the same source of air.
Most museum objects are composed entirely,
or in part, of materials which react to a change
of moisture content in the air. This reaction
manifests itself by a dimensional change in the
object. Therefore, it is ideal from a conservation
standpoint to maintain as constant a level of relat-
ive humidity as possible. Extensive or rapid chan-
ges result in deformation,cracks, flaking, splitting,
etc. Too high humidity results in mould growth
and corrosion. Too low humidity causes embrittle-
ment and the possible accumulation of static
electricity which attracts corrosion-causing dust.
Objects which are composed of cellulosic
materials (wood, paper, cotton, jute and linen,
etc.) experience great dimensional changes when
the relative humidity changes. Other sensitive
materials include protein substances, which are
found in animal, bird, fish, and insect collections:
also included in this category are materials such
as silk, wool, parchment, leather, fur, feathers,
horn, bone and ivory. M a n y m o d e m materials
such as nylon, polyester and polyethylene are
quite stable and absorb very little moisture.
Metals, although they do not take u p moisture,
can deteriorate when high humidity activates the
presence of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide,
chlorine, etc., and acids that evolve from wood.
Ferrous metals, for example, rust at higher levels
of relative humidity. In the presence of airborne
chloride contaminants, copper and its alloys can
develop certain conditions,such as bronze disease,
which are activated at higher relative humidities.
Excavated bronzes commonly suffer from this
disease. Silver will form sulphide deposits at high
humidities. Gold and platinum are theoretically
inert, but the alloys of gold m a y not be.
Stone objects are porous, allowing moisture
to penetrate, so they too are not completely
impervious to environmental action. If excavated,
both stone objects and pottery m a y grow salt
'whiskers'. S o m e ancient glass objects also respond
to some extent to moisture levels, by either weep-
ing or crazing.
It is difficult to select a relative humidity
level which satisfies all the components of a multi-
component structure. Paintings are subject to
stresses and strains, particularly paintings on
wood. Furniture is likely to warp or crack. Ethno-
graphic objects of complex construction are sub-
ject to deformation and breakage. Objects which
are made up of many different kinds of material
are particularly difficult to protect. O n e solution
is to apply moisture-barrier coatings to the
hygroscopic parts of the object which are more
susceptible to change. However, some curators
m a y object to this approach because it will alter
the object's natural state and perhaps diminish
its value for research. M a n y objects have already
stabilized at some particular level of relative hum-
idity, and if this level is maintained steadily, they
will survive without additional stresses.
In spite of the vital importance of environ-
mental quality for the preservation of the collec-
 Conservation
tions, it is often the most neglected of all aspects
of storage. This is so because so many museums
exist in converted buildings not originally designed
for this use. The collections generally end up in
attics or basements, which often are the worst
physical environments in buildings that are barely
adequate even in their best areas. Too high a level
of relative humidity in the building during winter
months,when the outside temperature is low,can
cause severe conservation problems-in time,the
destruction of the building itself unless suitable
precautions have been incorporated into the build-
ing structure. Over a year’s time,a slow drift of
the relative humidity level is permissible in order
to accommodate the reality of the building. For
instance,to maintain a stable environment natur-
ally and inexpensively, a museum may allow
indoor temperatures to fall as the outdoor tem-
peratures fall, thus maintaining a steady relative
humidity.
There are many simple methods of stabilizing
the object environment which are sometimes more
foolproof than sophisticated engineering methods.
In fact, these may be the only methods available
to small museums and museums in developing
nations. Polyethylene sheets can be used to cover
artefacts and protect them from dust or from
water in case of a leak. Care must be taken not
to seal things too tightly. This practice also helps
to stabilize the relative humidity levels surround-
ing the individual objects. A light covering of
polyethylene sheet, with cotton webbing between
it and the artefact will maintain a more stable
relative humidity when the outside environment
changes drastically. The question of sealing arte-
facts in polyethylene and how polyethylene can
be used in the acclimatization of artefacts needs
further investigation, but so far this practice has
been successful.
Attention also has been given to micro-climate
control, i.e. selecting portions of the collection for
special environmental control. This method may
be used to control more effectively and economi-
cally the relative humidity of individual cases or
small rooms. This can be accomplished by utili-
zing such substances as silica gel or some other
product which is conditioned to contain moisture.
In Section V, Figure 11 shows examples of
cabinets which can be sealed to control the inter-
nal environment. Figure 24 shows how even a
sliding rack storage system can be enclosed to
control its internal environment. The high-density
mobile storage systems shown in Figures 27-33
also can be sealed when they are in a closed
position. If it becomes apparent when planning
the collection storage facilities that the environ-
mental control of the entire storage area is not
practical, small rooms or vaults can be designed
with separate mechanical equipment in order to
control the relative humidity for vulnerable ob-
jects.
29
HUMID1 T Y / T E M P E R A T U R E
REQUIREMENTS
The recommended humidity/temperature require-
ments outlined in Table 1 represent the most
widely accepted standards. However, because
there is some disagreement about certain recom-
mendations, the table is being reviewed at this
time.
The standards listed should be used with some
discretion since they describe optimum conditions.
Safe environmental limits depend on the past
history of the specimen, its structure and the
conditions to which it has already become accli-
matized. For example, if an object is fashioned of
wood from an arid region (and has never left that
region), its normal moisture content is much lower
than wood from the northern regions of America
or from Europe. It makes little sense to subject
that wood to the 50 per cent &5 per cent relative
humidity required for northern wood: 25-30per
cent relative humidity might be the optimum
humidity for wood from/in arid regions. Again,
stability is the most important part of environ-
mental control for the preservation of artefacts.
Filtration is often overlooked as a prime consi-
deration in the air-conditioningsystems. However,
fine particles of dust and other small particles can
cause a great deal of damage to certain artefacts.
The number of air changes per hour should be as
high in the storage areas as in the public galleries
in order to protect both the objects and the per-
sonnel who work there,especially if the chemicals
in sealed cases used to control insects or mould
leak out into the air. Concrete walls,marine air,
dust, and dirt brought in by the public also pose
problems. Some materials, like plywood and cer-
tain paint layers, produce harmful vapours.
Airlocks should be provided at the visitors’
entrances and between the service entrance and
the storage areas in order to minimize the amount
of dirt and toxic fumes that enter the building.
The loading dock should be kept clean,and truck
engines should be turned off. Crating and un-
crating creates dirt. For this reason, this work
should not be done in the storage areas, but in a
crating room. Another airlock should be provided
between the crating and storage areas to reduce
the infiltration of dust.Figure 1 in Section I illus-
trates the relationships between the various areas
in the collection storage facilities. Marine air,
generally rich in chlorides, is very destructive to
metallic objects. Therefore, special protection
must be provided for these objects whenever a
museum is located close to the sea.A good ventila-
tion system should remove dust and dirt particles
down to 1 or 2 microns, and methods should be
devised for easy and rapid monitoring of the
quality of air within the museum.
As a supplement to airlocks and filtration, a
daily cleaning schedule of floors and other un-
occupied surfaces should be established and
30 Museum collection storage

TABLE1. Humidity/temperature requirements for museum collections

Humidity tolerance
Material Dimensional response Susceptibility to mould
High Low

Paper 60 45 Rapid dryness and freezing cause loss of Extreme

(45 % optimum) flexibility

Stretched paper 60 45 Paper screens, drawings, pastels stretched Extreme

(critical low limit) on frames will tear from shrinkage in
dry atmosphere

Photographs,films 45 30 Rapid. Excessive humidity softens Extreme

(sometimes dissolves) gelatine.
Excessively dry, embrittlement of paper
and gelatine

Parchment, vellum Steady state Extremely rapid. Dryness causes loss of Moderate inherent
(55 %) flexibility alkalinity

Leather GO 45 Variable according to tanning process. Variable. Marked for

Very susceptible to shrinkage after wetting fine leathers

Fabric (natural fibres) 60 45 Inverted. Because of twisted fibres, fabrics Marked

shrink when fibres swell, relax when they
shrink. Silk and wool are more sensitive
to moisture damage than cotton or
linen. Painted textiles are most sensitive
to moisture changes

Bone, ivory 60 45 Very slow, except in thin sheets. Ivory is Negligible, except at
more susceptible to moisture damage than very high relative
bone or scrimshaw (outer bark left on humidity
scrimshaw providing buffer). Avoid hot
lamps in cases for emphasis lighting

Wood 60 45 Slow, varying with massiveness and Negligible, except at

(critical) moisture-barrier coatings. Affected by very high relative
weekly cycles, especially by seasonal cycles humidity

Painted wood 60 45 Dryness which causes shrinkage is Negligible, except at

(critical) especially damaging to objects in which very high relative
wood is the structural sqpport for other humidity
material, i.e. a painted wood panel.
W o o d sculpture,furniture, models, musical
instruments, and decorative objects may
also be coated with a gesso plaster, then
painted or gilded. These rigid coatings
are more or less unaffected by normal
fluctuations in humidity but if the wood
support shrinks, the coatings are
compressed, causing them to buckle or
blister and flake off. In extreme moisture
conditions (flood,condensation, wetting
of surface), gesso, glue joins, and some
paints m a y soften and dissolve

Manila, sisals feathers 60 45 In humidities below 30 per cent and Moderate

15 per cent relative humidity these
materials become very stiff and brittle.
They crush easily if handled. If left done
until normal conditions return, they will
absorb their normal moisture content and
reassume their normal physical character-
istics

Plastics Not normally responsive to humidity Some plastics will sup-

changes. However, some do respond port fungus growth at
dimensionally to temperature changes high relative humidity
 Conservation 31

Humidity tolerance
Material Dimensional response Susceptibility to mould
High Low

Metals (polished) 30, preferably lower No dimensional response to changes in

humidity. Metals can react dimensionally
to extreme changes in temperature.
United States Navy Department tests find
that no corrosion is present on steel
surfaces at 15 per cent relative humidity
or less. Corrosion does become evident
after nine months in 30 per cent relative
humidity. Corrosion is present after one
day in 90 per cent relative humidity

Brasses and bronzes do not tarnish at

15 per cent relative humidity or lower

Stone, stoneware, por- Generally most resistant to changes in

celain, lead, pewter relative humidity and temperature.
However, damage can occur in extreme
heat and in extreme cold and humidity
(freezing)

Glass 60 45 Generally resistant to normal environ-

mental change. Rapid rates of change in
relative humidity and temperature should
be avoided. Crizzled glass can be damaged
at very high and very low humidity
conditions

Archaeological m a - As dry as possible Archaeological objects which have been

terials:bronze, stone, long buried m a y have been infused with
ceramics, plaster, terra or corroded by salts which behave
cotta, low-fired earthen- hydroscopically. ‘Bronze disease’ can be
ware kept dormant in dry atmosphere

Source :The tabulation was prepared by William R.Leisher, Conservator, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.,
adopted in part from R. Buck, A Specificafionfor Museum Air-conditioning,December 1964 (Museum News Technical
Supplement No.5.)

strictly maintained. Maintenance of the storage ized, if necessary, and periodically treated with
area should be based on hygenic standards and, in appropriate insecticides.Here again, it is essential
particular, good isolation from the external atmo- that laboratory specialists be consulted to ensure
sphere. Before use, containers, cupboards, shelv- that the chemicals used are compatible with the
ings and even floors should be cleaned or steril- preservation of collection objects. Products hav-
ing harmful effects on human beings should be
TABLE2. Some critical relative humidity levels used with particular care.
Many storage areas are roughly built, with
Humidity tolerance inadequate finish. Concrete surfaces, especially
Material High Low
when new, can emit alkaline substances into the
atmosphere.This factor should be considered care-
Anatomical collection, apart from fully when collections are installed in newly con-
items embalmed 60 40 structed storage areas.
Archaeological specimens (hygro-
scopic items) 60 40
Ethnographic bark, cloth, basketry,
masks
Botanical specimens
60
60
40
40
Lighting
Insects 60 40
Lacquer 60 50 The effect of lighting on the conservation of
Painting, on canvas or wood 60 45 museum objects is a subject of ongoing research.
(50 optimum) This controversial issue has generated a great deal
Oriental screens 60 45 of disagreement among curators, much of which
(low is critical)
is based on opinion,not on empirical data. How-
Source :Leisher, op. cit.
ever, some general recommendations with regard
32 Museum collection storage
to use of light in the collection storage areas are
widely accepted and will be discussed here.
Most curators agree that natural light should
be eliminated from the storage areas because of
the obvious conservation, air-conditioning, and
security benefits that can be realized using this
approach. The level of any kind of ambient light
should be low-around 100 luxor (10 foot-can-
dles) for collections which are susceptible to light
damage. Ultraviolet absorbing filters should be
used when direct fluorescent lighting is present.
Because incandescent lamps and fluorescent lamp
ballasts emit heat, they should not be used inside
cabinets or drawers. T h e heat from the light or
ballast will raise temperature levels and affect
relative humidity in small enclosed spaces.
The solutions of using indirect, reflected light
or ultraviolet filtered light to protect museum
collections are commonly accepted practices, but
not enough information about the effects of light
is available to be sure that either provides ade-
quate protection. It was recently discovered that
during the first few hundred years of a painting’s
life, the layer of protective varnish actually be-
comes opaque faster in complete darkness than
it would if exposed to daylight which has been
filtered to exclude the ultraviolet spectrum. This
discovery points out the need to continue in-depth
studies so that lighting decisions will be based
on empirical data, not custom. The fact that light
gives an object ‘life’ in the exhibition areas is
acknowledged. However, the effect of lighting in
the storage areas must be carefully monitored.
Fumigation
No object should be placed in storage without a
preliminary examination and treatment, if neces-
sary, appropriate to both its nature and state of
preservation. Sometimes this treatment requires a
laboratory analysis, cleaning, dusting, fumigation,
and restoration by laboratory specialists. Certain
types of collection must have regular checking, a
factor that should be taken into consideration
when the decision is made regarding their location
within the storage room. A special marking system
would facilitate their identification and retrieval.
Almost all collections, even those assigned to
‘dead’storage, need some form of periodic check-
ing until scientists can devise gas-chromatographs
sufficiently sensitive to ‘sniff’ the return air for
evidence of any hidden growth of moulds, cock-
roaches, etc.
Where periodic or continuous fumigation is
necessary for a particular collection, storage
systems should be selected that allow for this and
at the same time prevent the fumes from entering
the occupied portions of the storage area. Even
very low concentrations of the fumes from certain
chemicals can be harmful to persons working
within the storage room. T h e containment of these
fumes is essential when people are handling collec-
tions in these areas on a day-to-daybasis.
Vibration
T h e potential damage caused to certain collections
by vibration must be considered carefully. Short
and long-range conservation problems due to
vibration arise with any mobile storage system,
including sliding racks, high-density mobile sys-
tems where large carriages containing many
objects are moved to gain access to the individual
objects, or any drawer system which produces
vibrations by opening and closing the drawers.
Mobile systems must be chosen carefully. They
must be designed, constructed, and used in such
a manner as to minimize the effect of vibration
o n collection objects.
Another important consideration is the effect
on the objects of vibration from outside sources,
such as subways, trains, automobiles, etc. This
is a subject where very little research has been
done. It should be considered carefully when
locating and designing a n e w museum facility
and when selecting suitable storage systems for
museums which are experiencing this problem.
Conservation factors
that affect selection of storage systems
The beginning of this section focused on the
ways that the environment of the storage areas
affect the objects, artefacts, or specimens stored
within them, and the critical temperature and
relative humidity requirements for certain mate-
rials. As stated earlier, it is beyond the scope of
this handbook to list the critical requirements
for each type of object that could be contained
in a museum’s collections. However, a check-list
can be used to determine the critical factors which
must be considered when selecting a storage sys-
tem for any group of objects. If the museum
staff finds questions they cannot answer, then
some outside help should be sought. M a n y of the
items will not apply to specific types of collection.
An attempt has been made to compile a compre-
hensive list so that factors that could seriously
affect the storage of collection objects will not
be overlooked.
H o w sensitive is the object to light? If lighting is
a concern, what level of light is acceptable
and for what period of time? Is the object
more susceptible to certain areas of the light
spectrum?
For instance, prints and drawings are
extremely light sensitive. Studies have shown
that the bluer the light, the more harmful
it is and in theory light restricted to a colour
range of yellow-orange to deep red m a y cause
virtually no damage to pigments. Light also
 Conservation
can be very harmful to many other collections
including,but not limited to, costumes, textiles,
ivories, some ethnographic collections, paint-
ings, and even to certain biological specimens
preserved in alcohol and stored in glass jars.
Each group of objects must be considered with
regard to its particular reaction to light.
How sensitive is the object to different levels of
relative humidity, or frequent changes in the
relative humidity?
Relative humidity may be extremely impor-
tant to certain collections such as paintings,
furniture, prints, drawings, silver (?), photo-
graphic films, metals, etc. T h e metal tops of
glass jars used to store biological specimens
m a y be affected by a high level of relative
humidity, although the actuel specimens m a y
not be. Optimum levels should be determined
for each type of collection.
H o w sensitive is the object to different tempera-
ture levels or frequent changes in tempera-
ture? W h a t are the acceptable ranges for
temperature (minimum and maximum, and
over what period of time)?
It m a y be necessary to allow the tempera-
ture of the storage areas to drift over a long
period of time as a result of seasonal changes.
It is important to determine a particular collec-
tion’s tolerance to this change.
H o w sensitive is the object to dust and other
pollutants in the air? Are there particular
chemical fumes to which the object is par-
ticularly sensitive? Textiles and many other
materials are harmed by dust that might
accumulate on them. This requires either well-
filtered air or protection from the dust by
the method of storage.
H o w sensitive is the object to particular stresses
that it might encounter in a stored condition,
i.e. stress from hanging or folding textiles,
or the crushing of delicate ornaments on
dolls, etc?
Are there certain materials to which the object
is particularly sensitive and with which it
should never come in contact?
Contact with certain materials should be
avoided. For instance, ivories should never
come in contact with rubber pads, rubber
adhesive, iron, copper alloys, or coloured
materials. Even plastic coat-hangersshould be
checked carefully when they are used to hang
costumes. Each category of collection objects
should be considered carefully to determine
the substances or materials that should be
avoided so that they are eliminated by the
choice of a storage system. It is even possible
that certain objects in the museum collections
33
m a y emit substances that are harmful to other
objects stored close by.
H o w often should the object be examined for
conservation purposes to determine mould or
insect infestation or the level of alcohol in
specimen jars?
H o w sensitive would the object be to accidents
involving water, excessive temperatures (both
heating and freezing)?
H o w susceptible is the object to insect or ver-
min damage? M a n y ethnographic or biological
collections are particularly susceptible to attack
from insects or vermin. T h e storage system
may need to be designed to allow for periodic
or continuous fumigation.
H o w sensitive is the object to vibration? All types
of vibration should be considered, from exter-
nal sources such as trains, subways, cars,
etc. to the movement of drawers or mobile
storage systems.
A n example is pastel drawings, which are
extremely sensitive to movement and therefore
cannot be stored in mobile systems which
would cause vibration.
H o w inflammable or susceptible to fire damage
is the object? T h e inflammability of many
objects made of paper, wood, etc., is obvious,
but that of the alcohol used in the preserva-
tion of many biological collections should not
be overlooked. T h e inflammability of the
storage system itself should also be considered,
even if the objects stored within it are not a
problem.
Does the value of particular objects warrant
additional security above that provided for
the general collection?
This might apply to jewellery or silver
collections or other collections that might be
highly saleable or easily concealed.T h e overall
level of security of the entire storage area,
along with the value of a particular collection,
will determine whether or not additional
security is needed.
Will the collection expand, and if so, at what
rate?
H o w visually accessible must the collection be for
examination by scholars, students, researchers,
designers, etc.?
H o w often must the objects be moved from the
collection and taken somewhere else? In addi-
tion to answering the preceding questions, in
order to determine the best storage system,
the following factors must also be considered:
H o w m u c h space is available for the storage
systems?
H o w m u c h money is available for the purchase
or construction of storage systems?
V Storage systems
This section of the handbook deals with the design
of storage systems to house museum collections.
A number of factors should influence the selec-
tion of a particular type of storage system, many
of which have been discussed in preceding sec-
tions. The section on ‘Planning’ explained how
the proportionment of a museum’s resources
among its various roles determines how much of
these resources will be available for the collection
storage facilities and the individual storage sys-
tems. The funds that are available for the col-
lection role will determine how sophisticated the
storage systems can be, what materials they will
be made from, the type of construction, etc. The
section on ‘Records, Accessibility and Retrieval’
focuses on three major and related issues which
must be considered when selecting appropriate
storage systems: how good collection records will
affect accessibility and retrieval requirements;
how the need for visual accessibility to the col-
lections will affect the choice of a storage system;
and finally, how the choice of the storage system
is affected by how often objects must be physi-
cally removed from the collection storage areas.
The section on ‘Security’ showed how certain
storage systems provide additional security within
the collection storage areas. In the section on
‘Conservation’,the general conservation require-
ments of different types of object were discussed,
and the way in which these special requirements
relate to specific storage systems was explained.
For instance, extremely fragile objects should not
be stored in mobile storage systems. Objects that
are very sensitive to the environment may require
additional environmental protection,which can be
provided by the use of certain types of storage
system.The quality of the overall environment of
the collection storage areas should determine
whether objects can be stored on open shelving
as opposed to enclosed storage systems. If it is
necessary to place certain objects within a con-
tainer before they are stored, this, too, will affect
the selection of an appropriate system, because it
is the container, not the object, which must be
accommodated by the system.
There are many different generic types of stor-
age system illustrated within this section. In a few
instances,some basic modifications and variations
to the systems are also shown. Generally, many
others are possible.Each museum will have unique
requirements for the storage of its particular
collection, and modifications to some of the sys-
tems illustrated may suit its needs. The draw-
ings are intended to be used only as guidelines.
The specific dimensions for wood or steel m e m -
bers have been omitted, since they may vary
depending on standard practices of dimensioning
within a particular country or the availability of
different materials. The structural support mem-
bers also may vary depending on the weight of
the objects to be stored. The overall dimensions
of each system should depend on the size, shape
and weight of the objects to be stored and the
availability of space within the storage area. Stor-
age areas with high ceilings allow for higher
storage units. Most of the units can be modified
in size to accommodate the storage require-
ments of the unique materials found in a par-
ticular collection. For instance, a storage system
designed for rugs should be proportioned to suit
the needs of a particular rug collection. The same
is obviously true for many other types of collec-
tion, such as paintings, furniture, archaeological
and biological specimens,prints and drawings.
O n the surface it would appear that it is
always less expensive to make your own storage
systems, but this is not necessarily true. Some
types of storage systems lend themselves so readily
to commercial manufacture that it is not reason-
able for a museum to make its own. One example
of this is the simple steel rack and shelving
widely used in warehouses for industrial purposes.
This type of storage is both flexible and inex-
pensive, and it serves very well for open shelf
storage.Some museums are located in areas where
commercially manufactured systems are not avail-
able to them. Because this problem exists, we
have provided drawings and descriptions of some
simple solutions for various storage needs which
can be made locally, either by the museum’s car-
pentry staff or with outside help. A museum
should investigate and compare the costs of cons-
tructing the storage system using museum staff
versus using an outside firm.It is possible that the
efficiency with which the work can be done by
an outside firm,or the overhead of the museum’s
operation, may actually allow for cheaper fabric-
ation outside the museum.
 Storage systems
Figure 2 shows variations of adjustable metal
shelving. There are many adjustable metal shelv-
ing systems available which are appropriate for
open-shelf storage. By placing the shelving units
back to back, and leaving access space on both
sides, the depth of the shelving unit is doubled.
This is referred to as a 'double-loaded' system.
The upper sketch illustrates a double-loaded sys-
tem using two 60-cm-deepshelves, which can
create 1.2-m-deepshelving when the shelves of
both units are aligned.' The lower sketch shows
a double-loadedsystem using 30-cm-deepshelving.
The relatively narrow shelves are desirable when
small objects or medium-sized specimen jars are
to be stored, because easy access to the back of
the shelf can be achieved.
The use of these two different systems in
combination would allow the museum to have
shelving depths of 30 cm, 60 cm, 90 c m and
1.2m by lining up the individual shelves of these
two types of unit. This range of shelf width
allows for an efficient use of the shelf place. If
the shelves are too wide for the objects stored on
them, several objects may be placed in front of
one another, making it difficult to reach objects
stored at the back of the deep shelves. Using
narrower shelves for smaller objects can eliminate
this problem.
Very small objects generally are best stored
in boxes to increase the efficiency of the system,
because a disproportionate amount of space is
required above a small object in order to see it
at the back of the shelf.Boxing small objects also
allows for easier retrieval, since many small
objects can be removed from the system at one
time. Many items put on the shelves require
special containers, such as biological specimens
stored in preservatives in jars or delicate speci-
mens which must be stored in specially con-
structed boxes or trays. The width of the shelves
and the vertical spacing between them must
then be planned to accommodate these special
containers.
Standard systems extend to approximately 2 m
in height, but systems up to 6 m can be used if
access by ladder is acceptable. Ladder-access stor-
age may be adequate for items which must be
retrieved infrequently, but where the space is
available, it is always preferable to have all col-
lection objects accessible without the use of a
ladder, which adds to the potential for damage
through handling. Shelving that is visually acces-
sible also allows periodic inspection of the col-
lection objects, a decided advantage from a con-
servation standpoint.
The vertical support members of most manu-
factured systems consist of steel angles perforated
to receive bolts or brackets which secure the
shelves in place. The spacing of these vertical
support members generally varies from 1.2 to
1.8 m, depending on the system. Heavy-duty
industrial systems are available with a very much
35
greater span, but few museum objects need the
load capacity of these heavy-duty systems. Some
exceptions might be large stone artefacts, archi-
tectural fragments of buidings, large pieces of
furniture, etc. Since extremely heavy floor load-
ing will result from efficiently used shelving
systems which store substantial artefacts, consid-
eration must be given to the structural capacity
of the building. Generally, 70 kg/0.95 mzis ade-
quate for most shelving systems extending to 2 m
heights, but higher systems,or systems containing
extremely heavy objects, may require floor load
capacities in excess of 70 kg/0.95 m2.
W h e n laying out a system of adjustable shel-
ving in a storage area, several factors should be
considered. The minimum width of the aisles is .
very important.Generally, a 1-maisle is adequate
for access and retrieval of small to medium-
sized objects stored in open shelving. However,
where large objects are stored on shelving up to
1.2m wide, the aisles must be wider to accommo-
date them.The perimeter of the storage room can
be lined with shelving units 30-60cm-deep,or if
there is insufficient area in the room the walls can
be lined with wire racks as shown in Figure 37.
Shelving constructed of 2-cm plywood has
definite structural limitations when heavy objects
are placed on it. Although there may be no imme-
diate deflection,it will occur in time, and exces-
sive deflection may even pull a shelf from its
supporting brackets. Wood shelving that has too
long a span eventually will sag from its own
weight. Plywood can emit harmful substances and
should be sealed carefully before use. The struc-
tural wood members, unless they are carefully
finished, may cause abrasions to textiles. An
advantage of wood shelving is that it is more
resilient than steel shelving, which is important
for the storage of certain types of object. In fact,
it may be necessary to add a layer of protective
padding to metal shelving to prevent chipping or
the movement of objects on the shelves caused
by vibrations.With either metal or wood shelving,
in areas which are particularly subject to earth-
quakes or urban areas where heavy traffic can
cause excessive vibrations, straps should be pro-
vided in front of each shelf to prevent the objects
from falling to the floor.
Open shelving places demands on the environ-
ment of the storage room, since all the objects
are subjects to this environment.Therefore humid-
ity, temperature, lighting, and especially air fil-
tration, must be considered carefully when open
shelving is to be used, lest the objects suffer
damage in their unprotected state. If humidity,
temperature and lighting are adequately controlled
but air filtration is a problem, certain objects can
be covered with polyethylene film.Hanging clear
plastic curtains in front of the shelves is another
method of achieving dust control, although this
1. Measurements were given in feet and inches in the
manuscript for this book.-Ed.
36
FIG.2. Adjustable shelving.
FIG.3. Plastic wire mesh shelving.
Museum collection storage
generally requires that an entire plastic sheet be
moved to gain access to a single artefact for in-
spection or retrieval.
Figure 3 illustrates shelving made from plastic
wire mesh. This system can be used to support
light-weight objects when air circulation is par-
ticularly important. Plastic wire mesh should be
used because contact with copper or other types
of metal screening m a y be damaging to the
objects. This is an economical shelving material
compared to metal or wood. The mesh shelving
can be supported by metal or w o o d vertical m e m -
bers. Straw artefacts such as baskets, etc. may
suitably be stored in this system.
Figure 4 shows a shelving system for film or
video cassettes. This is another variation of the
basic shelving system which has been adapted to
store film or video cassettes. T h e shelving consists
of two horizontal bars with U-shaped wire divi-
ders which separate the individual reels along the
length of the shelf. Other adaptations of this basic
shelf system are possible so that other types of
object can be stored. This kind of special adapta-
tion is usually confined to objects with the same
shape or dimension.
Figure 5 illustrates a shelving system consist-
ing of closely spaced metal shelving (approxi-
mately 10 c m apart) upon which solander boxes
containing prints and drawings are placed. The
prints or drawings are separated by acid-freetissue
in each solander box. W h e n the solander boxes
are removed from an individual shelf, they are
placed on waist-high shelf extensions which can
be pulled out from under the shelf. The contents
of the solander boxes can then be removed from
the box for viewing, or one or more solander
boxes can be placed on a movable cart and taken
to another area. T h e shelves extend to about 2 m
off the floor, allowing access without the use of
ladders. Shelving depth varies from 48 to 66 c m
depending o n the depth of the solander boxes to
be stored. T h e width of each unit also varies from
60 to 75 cm. Although the metal system shown
in the sketch is a manufactured one, similar sys-
tems could be constructed of wood, using the
same overall dimensions. A less expensive but
less convenient system also can be constructed
which contains fewer shelves. T w o or three solan-
der boxes would be stored on top of each other
on each shelf. This necessitates more movement
of the boxes if access to the middle or bottom box
is desired. In addition to being less convenient,
this increase in the movement of boxes is less
desirable from a conservation standpoint. The
strength of the individual storage boxes must be
sufficient to withstand stacking. Aisles should be
planned carefully to allow for the movement of
mobile carts carrying the boxes. Prints and draw-
ings on paper, manuscripts, etc. m a y all be suit-
ably stored in this kind of system.
Pastel drawings should not be stored in this
system because the kind of movement they would
 Storage systems 31

be subjected to is extremely destructive to this

medium. They should be stored in a fixed vertical
position in the storage room so that they can be
examined without movement.
Figure 6 shows a shelving storage system for
prints, drawings and large books, consisting of
closely spaced metal shelving, approximately
10 c m apart. A shelf depth of approximately
80 c m x 1.2 m wide should work well for the
storage of most large prints or drawings.However,
the size of the shelves should be determined by
the demands of the individual collection. The
total height of the unit can be approximately 2 m
and still allow for complete access without the
use of ladders. The roller at the front edge faci-
litates the removal of wood trays or large books
which are stored on the shelving. The wood trays
contain prints or drawings so that they do not
rest directly on the shelves. This is a specialized
system because of the inclusion of the roller on
the front edge of each shelf. Similar systems could
be made of wood, but they may be difficult to
fabricate and may not work as smoothly as this FIG.4. Special shelving for film or video cassettes.
metal system.

FIG.5. Shelving storage for prints and drawings in boxes.

FIG.6. Shelving storage for prints, drawings and large

books.
38 Museum collection storage

FIG.7. Combination open-shelving system and drawers.

FIG.8. Shallow wood open-drawer system.

FIG.9. Flat-drawer storage system.

 Storage systems
Figure 7 illustrates a combination of an open-
shelving system and drawers.The vertical supports
for the shelves are 60-m-wide x 2.4-m-highsheets
of 0.3-cmtempered masonite spaced 1.2m apart
which are tied together at the top and bottom
with a wood or metal brace. Steel angles are
attached to the vertical edges of the masonite. The
closely spaced holes in the steel angles allow
special clips to be attached which support ad-
justable wood shelves.The backs of the units are
covered with a 1.2-mx 2.4-msheet of 0.3-cm
tempered masonite. T w o units are then placed
back to back to form a total unit 1.2 m deep. In
order to accommodate especially deep objects, the
backs of the units can be cut out,creating a shelf
1.2 m deep X 1.2 m wide. The 60-cm x 1.2-m
shelves are made of 2-cm plywood. The shelves
can be covered with acid-free paper or padding,
depending on what is being stored. In order to
accommodate drawers in this system, sheets of
2-cm plywood are attached to the masonite. The
drawers slide in between 2.5c m x 2.5-cmwood
runners which are attached to the plywood.
Drawer bottoms are 0.3-cm tempered masonite
and the 9-cm-highsides,backs, and fronts of the
drawers are made of solid stock. Items taller than
9-cmcan be accommodated by leaving the drawer
above out of the unit to allow for the clearance
of these taller objects.
The flexibility of this system allows for the
storage of many different kinds of artefact in
the same area. Drawer or shelving units can be
adjusted, added, or removed as the needs of a
particular collection dictate. It is also an econo-
mical system which can be constructed by the
museum staff. Aisles should be carefully planned
to allow sufficient clearance for the movement of
large objects stored in these units.Since the width
of the aisles must be planned to accommodate the
largest item stored within a particular row of
units, this system may somewhat compromise the
efficent use of the storage space unless all the
large items are grouped within one particular area.
The system’s flexibility allows for very large
objects to be stored on the open shelves, with
small related materials stored in adjacent drawers.
A wide range of collection objects can be stored
in this adaptable storage system.
Figure 8 shows a shallow wood open-drawer
system consisting of vertical supports made of
1.2-mx 2.4-m sheets of 2-cm plywood. The
plywood sheets are tied together with a wood or
metal brace at the top and bottom.Attached to the
plywood are 2.5-cmX 2.5-cmwood strips, approx-
imately 0.6c m apart, which act as glides for the
drawers. The bottoms of the drawers are 0.3-cm
tempered masonite, and the sides, fronts, and
backs are made of 5-cm high solid stock. The
masonite bottom of each drawer projects approxi-
mately 2.5 c m beyond the drawer sides to fit be-
tween the wood glides. The drawers are approxi-
mately 1.2m x 1.2m.The unit is open both in
39
front and at the back so that each drawer can be
pulled out from either side of the unit. Drawers
may be left out above other drawers to allow
for the storage of objects more than 5 c m high.
This is a simple, economical system to
construct and it is quite functional for the storage
of many items,including unmounted or mounted
prints and drawings, flat textiles, etc. One
disadvantage of the system is that it is not air-
tight, so that certain items must be protected
individually.
Figure 9 illustrates a flat-drawer storage
system. This is a manufactured system, although
narrow wood drawers can be custom-made.The
system consists of shallow drawers that vary gener-
ally from 60 c m to 1.2m wide and 46 c m to 1 m
deep. Each drawer is approximately 7.5 c m high
overall,with approximately 5 c m of storage depth
inside. Units approximately 76 c m high, with ten
drawers, create their own work space on top.
Manufactured systems have special carriages for
the drawers so that they can be extended almost
completely out of the unit, which allows full
access to the drawer contents. W o o d systems that
do not have this special hardware are difficult
to use because the drawer generally cannot be
extended more than halfway out of the unit.
This makes access difficult where certain types
of object are stored. Careful consideration should
be given to the size of the material to be stored
so that the drawers can be sized accordingly.
Large drawers can be divided into two or more
sections for the storage of small, flat objects. It
is possible to stack these units for very efficient
storage. However, access to the upper drawers
will require a ladder,which increases the potential
for damage or soiling if an object is dropped.
Unframed prints and drawings, small flat
textiles, framed textiles, and samplers are among
the kinds of artefact which may suitably be stored
in this system.
Pastel drawings should not be stored in this
system because the kind of movement they would
be subjected to is extremely destructive to this
medium. This type of drawing should be stored
in a fixed vertical position in the storage room
so that the drawings may be examined without
movement.
Figure 10 illustrates cabinet storage adapted
to store film cassettes or other small objects. This
is a shallow drawer cabinet with dividers. The
system can be a steel manufactured unit or a
custom-madewood unit. Plastic or wood dividers
can be used to create small compartments for the
storage of small artefacts such as jewellery or
coins. In addition, shallow plastic boxes may be
placed in the drawers to hold small objects. These
individual boxes also may be divided into com-
partments. An advantage of this approach is that
the entire box can be removed during the retrieval
process as opposed to removing the individual
objects.Another advantage of this cabinet storage
40 Museum collection storage

is that the individual drawers m a y be equipped

FIG.10. Cabinet storage for film cassettes or other small
objects.
with locks providing added security for small
items that are easy to lose or are especially
valuable.
Figure 1 1 illustrates two types of cabinet with
drawers. The cabinet shown in the top sketch
is equipped with doors. The height of these cabi-
nets can range from 75 to 90 c m so that the
top of the units may by used for the examination
of the objects stored in the cabinets. Although this
is convenient for research work, it is not a space-
efficient storage system because the height above
90 c m is not used for storage. However, when
extensive research is done which requires frequent
access to the materials stored in the units, this
system m a y be appropriate. As many as three of
these units may be stacked on top of each other,
but the research space which is gained when only
one unit is used will be lost, and ladders will be
required for access to the higher drawers.
The bottom sketch shows a similar system,
but the cabinets are double height and the fronts
are removable panels. By using removable panels
instead of doors, it is possible to seal the unit so
that continuous fumigation can take place inside
the cabinet without vapours leaking into the
storage area. This type of unit is ideal for the
storage of objects or specimens which are espe-
cially sensitive to insect infestation.
Both of these systems can be made from a

r
variety of different materials. If the tops of the
units are to be used for research, the material of
the counter top should be suitable for the type
of research being carried out. The open drawers
in the cabinets, which slide o n metal angle-run-
ners attached to the sides of the cabinets, may
be made of wood or steel. The latter is more
desirable if heavy loads are to be stored.
There are many manufactured systems with
interior drawers similar to the ones shown in
these sketches. They come in a range of sizes to
accommodate many different types of material to
be stored. M a n y are made of steel, which elimi-
FIG.11. Drawers within a cabinet. nates the warping that sometimes occurs with
humidity changes when wood construction is used.
The steel cabinets generally are strong enough to
allow for double stacking, even loaded with heavy
specimens. The doors close against a polyurethane
foam gasket, which provides dust-tight protection.
Generally, the drawers are relatively shallow, but
when specimens extend above the top of the
drawer, it is a normal practice to remove the
drawer above to allow for the clearance of these
larger objects. Manufactured systems with double
doors, as illustrated in the top sketch, range from
90 cm-2 m high x 1 m wide x 60 c m deep. T h e
2-m height will accommodate about twenty-four
drawers. W o o d systems similar to these units can
be custom-made, but it is unlikely that they will
be as airtight, which may be an important consid-
eration for certain types of collection.
The large number of object types which may
 Storage systems 41

suitably be stored in these units include, among

others, skins, small animal specimens, entomo-
logy, geology and palaeontology specimens, pot-
tery,prints, drawings,folded textiles,small framed
textiles, etc.
Figure 12 illustrates an open adjustable drawer
system constructed of wood.Wooden drawer run-
ners, spaced evenly from the floor to a height
of approximately 2 m,are attached to the vertical
supports of a wood frame structure.The drawers
slide on these runners. The drawer bottoms can
be made of plywood or masonite of a thickness
that is appropriate to the weight of the objects
stored in them and the size of the drawer. The
dimensions of the system can vary greatly depend-
ing on the kinds of objects stored in it. Because I
the drawers are made of wood and slide on wood-
en runners, smaller drawers are easier to handle,
especially when heavy objects are stored in them.
Drawer width and depth can vary from 60 c m to
1 m,while the height can vary from 8 to 13 cm,
depending on the design.
Flexibility for the storage of taller objects is
achieved by leaving out the drawer above to allow
for the clearance of tall objects. W h e n breakable
items are stored in a single drawer, dividers FIG.12.Open adjustable drawer system.
should be used to prevent them from bumping
against each other. Since the system is open,
objects particularly subject to damage from dust
should be covered,unless a very efficient filtration
system is used in the storage area. This is a very
flexible and economical system that can be built
by the museum staff.
Figure 13 illustrates a costume storage system
which consists of a cabinet to hang costumes on
top of a four-drawerunit to store folded costumes
and accessories. The costume hanging portion of
the unit is 1.5 long X 75 c m deep x 2 m high.
Steel is a good choice for this part of the unit
because of its strength, stability and rigidity.
Special care should be taken in the construction
of the units to avoid sharp edges which could
tear the costumes. The venetian blinds over the
front of the upper portion of the unit protect the
costumes from dust while allowing for air circu-
lation. The costumes are hung on specially con-
structed hangers. This is particularly important
for special types of costume to prevent creasing
and stress on certain parts. Because of the height
of the units, poles with fork heads are slipped
under the hooks of the hangers to remove the
costumes. A rolling ladder must be used to
remove the costumes by hand. Specially equipped
rolling ladders also can be used to work on the
costumes while they are hanging in the unit. The
wood drawers below are 15 c m high x 75 c m
deep X 1.5 m long, dimensions which are consid-
ered to be most useful for flat costume storage.
Because related accessories can be stored directly FIG.13. Costume hanging storage over drawer units.
below the costumes hanging above, this greatly
facilitates research work being carried out in the
storage area. Both of the units should be covered
 42 Museum collection storage

inside and out with an inert plastic paint or plastic

laminate to protect the costumes from acid,
rust, etc.
Figure 14 illustrates a costume storage system
that consists of double units for hanging costumes
and for stacking a drawer units.The sketch shows
a row of these double-stacked units on the left,
and the stacking of three 4-drawer units on the
right. Each costume hanging unit is 1.5 m high
X 75 c m deep x 1.5m long.Although this height
is not adequate for full-lengthcostumes, it works
well for children’s costumes and somer other short
costumes. The units can be constructed of steel
which has been coated with a special paint that
protects the costumes from acid, rust, etc.
The wood drawers, which should be coated
inside and out with an inert plastic paint or
plastic laminate, are stacked to form twelve-
drawer units. Costume accessories, some folded
costumes, and some folded textiles can be stored
in these drawers. W h e n costumes or textiles are
folded, acid-iree tissue paper should be placed
in the folds to prevent permanent creasing of the
/’
material.
The combination of these two units shows the
advantage of modular planning within the storage
area. The same types of storage unit shown in
Figure 13 are combined in a different configura-
FIG.14.Costume storage in double-stacked costume hang- tion to adapt to the storage needs of the collection.
ing units and stacked drawer units.
This concept of using modular system to increase
the flexibility of collection storage can be applied
to many other storage systems. Although all of
FIG.15. Costume storage system with cabinets over drawer these systems are commercially manufactured,they
units. could be duplicated entirely in wood by the
museum staff.However,care must be exercised in
the finishing of the wood to protect the costumes
from damage either by physical abrasion or by
chemical substances given off by the wood.
Figure 15 illustrates a costume storage system
combining cabinets and drawer units. The upper
unit in this system is a cabinet with doors and
adjustable shelves for the storage of hats and other
similar costume items. The hats are mounted on
plastic cones for easier visibility. As shown in the
sketch, the doors can be double folding in order
to minimize unnecessary protrusion into the aisle
space. The drawer units below can be used to
store shoes and other accessories. Small acces-
sories such as jewellery, hair ornaments,etc. can
be placed in special plastic trays which are
stacked inside the drawers. These units can be
made of wood and covered with an inert plastic
to protect the costumes and accessories.
Figure 16 shows a fixed textile storage system
for small rugs or other textiles,consisting of wood
poles which are suspended within a wood framing
system. The poles may be round or square.
Textiles are rolled around cardboard tubs which
have been covered with acid-free paper, and
these cardboard tubes slide over the wooden poles.
Square poles generally are less expensive than the
round ones, and since the rugs or textiles are
 Storage systems 43
-- __

_,’

FIG.16. Fixed rolled storage for textiles.

FIG.17. Mobile hanging slorage system for rolled textiles. --

.
~ .- ~.~

.
J..
44 Museum collection storage
rolled around cardboard tubes, there is no real
advantage in using more expensive poles. In fact,
round poles are likely to roll in their support
system, which is a disadvantage. Because the ends
of the poles support the weight of the entire roll
of fabric or rug there is no damage caused by
pressure to the material. From a conservation
standpoint, this is more desirable than placing
rolled materials on shelves or on rack supports
which come into contact with the material itself.
The rolled materials are covered with plastic and
lightly tied to prevent dust from settling on them.
Certain types of costume also lend themselves to
rolled storage, as well as bedspreads, tapestries
and other similar items.
Figure 17 illustrates a mobile hanging storage
system for rolled textiles. The storage units are
hung from tracks attached to either the ceiling or
a free-standing structure. T h e choice between
these two types of support for the tracks depends
on the ceiling construction in the storage room
and the degree of mobility required for the entire
system. Since the weight of the hanging material
m a y be considerable in some cases, the structure
of the ceiling should be checked carefully before
the units are attached to it. A free-standing struc-
ture for the support of the system may have an
advantage because the entire system can be relo-
cated to another area in the museum.
The length of the units which slide back and
forth along the tracks should be determined by
the size of the textiles to be stored. Several units
of different lengths can be joined together to
form one sliding unit. T o gain access to any row
of textiles, adjacent units are moved along the
track until the desired aisle is open. Because there
is no floor track, the units tend to sway back
and forth when they are moved, sometimes b u m -
ping into each other. However, because of the
nature of the textiles stored in these units, and the
fact that the rolled textiles do not b u m p or
scrape against each other, it is unlikely that any
serious damage is done to the textiles. There is
no way of actually verifying this, however, and
the units should be moved as carefully as pos-
sible to avoid unnecessary jarring.
The individual textiles are rolled around card-
board tubes covered with acid-free paper. The
tubes are placed over w o o d poles. The textiles
are then covered with plastic and lightly tied.
Because the ends of the poles support the weight
of the entire roll of textile, there is no damage
caused by pressure applied to the material. From
a conservation standpoint, this is more desirable
than placing rolled textiles on shelves or on rack
supports which come into contact with the m a -
terial itself.
Figure 18 shows a cabinet storage system for
small rolled textiles. The rolled textiles, which
are supported with square wood poles, are placed
on wood frames. T h e frames can hold from four
to six rolled textiles which are held in position on
the frames with large staples. The frames, which
operate like drawers, slide out of the unit on metal
runners. Each cabinet can hold u p to six frames.
The textiles are not rolled directly on the square
poles. First they are rolled around cardboard tubes
which have been covered with acid-free paper,
and these tubes are then supported by the poles.
The textiles are covered with plastic and loosely
tied.
The amount of storage space used with this
system is actually less than is needed to store
rolled textiles on shelves. A n additional advantage
is that the rolled textiles are individually suspen-
ded, thus avoiding creases that occur when they
are placed o n shelves. Since the textiles are stored
in cabinets, they are not exposed to light, which
is a further conservation precaution. In addition,
a periodic fumigation can take place within the
cabinet with the door shut, which provides maxi-
mum protection from insect infestation.
Figure 19 illustrates a mobile system to store
flat textiles. T h e textiles are draped over horizon-
tal bars spanning frames hanging from sliding
tracks suspended from the ceiling. T h e double
horizontal bars allow for the hanging of two
textiles on each frame. The vertical spacing be-
tween these two bars should be dimensioned to
accommodate the sizes of materials in the col-
lection. For access or viewing, the individual units
are pulled along the sliding tracks into aisle
spaces. A 15-cm spacing between the sliding
tracks is adequate for light materials, although
approximately 20 c m should be allowed for heavy
or bulky materials. A space of approximately
60-cm should be left between the bottom of the
materials and the floor to allow for air circulation.
Adequate space must be provided in the centre
of the room so that the racks can be pulled from
their stored position for viewing. Before hanging
the textiles, the bars are covered with acid-free
paper to protect the fabrics. The tops of the
draped textiles are covered with a small piece
of cloth to prevent dust from settling there.
Figure 20 illustrates a mobile hanging curtain
storage system. The curtains are suspended with
curtain hooks from a frame which can be raised
for storage and lowered for access. W h e n the
curtains are raised to the ceiling, the pull cords
are secured to hooks. The frames hang from slid-
ing tracks suspended from the ceiling so that
the entire frame can be pulled into the centre of
the room for viewing or access. The spacing be-
tween the tracks can vary from 30 to 36 c m for
lighter sets of curtains. Spacing which ranges
from 45 to 60 c m is better for bulky items with
heavy material linings and/or deep folds and
gathers. Since the curtains are hung straight,
wrinkling and crackling of the material is elimi-
nated. Before storage, the curtains are lined and
interlined. Antique textiles are tacked to the inter-
linings at intervals of 20 c m throughout the cur-
tain, which transfers the stress from hanging to
 Storage systems 45

FIG.18. Cabinet storage for rolled textiles.

FIG.19. Mobile hanging storage for flat textiles,

/--
46 M u s e u m collection storage
FIG.20. Mobile hanging curtain storage.
the interlining. A clean material is placed on the
floor to protect the curtain when it is lowered for
removal.
Figure 21 illustrates a mobile hanging storage
system for large rugs. The system consists of
chains hanging from tracks which are suspended
from the ceiling or from a free-standingstructure.
The decision about how the tracks should be
suspended will depend on the structural design
of the building and whether or not the rug stor-
age might eventually be moved to another stor-
age area. Rugs which have been rolled around
heavy wood dowels or metal pipes are suspended
from the chains with S-hooks.The wood dowels
or steel pipes are first covered with cardboard
tubes, which have been wrapped with a layer of
acid-freepaper. After rolling,the rugs are loosely
tied for secure storage.Several rugs can be suspen-
ded from one pair of chains. The chains holding
stored rugs can be slid back and forth on the
tracks to gain access to a particular rug. Space
should be left in the centre of the room so that
the rugs can be spaced out along the tracks for
viewing or retrieval. Care must be taken that the
strength of both the track and the support system
is adequate to hold the substantial weight of
several rugs. Heavy-duty chains should be used
for the same reason. Space for rolling the rugs
onto the tubes should be provided in the storage
area.
Figure 22 shows wire screens suspended from
sliding tracks which are hung from the ceiling or
from an independent structure. Channels secured
to the floor keep the hanging screens from swaying
back and forth when they are pulled out for the
examination of objects. Materials are hung from
the screen with simple hooks. The most efficient
means of planning this system is to have the slid-
ing racks on both sides of the room so that a
common space in the centre of the room can be
shared for viewing. If racks are stored only on
one side of the room,the same amount of viewing
area is needed as when they are on both sides of
the room. The distance between screens can vary
depending on the type of material hung from the
screens. Some units can be placed far apart to
allow for extremely big frames and others may
be much closer together for the hanging of con-
ventional framed drawings, prints or paintings.
The wire screens can vary tremendously in
size. Screens that are very tall require ladders to
reach paintings or other items suspended from the
screens near the top. The use of ladders in hand-
ling paintings presents a very definite hazard to
the conservation of the paintings. Smaller screens
can be used in areas with lower ceilings.
Figure 23 shows a sliding rack system to
store arrows and spears. Peg board is substituted
for the wire mesh in the more conventional
system illustrated in Figure 22. The spears or
arrows are tied to the peg board with string.
Because this system is quite compact and the
units fit closely together, a certain amount of dust
protection is afforded the objects.
Figure 24 shows a sliding rack system for
storing bulky materials such as animal skins,
which might also require a low level of continuous
fumigation to prevent insect infestation. A wide
board at the end of the rack can be equipped
with a gasket that seals against the face of the
 Storage system 47

H 8 FIG.21. Mobile hanging storage for large rugs.

rack storage with wire screening.

FIG.23. Sliding rack storage with peg board.

48 M u s e u m collection storage

unit when it is closed. Clamps can be attached

FIG.24. Sliding rack storage with closed system.
FIG.25. Sliding rack visible storage for costumes and
textiles.
FIG.26. Sliding rack visible storage for staqs or manu-
scripts.
to the front of the unit to hold each of the indi-
vidual racks tightly against the face of the unit
when they are not pulled out for viewing. Poles
are attached within the frame of the unit to hang
animal skins or other materials. T h e basic system
is made of wood. The dimensions can vary depen-
ding on the material being stored and the space
available for the system. Racks approximately
30 c m wide allow for storage o n both sides.
Other materials can be stored in a very simi-
lar system by modifying the interior of the racks.
For example, instead of having a vertical sheet
and horizontal poles for the hanging of skins as
shown in the sketch, horizontal trays approxi-
mately 30 c m wide and spaced vertically approxi-
mately 30 c m apart can be substituted. These
trays can hold other objects requiring sealed
storage within a rack system.
Figure 25 shows a visible storage system for
costumes and textiles utilizing a sliding rack
system. Often it is desirable to have artefacts avail-
able for viewing by visitors, but at the same time
the artefacts must be protected and a compact
system is necessary in order to conserve space.
In the unit shown, the costumes or textiles are
suspended in a frame and covered on both sides
with glass. The container therefore protects the
objects from dust. W h e n the unit is closed, the
costumes or textiles are stored within a compact
system, protected from light. W h e n a visitor
wishes to see a particular costume or textile, the
unit is pulled from the stack and viewing can be
achieved from both sides. Generally, in order to
see both sides of a costume or textile, a free-
standing case is required or a one-sided case with
a mirror o n the back. Both of these methods use
considerably more space than the system shown.
This system can be used with a variety of other
objects, including samplers, maps, photographs,
drawings, etc.
Figure 26 shows a variation of the sliding rack
visible system illustrated in Figure 25. The racks
can range in size from 50 c m x 5 0 c m to 75 c m
x 75 c m and should be high enough off the floor
to allow for easy viewing. The individual racks
are about 5 c m wide, which allows for a great
number of racks to be stored within a given area.
The system allows for items such as stamps to be
stored in a compact system and at the same time
be accessible to museum visitors. Because the
stamps are displayed behind glass, they are pro-
tected while on display. The ability to close the
racks when the stamps are not being viewed
prevents excessive exposure to light.
Figure 27 shows in three sketches a compar-
ison between the space utilization of a conven-
tional fixed storage system and that of a high-
density mobile storage system. T h e top sketch
shows a conventional storage system with four
aisles between five units of storage. The middle
sketch illustrates that the same five units in a
 Storage systems 49

high-density mobile storage system will save I

40 per cent of the space in the area because only
one access aisle to the system is open at any given
point in time. The bottom sketch shows that by
using the high-density mobile storage system you
can add 50 per cent more storage capacity in the
same amount of floor area than would be pos-
sible using a conventional fixed storage system.
This type of system can be compared in a very
general way to a clothes closet. The garments on
the hangers are compressed together, but when
they are pushed aside, a space is left for access
and retrieval.
The essential element of the high-density
mobile storage system is its carriage. Some car-
riages are still made of wood, some of steel,but
structural aluminium is the best material because
it is light-weight and does not rust. The storage ,
/
carriages ride on rails installed on the floor. They
may be moved manually or they may be motor-
operated.
Manually operated systems are generally limi-
ted to 2.4-3.7 m in length, with a gross capacity
of 1.4-4.5tonnes because larger carriages would
be too difficult to move manually. Commercially
manufactured systems with typical loading require
a force of one-third of 1 per cent of the weight
of the system to start the carriage moving. For
example, a 1-tonne unit would require only 3 kg
of force to move. These commercially manufac-
tured systems generally utilize aluminium car-
riages, which reduces the carriage weight, adds
rigidity to the system, and reduces the number
of rails required.Non-commercialmanual systems
with carriages constructed of wood or tempered FIG.27. Comparison between the space utilization of a
masonite are generally not as easy to move as the fixed storage system and that of a high-density mobile
storage system.
commercially manufactured ones. Therefore, it is
a good idea to limit the size of the carriages and
the weight of the material to be stored in them.
If heavier carriages are used and a motor-
operated system is not possible, manual assist
systems are available which utilize a cranking
mechanism to move the carriages. This is much
less efficient, however, and this kind of system
should be used only when the demand for access
is relatively infrequent.
Electrically operated systems are now manufac-
tured for a variety of uses in lengths up to 18 m
and capacities of up to 27 tonnes of storage per
carriage. The carriages of these electrically op-
erated systems may be adapted to store different
types of object. Special provisions are made to
move the carriages manually in the event of a
power failure, and most systems include safety
devices to prevent an aisle from closing when
someone is standing in it.
The average high-density mobile storage
system requires about 70 kg/0.95 m2floor loading,
although it can go as high as 120-140kg/0.95 m2.
For this reason, problems may arise when these
systems are to be installed in an existing building. FIG.28. High-density mobile storage units for books and
If the building structure is inadequate to support manuscripts.
50 Museum collection storage

this kind of floor loading, additional beams can

FIG. 29. High-density mobile storage units for film or
video cassettes.
FIG.30. High-density mobile storage system for textile
storage.
FIG.31. High-density mobile storage system for herbarium
collections.
be installed which are connected to the building’s
support columns. These beams should be located
in such a manner that they will support the rails
which carry the carriages.
Although it generally can be considered that
a high-density mobile storage system is more
expensive than a conventional system, its savings
in space and building construction when a new
facility is planned can many times make up for
the increased cost. The space savings must be
weighed against the degree of accessibility and
retrieval that is desired and the conservation of
the objects stored in the system. Although the
collections are protected from light and dust
when the carriages are closed, the vibrations
created by the movement of the carriages are a
negative factor. The increased security these
systems provide because individual sections or the
entire system can be locked should also be consi-
dered.
Figures 28-33 show variations on the standard
high-densitymobile storage system adapted to dif-
ferent uses.
Figure 28 illustrates the use of a high-density
mobile storage system for the storage of books or
manuscripts. Carriages up to 4.6 m in length can
be moved manually. Carriages from 4.6 to 18 m
long can be moved with a motor-operated system.
When the units are closed, the objects stored
within are sealed off from dust and light.
Figure 29 illustrates a high-densitymobile stor-
age system adapted for the storage of film or
video cassettes. Special shelving similar to that
shown in the fixed system in Figure 4 is construc-
ted within the carriages.Manufactured electrically
operated systems will carry extremely long car-
riages. If relatively short carriages are adequate,
manually operated systems can be constructed by
the museum staff.
Figure 30 shows a high-density mobile storage
system for the storage of rolled rugs or other
textiles. The textiles are wrapped around card-
board tubes covered with acid-free paper, which
are placed over wood poles suspended within the
carriage structure. Short carriages constructed of
plywood ride on rails mounted on the floor. These
units can be operated manually. With a motor-
operated system, larger aluminium carriages can
be connected end to end to form long units. The
length of the individual carriages should be sized
to accommodate the length of small rugs or other
textiles. Supports for the poles within the indivi-
dual carriages can be designed in several different
ways. Figures 16, 17 and 18 show different
methods used for other rolled textile systems.
In addition to rolled textiles, special kinds of
costume, shawls, etc. may also be stored in this
system.
Figure 31 illustrates a high-densitymobile stor-
age system which has been adapted to the stor-
age of herbarium specimens. The carriage holds
 Storage systems 51

a horizontal bin system for plant specimen storage.

Each bin is approximately 12 c m high X 66 c m
wide, which is adequate space to store two stacks
of manila folders containing specimens or two
specimen boxes side by side of fruit or cacti speci-
mens. The manila folders can hold up to twenty
30-cm X 46-cm specimen sheets. They are stored
so that an open side of the folder is exposed to
view. The specimen sheets are heavy paper stock
to which specimens have been attached. Descrip-
tive information such as where the specimen was
collected,the colour of the flowers,the height of
the tree, etc. is included on each sheet and can
be seen by the researcher without removing the
folder from the bin. The world-wide standard
format for specimen sheets facilitates the storage
FIG. 32. Highdensity mobile storage system for costume
of loaned specimens.Because botanical specimens storage.
are so light-weight,they can be stored on shelves
made of one sheet of metal, which will achieve
the maximum number of shelves per unit.
Figure 32 shows the use of costume storage
within high-density mobile storage units. The
costume storage units are 22 m high overall. The
costume hanging space is 1.1 m wide x 1.8 m
high. One 30-cm drawer at the bottom is equip-
ped with supporting rails to hold a 10-cm loose
tray for accessories.Units for children's costumes
are 1.2m wide x 1.1 m high, which allows for
three drawers below for accessories. Venetian
blinds are recessed in the tap of the carriage and
are thus easily lowered over the wardrobe open-
ings to protect the costumes from light and dust.
The interiors of the units are protected with vinyl
so that the costumes do not come into direct
contact with wood, steel, or any other material
that could rust, corrode, splinter, snag, or in any
way harm the costumes.In manufactured systems, FIG.33. High-densitymobile storage system for geological
several carriages can be connected together and specimens.
electrically operated. Smaller units can also be
made that can be manually operated.
It is interesting to compare the fixed costume
storage systems, illustrated in Figures 13-15,to
this system, which has been adapted to high-
density mobile storage units. They all are quite
similar and illustrate how many fixed systems
can be adapted to mobile systems when there is
a need to conserve space. Potential problems
created by vibration in the mobile system and the
need for access and retrieval must be considered
before making a final decision about which type
of system is best in a particular situation.
Figure 33 illustrates a high-densitymobile stor-
age system which has been adapted to accommo-
date rock or mineral storage. The specimens are
housed in specially designed drawers on carriages
1.5m wide. Because of the length of the carriages
and the weight of the system, it must be electri-
cally operated.
Figure 34 illustrates a heavy-duty manually
operated mobile system for the storage of large
pieces of furniture or musical instruments. In FIG. 34. High-density mobile storage units for musical
this system, heavy-duty steel frames with wood instruments or large pieces of furniture.
52 Museum collection storage

platforms are built over a mobile carriage unit.

Each of the individual units can slide along a
track mounted on the floor. The individual plat-
forms and vertical distance between platforms
should be dimensioned to accommodate the type
of object to be stored. Heavy pieces of furniture
and musical instruments can be lifted onto their
storage platforms with the help of a fork-lift
truck. Special care must be taken when moving
these large pieces lest they be damaged in the
process. The advantage of this system is that a
great number of large pieces of furniture can be
stored in a relatively small area. Space must be
available to move the carriages to gain access to
the stored objects and to manceuvre the fork-lift
truck. Care must be taken that the structure of
the building is adequate to support the heavy
floor loading which results from this type of
storage system.
Figure 31 shows a compartmentalized storage
system for framed prints, drawings, or paintings
made with vertical wood posts and plywood shel-
ving. The slots are relatively narrow in order to
minimize the number of items that can be stored
in each. It is possible that the works of art may
FIG.35. Compartmentalized storage for framed prints, rub against each other when they are being taken
drawings, or paintings. out or put back into storage, or they may rub
against the structure of the storage system itself.
Storing only a few items in each slot reduces the
possibility of this happening. The slot height
should be varied so that different sizes of paint-
ings, etc.,can be accommodated without wasting
space. This system is easier to build and costs
less than the sliding rack storage system illustra-
ted in Figure 22. For this reason, museums with
very limited budgets should give it some consider-
ation.
Units can be made from a variety of different
/,,.q\ materials and can vary tremendously in size depen-
ding on the needs of the collection. The unit
1 shown is approximately 2 m high, which allows
someone standing on the floor to remove pictures
without the use of a ladder. Where high ceilings
are available, much higher systems can be con-
structed. Rolling ladders can be used to gain
access to the upper portions of the unit. If fre-
quent access is a requirement,very high units are
not desirable.
Figure 36 illustrates three different techniques
of storing furniture, all of which can share the
same storage area. Large pieces of furniture are
/ placed on plywood platforms, or pallets, with
,/casters attached. The tops of the pallets are cov-
ered with carpeting.W h e n it is necessary to move
a piece of furniture for examination,conservation,
or exhibition,it may be rolled out of its space in
the row and moved with ease to its destination.
Because the furniture is elevated off the floor,
storage areas are easier to clean and the danger
of damaging delicate furniture legs with cleaning
equipment is eliminated.
FIG.36. Furniture storage. The empty volume above the furniture stored
 Storage systems 53

I o IH /I ”!I0 I

/
37

on pallets is used for the storage of light pieces FIG.37. Wall-mounted stationary wire rack storage.
of furniture, such as chairs and small tables, and FIG.38. Transparent storage containers.
items that normally are hung, such as chande- FIG.39. Special hanging system for large objects.
liers. This furniture is stored on light-framed
wooden platforms suspended from the ceiling
structure. These platforms should follow the same
configuration as the rows of furniture stored
below so that there is easy access from the aisles.
In some parts of the storage areas, where low
pieces of furniture are stored,the suspended plat-
forms can be low enough to gain access without
the use of a ladder. Higher platforms which
require a ladder for access are less desirable
because the potential for damage or accident is
greater. The chandeliers can be hung from simple
bar-like structures suspended over the rows of
furniture.
Figure 37 shows framed wire mesh racks which
54 Museum collection storage
FIG.40. Cabinet storage for dolls.
are mounted on the wall.This kind of rack storage
system will increase the efficiency of the storage
rooms, and it works well in combination with
other storage systems,such as shelving, low cabi-
nets, etc. Mirrors, frames, paintings, drawings,
masks, swords,rifles,riding implements,and tools
are some of the many artefacts which can be
hung from stationary wire racks. They are parti-
cularly useful for the storing of framed pastel
drawings which require visual access,because any
movement of pastel drawings is very destructive to
them.
Figure 38 shows clear plastic boxes on open
shelving. This method of storage permits viewing
of the contents without having to open the box
and, in some instances,without having to remove
the box from the shelf. This is a good solution for
items which are looked at frequently,particularly
if the object is very fragile and likely to be dama-
ged by handling. One disadvantage is that objects
stored in see-through containers are more likely
to suffer from light damage than objects stored in
opaque boxes. In addition, transparent boxes are
more expensive than opaque ones. A hand-made
version of these storage containers can be
constructed by taking a strong box and replacing
one face of the box with transparent plastic. If any
sharp points are protruding as a result of the
method of fabrication, they should be covered
with adhesive tape to protect the artefacts inside
the box. The bottom of the boxes should be lined
with acid-freepaper before placing any materials
inside. Anything that can suitably be stored in a
box may be stored in this manner.
Figure 39 shows a cradling and bracket system
for the storage of large boats. Individual cut-outs
are made in the wood brackets to hold the boat,
and the brackets are suspended from metal angles
which are attached to the wall. Other large items
can be stored in a similar manner to conserve
floor space. A n alternative approach is to con-
struct a free-standing framing system to support
similar units.
Figure 40 illustrates a cabinet storage system
especially designed for the storage of dolls. Holes
are drilled in the adjustable shelving, allowing
steel wires to extend from the top of the cabinet
through the shelves to the bottom. The dolls are
lightly tied to the wires in a vertical position.This
protects them from the kind of damage that could
occur if they were stored lying down in a drawer
or wrapped in plastic. The vertical wires are stag-
gered so that dolls stored in the back row are
accessible without disturbing the dolls in the
front row.The doors on the cabinet create a clo-
sed unit to protect the dolls from dust accumula-
tion. The adjustable shelving can accommodate a
wide variation in doll height, which increases the
efficiency of this system.This system can be made
quite easily with wood and simple hardware.Also,
standard metal cabinets can be adapted by dril-
ling the shelves and adding the vertical wires.

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rB.181 CC.78/XXIX-Z/A
ISBN 92-3-101632-6