BONGA UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL

RESOURCE, Department of Agricultural Economics

Course Title: Animal Production and Management (AnSc1042)

Compiled by: Amenay Assefa

e-mail: amenayasefa@gmail.com

2. Dairy Cattle Production

Introduction

It is estimated that there are about 220 million dairy cows in the world producing about 430
million tones of milk per year. Africa is said to produce about 10-30% of this amount, out of
this amount 14% comes from sheep and goat. In some African countries sheep and goat milk
is a major source of milk supply for consumption. Apart from food supply, ruminants also
provide hides and skin. Dairy animals produce milk by converting the crop residues and by
products from crops which otherwise would be wasted. Dairy sector contributes by way of
cash income, draught power and manure.

Some Terminologies of Dairy

Bull: A matured male bovine (cattle)

Cow: A matured female bovine that has given birth at least once

Calf: Young cattle of either sex

Heifer: A young female cattle that is yet to give birth

Dairy - is a place /building where milk is kept and milk products are made or
 - is a shop/place where milk and milk products are sold.

Dairy farm: is a farm that produces milk and milk products or is the business of a dairy farm

Dairy cattle: cattle that are raised primarily to produce milk

Breed: Breed is a group of animals having a common origin and possessing certain well
fixed and distinctive characteristics not common to other members of the same species; these
characteristics are uniformly transmitted.

Dairy type: Cattle of this type are usually not large, and are of somewhat lean build or are
characterized by a lean, angular form and a well-developed mammary system.

Calf: A young bovine, either male or female, up to one year of age

Dairy Cow: Female dairy cattle that are intended for production of milk for human
consumption

Dry Dairy Cows: Female dairy cattle that had previously lactated, but which are not currently
producing milk (i.e., cows that are between lactations; the period of time between two
lactations is also referred to as the ‘dry period

Lactating Dairy Cows: Female dairy cattle that are producing milk

Weaning: The process of transitioning a calf away from a diet containing milk or milk
replacer, to an all solid feed diet or ration

Cattle: Group of bovine animals

Domestication: process of conversion of wild animals to domestic

The calving interval is the time between the births of two calves by the same mother and
expresses the economic importance of reproduction.

2.1. Origin, Domestication, Population and Distribution of Dairy cattle

The dairy cows of today are descend from bovine species, known as aurochs (Bos
primigenius), that were found in most areas of Europe, Asia and North Africa, particularly in
the vicinity of the current countries of Turkey and Pakistan ∼10,000 years ago. This huge and
reputedly fierce species has been extinct in the 17th century, but today we have over one
thousand breeds of cattle and only few contemporary pictures of aurochs existed, and skeletal
remains allow reconstructing its morphology. Several bovine species have been
domesticated; however taurine cattle (Bos taurus) which was domesticated in India, Middle
East, North Africa and zebu cattle (Bos indicus) which was domesticated in India before 8000
BC account for almost all cattle and both descend from the wild aurochs (Bos primigenius)

An archaeological data indicated that taurine cattle have been domesticated between 10,300–
10,800 years ago in the Fertile Crescent, most probably on the western Turkish-Syrian border
and zebu was domesticated in the Indus Valley at the edge of the Indian Desert around 2000
years after the taurine domestication. Paleontological findings as well as pictorial and
sculptural representations revealed the presence of early domestic cattle in Africa Cattle
remains before long time have been found in Egypt, Libya and the Sahara, left rock
engravings shown that long-horned cattle which probably were the ancestors of the present
West-African cattle. It is likely that taurine cattle also spread from Egypt westward along the
North-African Mediterranean coast and then along the West African Atlantic coast.

Zebu and taurine cattle are the domestic forms of two well-diverged but cross-fertile aurochs
species. Migrations followed by ecological adaptation to agricultural habitats in diverse
environments during human history governed the distribution of the taurine and zebu
genotypes and brought about several changes in phenotype. These were adapted to different
environments, which with the many intermediate crossbreds ensured a potential adaptation of
the domestic animals to climates ranging from temperate to tropical.

Domestication involves more than simply taming, and animals are considered to be
domesticated when they are kept for a distinct purpose, humans control their breeding, their
survival depends on humans and they develop traits that are not found in the wild. In addition
to this, the domestic animals need to live in (close) association with humans and therefore
they have to become tame. They also have to meet the expectations of their owners for the
purpose of keeping them and this can be achieved by selective breeding. Expectations of
owners change in time, followed by a change in selective breeding plan. Domestication often
has resulted in a type of animals that has become quite different from their wild counterparts.
As a result domestication often also involves the development of a dependency on humans so
that the animals lose their ability to live in the wild.
Generally, the current dairy cattle belong to:

Kingdom=Animalia

Phylum=Chordata (those animals having a backbone);

Class =Mammalia (milk suckling);

Order=Artiodactyla (even-toed, hooved),

Family= Bovidae (with hollow horn and hoofs); includes ruminants with hollow horns &
hoofs with even number of toes and are one of the most recent to evolve

Genius=Bos (ruminant quadrupeds)

Species=divided into Bos tourus (humpless, European breeds), Bos indicus (humped,
tropical breeds)

So, the present cattle types are classified into two main groups that are Bos tourus (humpless
cattle type-temperate breed) and Bos indicus (humped cattle type-tropical breed).

2.2. Dairy Cattle Breeds

Breed is a group of animals having a common origin or related by descent and similar in
most characters like general appearance, body conformation, milk quality, and adaptability
characteristics etc. Those distinction characteristics are not common to other members of the
same species and their purity of the breed is maintained by confining the mating of animals to
within the breed.

Major breeds of dairy cattle in the world

Holstein

The breed is originated in the Netherlands. This breed is easily recognized by its large frame
and distinctive black and white or red and white markings. Holsteins are the largest of the
dairy breeds. Mature cows weigh about 1,500 pounds (680 kg) and bulls weigh about 2,200
pounds (998 kg). Cows have large udders. Holsteins have excellent grazing ability and a large
feed capacity. The cows are generally quiet but the bulls can be mean and dangerous.
Holsteins are known for their vigorous appetites and adaptability to a wide range of
conditions. Cull cows and males not kept for breeding purposes provide an additional source
of income on the beef market. Holsteins rank first among the dairy breeds in average milk
production per cow at 14,500 pounds (6,577 kg).This breed’s milk is low in butterfat (the fat
content in milk) and protein.

Jersey

The Jersey breed was originated in England. Jerseys are cream to light fawn to almost black
in color. Some animals have white markings. The muzzle is black. The switch and tongue
may be black or white. The Jersey is the smallest of the dairy breeds. Mature cows weigh
about 1,000 pounds (453 kg) and bulls weigh about 1,600 pounds (725 kg). Jersey cattle have
excellent udders that are well attached. Strengths of the breed include excellent heat
tolerance, high fertility, young age at first calving, calving ease, and high pounds of milk
solids produced per pound of feed consumed. Jerseys have excellent grazing ability even on
poor pastures. The cows may be somewhat nervous and the bulls can be mean and very
aggressive. Jerseys rank fifth among the dairy breeds in average milk production per cow at
10,000 pounds (4,536 kg). They rank first among the dairy breeds in average milk fat
produced per cow. Produce milk with the highest fat and protein content of all dairy cattle
breeds.In fact, the Jersey is often called the “cheese breed” because of the high yield of
cheese from its milk.

Guernsey

The Guernsey breed originated in England and also called "The Royal Breed" of dairy cattle.
It is an early-maturing breed. They are adaptable and have a gentle behavior. Mature cows
will weigh about 1,100 pounds (499 kg) and bulls about 1,800 pounds (816 kg). The
Guernsey is usually fawn or yellowish-brown, with various white markings and a clear
muzzle. It is well known for the color of its milk, The Guernsey is noted for the superior
flavor of its golden-colored milk - naturally high in all milk solids. Guernsey milk has a
higher level of beta-carotene content which gives it its golden color. Because of their small
calves and low feed consumption, Guernsey are not able to compete against other breeds in
the dairy industry market. Guernsey rank fourth among the dairy breeds in average milk
production per cow at 10,600 pounds (4,808 kg).
Ayrshire

The Ayrshire breed was originated in the County of Ayr, Scotland before 1800. The breed
was developed from native stock through long-term selection for hardiness, superior udders,
and efficient milk production.They are known for their fertility, overall health, and resistance
to mastitis. The breed may be any shade of cherry red. Others include brown, mahogany, or
white. White may be mixed with red, or brown. Ayrshires have straight lines and well-
balanced and shaped udders. The udders are attached high behind and extend forward. The
teats are medium in size. Ayrshires are vigorous and strong. They have excellent grazing
ability andknown to be efficient grazers. Mature cows weigh about 1,200 pounds (544 kg).
Mature bulls weigh about 1,800 pounds (816 kg). Ayrshires rank third among the dairy
breeds in average milk produced per cow at 11,700 pounds (5,307 kg).

Milking Shorthorn

The Milking Shorthorn was originated in England. Milking Shorthorns are usually
characterized by various colors, such as shades of red, red and white, solid white, or roan,
meaning a reddish-white color.Milking Shorthorns are known as medium-framed animals
with deep bodies and straight legs. Considered a dual purpose breed (can be used for milk
production and beef); on average, Milking Shorthorn cows mature to 1,250 pounds and yield
more than 17,000 pounds of milk.This breed is characterized as typically having great calving
ease, good grazing ability, and large udders. Due to genetic improvements in recent years, the
Milking Shorthorn breed has become more viable with an improved udder quality.

Major Ethiopian dairy breeds

The genetic diversity among indigenous cattle of Ethiopia is also considered to be very high
based on the number of recognized breeds. Some African indigenous cattle breeds have been
lost before they were characterized and their unique attributes recognized. The current
classification of the Ethiopian indigenous cattle breeds is primarily based on some
morphological attributes such as body size, horn shape and size, coat color and hump size and
their geographical distribution. However, the usefulness of phenotypic traits to study the
genetic variation between populations is very limited.

Boran/Borena breed
Main Location: The main habitat of the Ethiopian Boran is the southern rangelands of
Ethiopia, with the Borana pastoralists.

Characteristic: Basically a beef animals, with large and wide frame; weighs up to 500 kg; it is
also a good milk providing most of the staples for the pastoral community  (1673 kg in 295
days) and traditionally exploited for their milk and meat. The true function of the breed is
meat production. The cow is 346-417 kg and the bull has a live weight of 539 - 653 kg.

Arsi breed

Location: Found in the central highlands of Ethiopia, in Arsi, Shewa, Bale, Sidamo and
Harar. 

Special Characteristic: Small compact animals, with thin prominent dewlap, and small
short horns and has multipurpose such as Work, Meat and Milk. 

Fogera

Main Location: Inhabits the Fogera plains around Lake Tana, southern Gondar and adjoining
areas of Gojjam. 

Characteristic: Pied coat of black-and-white or black-and-grey; short, stumpy, pointed horns

and has multipurpose such as Work, Meat and Milk. 

Horo

Main Location: Inhabits the highlands of north-western Ethiopia, mainly in the Horro Gudru
area of eastern Wollega as well as adjoining parts of western Shoa and Illubabor. 

Characteristic: Coat colour is mainly brown or reddish brown; cervico-thoracic hump, small
to medium. They are very good looking animals being uniform in color and body
conformation. They are of medium to large size, with small and finely shaped head, a straight
profile and medium to large horns. The hump is small to medium in size. This breed is used
for milk, meatand draught.

Ogaden
Main Location: Found in the Ogaden area of Somali region of eastern Ethiopia. 

Characteristic: Similar to the Ethiopian Boran with well developed hump and large dewlap;
horns are short; mainly used for milk, but are also good beef animals. This breed is used for
milk, meat and draught/ Work.

Raya-Azebo

Main Location: Found in the region east of Lake Ashange in Tigray and the bordering areas
of Wello in north-eastern Ethiopia 

Special Characteristic: Similar to the Danakil, except that the Raya-Azabo is a slightly bigger
animal. This breed is used for milk, meat and draught/ Work.

Sheko

Main Location: Inhabits the humid parts of south-western Ethiopia with the Sheko tribe
around Bench Maji zone  

Characteristic: Believed to have some level of trypanotolerance. This breed is used for milk,
meat and draught/ Work.

Danakil

Main Location: Maintained by the Afar people in southern Eritrea, north-eastern Ethiopia
(Tigrai and Wollo), particularly the lower Awash River valley, and parts of Djibouti 

Special Characteristic: Large and slender body, with long lyre-shaped horns, They are very
similar to the Raya-Azabo cattle. This breed is used for milk, meat and draught/ Work.

Generally, no tropical breed can be seen as a specialized dairy type. They are only considered
as such because the produce more milk than the others. With good management the best
herds of tropical cows can produce 2000 to 2500 liter per lactation.

Coupled with low milk production, tropical breeds exhibit:

Late sexual maturity, Long intervals between calving and Short lactation’s.
Indigenous cattle are important for their

Genetic predisposition of disease resistance, Hardiness and feed conversion efficiency, Heat
tolerance and adaptation to local conditions, Resistance to parasites (ticks and tick-borne
diseases in particular) is a valuable trait in tropical cattle.

2.3. Dairy Cattle Production System

There are many ways of keeping animals for production, but may be choose depends on the
circumstances of any area: climate, type of vegetation, market for selling the product,
availability of labor and local traditions. The type of feeding can also determines the most
possibilities and constraints in a system, for example labor use and production potential.
These systems are defined according to the way the animals are fed, because this is one of the
most important aspects of cattle raising.

Three farming systems are existed: grazing-system, grazing-with supplementary-feeding-

system and zero-grazing-system.

Grazing system

In this system the animals graze on natural or improved pasture and may be on communal or
on private grazing lands. Animals that graze along the roadside are also included under this
system. This system could be used if you have enough land, but not much time for more
labour intensive milk production. It is also suitable if you have sufficient time, together with
a small area of land, and you are happy with a fairly low level of production requires the least
financial investment, labour and specialized knowledge.

Grazing with supplementary feeding

While they graze, the animal’s diet is supplemented with fodder crops and/or with
concentrates. The supplements can be produced on your own land or can be bought on the
market. Supplementary feeding is usually done when the animals are brought home, for
instance to stay the night in a pen or in a shelter, or when they are being milked.
Supplementary feeding is only possible if the milk price is high enough and supplements are
not too expensive.
Zero grazing

Within this system the animals stay in one place only and all the feed is brought to them. This
means that not only the supplementary feed has to be bought or cultivated, and brought to the
animal, but also the roughage (grass, hay etc.) and the water for drinking have to be brought
to the animal. The grass can be cultivated (Napier, elephant grass, Desho, or cut from natural
pastures). This system is mostly only used with dairy cows and only if the milk fetches a
good price. With intensification the potential production level rises and needs less land. The
land, however, will be used more intensively and thus needs to be manure in order to keep
grass production at an acceptable and stable level

2.4. Feeding of Dairy cattle

Animals should have access to feed and water on a daily basis, in a consistent
manner, on a regular schedule, and according to their specific requirements. Animals need
water and food in order to live, grow, work and give milk. Even when the cow is not
producing, it needs energy to: breathe, walk and ruminate, and it needs protein to grow (meat
contains a lot of protein). The basic need, which is necessary to maintain a stable condition, is
called the 'maintenance requirement‘. The maintenance requirement is higher for a big cow
than for a smaller one. A local breed will have a lower requirement than an exotic or
crossbred breed 'Production requirement' is the requirement of extra feed for growth, work
and/or milk production. The maintenance requirement for a small local cow (weighing
approximately 350 kg) is 7 kg Dry Matter a day. A larger cow (crossbred, weighing about
500 kg) needs 10 kg DM/day. The dry matter component of the diet is the part which contains
the necessary energy, protein, fiber, minerals and vitamins.

Cow is a ruminant, as are sheep and goats. Ruminant Animals are animals having four
compartment stomachs namely, rumen, reticulum, amasum and abomasums and the cow’s
largest compartment is the rumen. Both rumen and reticulum accounts for about 70% of the
volume of the entire gastro-intestinal tract. The rumen and reticulum is only separated by a
fold in the wall without any specific orifice joining the two chambers because of this, these
two chambers are often referred to as the reticula-rumen. Food aterials from the esophagus
enters the rumen at the junction of the rumen and reticulum. In rumen and reticulum
compartments, there are billions of micro-organisms which are bacteria, protozoa and fungi.
The micro-organisms help the cow to digest the carbohydrate that is stored in plant material
and utilise the nutrients in the feed. These materials are not digesting by simple stomach
animals (mono-gastric). Therefore, to reach a good feed utilisation, and in the end a high milk
yield, the micro-organisms have to have optimal conditions.

Digestion is defined as the series of processes by which the mixture of complex materials
found in food is broken down to small fragments that can be absorbed and used by the
animal. The gastro-intestinal tracts act as a tube starting from the mouth and ending in the
anus. The wall of the tube in is important part of the mechanism of digestion, because all the
materials the animal gets from its food is absorbed through it. The ruminants have a digestive
system that is quite different from the mono-gastric animals. The rumen consists of pillars,
rhythmic contraction of these pillars causes the rumen to contract and expand leading to a
mixing of its contents. The rumen content is made up of a more liquid part at the bottom and
a dense floating “raft” of solid, mainly fibrous materials. It is this dense floating fibrous
material that the ruminant is seen further chewing (regurgitating). The act of regurgitation
reduces the particle size of the fibrous materials thereby increasing surface area for attack by
the micro organisms in the rumen and reticulum.

It is well known that the amount of milk to be produced is highly influenced by the amount
and quality of the feed given to the cow. It is also possible to influence the milk composition
through the feeding. Adequate quantities of high-quality forages are the basis of profitable
milk and livestock production. The basic source of feed for dairy cattle includes; forages,
crop residues, conserved feed, dairy rations and concentrates. Crop residues can include
maize stover, rice stover, teff straw and other crop residues. The correct time of harvesting
determines the quality and quantity of forage. Feed can be conserved in several ways such as
Hay and Silage.

A calf's rumen is not yet fully developed. This means the calf cannot yet eat roughage. For
this reason the calf needs milk. Ruminants are not born with range rumen. At birth, the rumen
and Reticulum together account for about 30% of the volume of the four chambers, by the
age of 2 months this would have increased to about 70% and in mature cow the rumen and
reticulum together occupy 70% of the volume.

In the young ruminants, feeding solely depends on the dan’s milk which is passed straight
from the oesophagus to the rumen through the oesophageal groove. This groove is formed as
a result of a reflected action of the young ruminant which initiated by the act of suckling.
This is an important aspect of the nutrition of a young calf as milk is not subjected to
microbial fermentation which reduces the quality of milk. As the animal matures and begins
to nibble on grasses and other solid feed materials however, the animal losses this ability to
close the groove and the rumen begin to develop to what eventually obtains in the adult.

Generally, the digestion process in a ruminant animal is a complex activity involving the
breakdown of fibrous materials by micro-organism leaving in the rumen in a symbiotic
relationship with the animal. It is therefore not necessary to provide ruminants with all the
feed nutrients because some of it can be synthesis through the action of these micro-
organisms.

Fig 1. The digestive tract of the rumen dairy cow

2.5. Reproduction in Dairy Cattle

Reproduction is a necessary and important part of milk production. Without regular calving
in the long run, there will be difficulties in producing the de sired amount of milk. It is also
important to produce sufficient heifer calves as replacement animals and allow herd size to be
maintained or expanded. As long as a cow or heifer is not pregnant she will normally have a
21-day oestrus cycle. The length of the oestrus cycle may vary but it usually ranges from
about 17 to 24 days. A heifer’s oestrus cycle is normally slightly shorter than a cow’s. The
cycle will continue until the cow is pregnant. After calving, cows normally undergo a 20 to
30-day period when oestrus cycles do not
occur. Some cows do not follow the normal oestrus cycle. For example, a cow can be
unoestrus, which means her ovaries do not function with the regular 17 to 24-day cycle and
are therefore not observed in heat. Other cows may suffer from ovarian cysts. These cows
will show heat at very short intervals and the period that they are in heat will last three to four
days. A long calving interval means milking less profitable cows due to the decline in
production, fewer calves and too many cows with low feed conversion efficiencies.
Therefore, successful reproductive management has a significant impact on the herd’s overall
performance and the net income. Well managed reproduction also reduces the risk of
expensive involuntary culling.

Reproduction begins with the mating between male and female and when two tiny cells
called gametes an egg, or ovum, from the female and a sperm from the male join to conceive
a new animal. The egg and sperm are sex cells that carry genetic material that determines
how the animal will look. Fertilization occurs by combining the genetic materials contained
in the sperm and ova and results in an embryo and then a fetus. The most sexually intensive
period of the oestrus cycle is during standing heat, which lasts for approximately 18 hours.
Reproduction depends on the detection of heat in the cows by the people that take care of
them. Heat is the period during which a cow can be served successfully by a bull or
inseminated artificially, if the latter is available.

Heat detection (Signs of Heat)

This is the period when the female is ready to accept the male

 Bellowing

 Standing still to be mounted and mounting other cows

 restlessness

 swollen vulva
  secretion of mucus

 Lower milk yield

 monitoring of other animals

 Licking/Sniffing the urine of other animals

 Reduced feed intake

 The lips of the vulva turn red and are somewhat swollen

 There is a discharge of clear, thin mucus hanging from the vulva or adhering to the
tail

Servicing is more successful if carried out during the second half of the heat, so about six
hours after the detection of heat. A cow should be served by a bull during the standing heat.
After that period the cow will refuse to let the bull service her. The animal has normal heat
cycles, but there are no heat signs or these are not noticed (called Silent heat). Heat detection
is very difficult, especially with tropical breeds. In this case it is preferable to keep a bull with
or close to the cows (No one can detect heat as well as the bull himself).

The duration of heat varies from animal to animal, but approximately 10 to 12 hours after the
end of standing heat, the egg is released (ovulation) and the heat ends. Tropical breeds, like
Zebus, have shorter heat periods than European breeds (lasts about 6 to 12 hours). So if you
do not want to miss the heat period, you should watch your animals regularly, to see if there
is a cow on heat (regularly means 3 to 4 times a day). When the cow is ready to be served by
a bull it is very important not to wait too long once you have seen the cow on heat, otherwise
the cow won't allow the bull to jump.

Abortion

o The first three months after conception are quite critical

o Sometimes the embryo or foetus dies and an abortion follows

 o Embryo loss can happen without any clear visible sign and heat detection at intervals
of 3 or 6 weeks should continue also after conception

Abortion can be caused by 1). Lack of Nutrition (lack of good feed and/or enough feed);
2). Lack of Hygiene (cow develops an infection due to lack of good hygiene); and 3).
Disease occurrence (Brucellosis is a disease which causes abortion). Always it is important
to find out the cause of an abortion so you can try to prevent this happening during the next
pregnancy.

2.6. Dairy and Dairy product Marketing

Dairy products are types of foods made from milk of mammals, basically cows, buffalos,
goat, sheep, yak, and camel. As milk is liquid based product it is prone to unwanted microbial
growth resulting in product disintegration. To avoid this problem and to extend shelf life of
milk it is processed to form various dairy products such as cheese, butter, milk powder, ice-
cream, yogurt, etc. Increasing awareness about health consciousness, along with rising
demand for high protein food and increasing consumption of premium dairy products are key
factors driving growth of the global dairy products market. In addition, sports nutrition is
some other factors expected to propel growth of the global dairy products market. Asia
Pacific is a dominant player in the global dairy products market and accounts for largest
market share in terms of revenue. This is attributed to easy accessibility of raw material,
increasing consumer base, and existence of animal farming in the region. In the African
context, markets for agricultural products would normally refer to market-places (open spaces
where commodities are bought and sold). Conceptually, however, a market can be visualised
as a process in which ownership of goods is transferred from sellers to buyers who may be
final consumers or intermediaries. Therefore, markets involve sales locations, sellers, buyers
and transactions.

There was no formal marketing channels for milk and milk byproducts in rural area of the
country. Dairy farm owners as a result sell their milk and milk products informally to vendors
or villageconsumers. Few producers located to near to urban areas sold their milk and milk
products informally to hotels,cafeteria houses and direct to consumers. Formal market was
limited to urban andper-urban areas where collection of milk is possible. Both rural and urban
milk is distributed from producers to consumers through the informal(traditional)
means.Fasting season also the main determinant for milk marketing in Ethiopia. During
religious and some cultural festivals dairy products were highly demanded. Thus, the prices
of dairy products especially butter increase highly.

2.7. Managements of Dairy Cattle

Dairy cattle are bred for growth, production, and reproduction in a variety of environments to
which they can readily adapt. Dairy cattle are kept all over the world. Keeping a dairy cow
can be very lucrative, especially close to urban areas. The dairy cow is, however, a very
valuable animal and owning one entails a number of risks. The biggest risk is losing the
animal due to different problems. Low productivity due to bad management will also lead to
losses. Therefore, proper management of dairy cow enhances production performance and
minimizes disease, loss due to death, and behavioral problems. Dairy management is a very
complex task, involving crop production, animal production, staffing, etc. Efficient herd
management requires not only good management of the dairy cow, but also need business
management. There are thousands of dairy farms around the world with different farm plans
and management strategies. Climate, market conditions, traditions, breeds etc. affect the
running and planning of the business in different parts of our world.

In dairy cattle management, housing is an essential component for maintaining health,

comport and protection for getting maximum production from the animal. Correctly,
selection of housing site is very important to control the environment as suitable for the
animals. Thus housing site can be select considering 1) Topography and Drainage 2) Soil
Type 3) Water Supply 4) Accessibility 5) Labour 6) Marketing 7) Electricity 8) Ventilation 9)
Thermo neutral zone and 10) Miscellaneous. Housing facilities range from fenced pastures,
corrals, and exercise yards with shelters to insulated and ventilated barns with special
equipment to restrain, isolate, and treat animals. Regardless of management strategy, farm
size or local climate, the cow has to calf, produce milk, eat, be kept in good health status etc.
The goal for any dairy farm should be to maximise profit per unit of milk within farm
constraints and in some parts of the world, within milk quotas.

In addition to this, one of the primary keys to a successful dairy operation is a good nutrition
programme that controls the results of milk production, reproduction and health. A cow’s
intake per day is limited and depends on her stage of lactation. The intake will gradually
increase after calving, to reach its peak approximately 6-12 weeks after calving. It is
important to provide what she need in terms of energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and water.
Animals need extra feed to produce power (traction), milk and offspring, and also to grow.
The type of feed an animal needs depends on the kind of production you want. Traction
requires energy and therefore the extra feed should contain a lot of energy. Growth requires
mostly proteins, and thus growing animals need feed with a lot of protein in it. For milk the
animal needs both energy and protein. One week before calving give some extra high quality
feed to strengthen the animal, because the animal will not eat very much during the first few
days after calving. Once the cow has calved, she can be milked. Cows which have recently
calved are very sensitive to nutrient deficiencies. If you supplement this cow with extra feed
to stimulate milk production, take care that you do this regularly: preferably every day. You
cannot do it by giving some one week and then nothing the following week. After a week
with little or no supplementary feed the milk production will drop and will be very
difficult to stimulate again. The best period (economically speaking) to supplement with good
quality feed is during the first 3 months after calving. The amount of Dry Matter required by
a milking cow is 2.5-3% of its body weight.

A calf needs its mother's milk in order to start a healthy and productive life. Milk contains all
the necessary nutrients. It is full of energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. It is very
important for the calf to drink a sufficient quantity of the first milk,
called colostrums during the first 48 hours. This milk contains antibodies, which give the calf
resistance to prevalent diseases. The calf needs 10 percent of its live weight in milk each day
in order to grow 1 percent in live weight per day. So a calf that weighs 30 kg needs 3 kg milk
daily. Too little milk will weaken the calf, make it more susceptible to disease or the calf
might die because of malnutrition. If the calf is a female and she is given too little milk she
will grow slowly and will be older before being able to be served. She will stay small, also as
an adult, so her milk production potential will be lower. So, offering the calf too little milk
will give lower milk production (and income) later. A good supply of milk for a female calf
now will increase your income in a few years' time. At almost 4 months you can wean your
calf, and provide it with good quality feed and concentrates. Ideal weaning weights are 70 kg
live weight for large breeds (adult weight 500 kg) and 45 kg live weight for small breeds
(adult weight 350 kg), provided the calf has no setbacks. If management is poor and
concentrates are expensive, milk feeding for a longer period could be a better economic
alternative.
Regular observation of cattle at ease is a must, both for health control and for being able to
tell whether a cow is in heat. Taking good care of animal health does not only mean treating
an animal when it is sick. It also means helping the animal to avoid becoming ill. Examples
of such production losses are retarded growth in calves and reduced milk production of cows
after illness. Most diseases can be prevented by the same measures that enhance production.
General preventive measures are: Hygiene ( Cleaning and disinfecting); Water (Always ensure
free access to clean and fresh water); Good feed and regular feeding; Shelter ( for protection
against bad weather (rain, wind and cold, or intensive sunshine) or peaceful environment
(avoid unrest and stress); quarantine (isolating sick animals (during their illness) and
newcomers (for about six weeks) from the rest of the herd. This measure is often hard to
implement, but helps to avoid the spread of contagious diseases to other animals; Feeding
colostrums (preventing sickness in the first three months of life), and Vaccinations.

Farmers will remember significant events on their farm to the date, but often find it difficult
to remember exactly when events relating to their individual animals occurred, especially if
they have many. However, precise recording is necessary if you want to improve your
economic returns. The kinds of records worth keeping depend on the production goal.
But on all farms it is useful to have record on Farm diary; Farm costs-benefit calendar;
Individual cow records. This will help you to identify what is costing you more than
expected, and what can be improved to increase benefits.

Generally, animals react clearly to your movements and feelings. Regularity and consistency
are very important for the animals. Consistency means that repeated actions are always done
in the same way. The animal will recognize these actions and in time it will become less
frightened. Approach the animals quietly and calmly, do not make sudden movements and do
not shout. If you use a calm and quiet voice the animals will become quieter. The animal also
learns to recognize your voice as you approach.

2.8. Constraints of Dairy Production

There are many constraints that have to be considered before you start using a particular
farming system or before you change from one farming system to another. The extra inputs
needed (money, labour and knowledge) and the consequences of changing a system have to
be very carefully considered in advance. Otherwise the expected improvement in production
might be disappointing. Generally, the major constraints of dairy production are; lack of
improved forage seeds, lack of awareness on cattle housing systems, limited infrastructure,
lack of improved dairy animal, lack of dairy producing and marketing cooperative,
knowledge gap on improved dairy production, processing and marketing. In addition,
conservation and utilization of available crop residues are not widely practiced, on other hand
lack of feeder roads in remote areas where there is potential milk production that links
producers with town markets, poor access to inputs and services includes extension,
veterinary services, market information, AI and dairy inputs are the other challenges in dairy
sector, there is also aserious shortage of veterinary experts and limited access to veterinary
service.