COM 3110 - Grammar Quiz Notes

Abbreviations
FOLLOW THESE GUIDELINES WHEN USING ABBREVIATIONS:
USE PERIOD WITH SINGLE – WORD ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations of single words usually take periods.
vols. Volumes
ft. foot
Feb. February
Dr. Doctor
WRITE INITIALISMS WITHOUT PERIODS
Initialisms are abbreviations made from the first letter of each of the words in a title or
name.
ATM Automatic Teller Machine
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
AL American League
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Adminstration
Initialisms normally do not contain periods. If you think that the initialism may be
unfamiliar to one or more of your readers, spell out the full term followed by the initialism
in parenthesis the first time you mention that term. In subsequent references, you can
use the initialism alone.
Here’s an example:
The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for his Web Site is somewhat uninviting. His URL
is <www.dontbotherme.com >.
WRITE ACRONYMS WITHOUT PERIODS
Acronyms are words formed from the first letters of major words in a title or phrase.
SCUBA Self – Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
RADAR Radio Detecting And Ranging

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
SARS Severe Acute Respirator Syndrome
LASER Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Acronyms that are used as words do not require periods. Note that words such as laser
and scuba are no longer capitalized because they have been accepted as words in their
own right.
AVOID ABBREVIATIONS FOR TITLE BUT USE THEM FOR DEGREES
Use the spell – out version of a title in formal prose:
Not: The pres. Of our graduating class has a straight A average.
But: The president of our graduating class has a straight A average.
Use the abbreviation for the title in the inside address to a letter.
Text of Letter Address

President President George W. Bush Pres. George W. Bush
Captain Captain Arnold Capt. Mary Arnold
Rabbi Rabbi Stein Rabbi Vincent Stein
Use abbreviations for academic degrees.
Ph.D MS MA BA BS DDS
NOTE: Place academic titles before a name and academic degrees after a name,
but do not use both at the same time.
Not: Dr. Alice Conway, Ph.D
But: Dr. Alice Conway
Or: Alice Conway, Ph.D
USE FAMILIAR ABBREVIATIONS
Use technical, government, or other such abbreviations when you are sure that your
readers understand what they stand for. If you are unsure, follow the advice in 2., and
spell out the term first followed by the abbreviation in parentheses.
APR Annual Percentage Rate

CAD Computer Aided Design
GHz Gigahertz
GPO Government Printing Office
AVOID ABBREVIATIONS WITH DATES
Write out days of the week and months of the year.
Not: The meetings are usually held on the first Mon. of each month. In Sept.,
however, we will meet on the third Mon.
But: The meetings are usually held on the first Monday of each month. In September,
however, we will meet on the third Monday.
USE ABBREVIATIONS FOR WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Use abbreviations when the words that stand for weights and measures appear with
numbers.
Heat the beaker of liquid for no more than 10 min.
The city is 29 km. ahead.
We bought an 8 ft. pine board.
My new car gets 45 mpg.
However, when such words appear without numbers, write them out.
The beaker should be heated for only a few minutes.
We still have several kilometers to drive.
He wanted to know how many miles per gallon my new car gets.
USE ABBREVIATIONS FOR TEMPERATURE AND TIME
238 B.C. 432 A.D. 5:52 P.M. 98.6° F
AVOID ABBREVIATIONS WITH MOST PLACE NAMES EXCEPT THOSE IN

ADDRESSES
Generally, do not use abbreviations in formal writing when mentioning places. For
example, you should write Fifth Avenue, not FifthAve., in the body of your paper.
However, you can use abbreviations for place names in addresses, lists, bibliographical
references, and other specialized cases. Here are a few examples:
U.S. (or USA)
U.K.
Mt. (Ranier)
St. (Augustine)
Terms used in street names should also be spelled out in the text, but abbreviations can
be used in addresses:
Ave. (Avenue)
St. (Street)
Pkwy. (Parkway)
Rd. (Road)
Rte. (Route)
In addresses use standard postal abbreviations for states and possessions:
State/Possession Abbreviation
ALABAMA AL
ALASKA AK
AMERICAN SAMOA AS
ARIZONA AZ
ARKANSAS AR
CALIFORNIA CA
COLORADO CO
CONNECTICUT CT
DELWARE DE
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA DC
FLORIDA FL
GEORGIA GA
GUAM GU
HAWAII HI
IDAHO ID
IOWA IA
KANSAS KS
KENTUCKY KY
LOUISIANA LA
MAINE ME
MARSHALL ISLANDS MH
MARYLAND MD
MASSACHUSETTS MA
MICHIGAN MI
MINNESOTA MN
MISSISSIPPI MS
MISSOURI MO
MONTANA MT
NEBRASKA NE
NEVADA NV
NEW HAMPSHIRE NH
NEW JERSEY NJ
NEW MEXICO NM
NEW YORK NY
NORTH CAROLINA NC
NORTH DAKOTA ND
NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS MP
OHIO OH
OREGON OR
PALAU PW
PENNSYLVANIA PA
PUERTO RICO PR
RHONE ISLAND RI
SOUTH CAROLINA SC
SOUTH DAKOTA SD
TENNESSEE TN
TEXAS TX
UTAH UT
VERMONT VT
VIRGIN ISLANDS VI
VIRGINIA VA
WASHINGTON WA
WEST VIRGINA WV
WISCONSIN WI
WYOMING WY
Military “State” Abbreviation
Armed Forces Africa AE
Armed Forces Americas (except Canada) AA
Armed Forces Canada AE
Armed Forces Europe AE
Armed Forces Middle East AE
Armed Forces Pacific AP
USE ABBREVIATIONS OF COMMON LATIN EXPRESSIONS
i.e. (idest -- that is)
e.g. (exempligratia -- for example)
et al. (et. alii -- and others)
cf. (confer -- compare)
N.B. (notabene -- note well)
USE ABBREVIATIONS IN BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATIONS
Use the appropriate abbreviations for elements in books, magazines, journals, and
other publications:
p. (page) pp. (pages) para. (paragraph) pars. (paragraphs).
vol. (volume) vols. (volumes) ch. (chapter) bk. (book) sec. (section)
AVOID SYMBOLS IN FORMAL WRITING
In general, avoid symbols in academic writing. Some symbols, however, are acceptable.
For example, the dollar sign ($) should be used if followed by a number.
Avoid using both the dollar sign and the word dollar.
Not: The car costs $45,000 dollars.
But: The car costs $54,000.

Avoid the ampersand (&). Instead use the word and, unless the ampersand appears in
the actual term or title:
Smith and Jones Imports
But
Johnson & Johnson
Sample Quiz questions:
1. Click on the sentence that uses abbreviations correctly.

a. On the third Fri. in October, Jamestown will hold its annual Harvest Fair.
b. On the third Friday in Oct., Jamestown will hold its annual Harvest Fair.
c. On the third Friday in October, Jamestown will hold its annual Harvest
Fair.
Answer: c. On the third Friday in October, Jamestown will hold its annual Harvest Fair.
2. Click on the sentence that uses abbreviations correctly.

a. We paid over $140 dollars for an encyclopedia of classical mythology and
a copy of Homer’s Iliad.
b. We paid over $140 for an encyclopedia of classical mythology & a copy of
Homer’s Iliad.
c. We pay over $140 for an encyclopedia of classical mythology and a copy
of Homer’s Iliad.
Answer: c. We pay over $140 for an encyclopedia of classical mythology and a copy of
Homer’s Iliad.
ADJECTIVES
An describes (modifies) a noun or pronoun by answering questions such as “Which?”

“What kind of?” or “How many?” It can come before a noun or pronoun or after a linking
verb.
Before a noun: A poor country, Indonesia has a huge population.

After a linking verb: Indonesia is poor, yet its population is huge.
LEARN TO USE ADJECTIVES
Adjectives describes and .
The bright yellow lights on the large suspension bridge shone through a thick
mist hanging over the tired city.
BECOME FAMILIAR WITH ADJECTIVE TYPES
Adjectives answer questions such as What kind of? Which one? What color? What
size? and How many? Adjectives can come before nouns or can act as .
Complements are words that describe subjects through linking verbs such as is, are,
was, have been, or will be.
Before a noun: The old city in Quebec attracts many tourists.

Many citizens of Switzerland speak German.
Complement: The clouds were dark and threatening.
The novels they read were Russian.
NOUNS AS ADJECTIVES
Nouns that come before other nouns can act as adjectives.
The science book lay on the kitchen table as the mathematics teacher looked
over her class notes.
CAUTION: When you use a noun as an adjective, make sure the noun is singular even
when the word it modifies is plural.
Not: She has worked in toys factories.

But: She has worked in toy factories.
PARTICIPLES: VERBS AS ADJECTIVES
Still another type of adjective is a ; particles are adjectives formed from verbs. They
end in –ed, -t, en, or –ing.
jump + ed = jumped
lose + t = lost
break + en = broken
roll + ing = rolling
Like other adjectives, participles can be used before or after the word they describe.
Some scholars believe the lost city of Atlantis never existed.

The old adage “a rolling stone gathers no moss” advises us to keep busy.
PLACE ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY
Adjectives follow a certain general order when they appear in a sentence. In general,
place adjective before, not after, the noun.
Not: She wore a dress red.

But: She wore a red dress.
However, participles can come before or after the nouns they describe, depending on
meaning.
The Russian composer Sergey Rachmaninoff got a standing ovation.

The Greek temples standing outside the city of Agrigento are about 2,600 years
old.
1. Adjectives of color come before those of material or type.
Not: They passed a wooden red barn.

But: They passed a red wooden barn.
2. Adjectives of age come before those of color.
Not: They passed a red old barn.

But: They passed an old red barn.
3. Adjectives of size, weight, and shape come before those of age.
Not: They passed an old large barn.

But: They passed a large old barn.
4. Adjectives of quality or condition come before those of size, weight, and

shape.
Not: They passed a little charming cottage.

But: They passed a charming little cottage.
5. Adjectives formed from nouns appear next to nouns they describe.

Not: The Italian old painting has been sold.
But: The old Italian painting has been sold.
6. An adjective series begins with an article or adjective of quantity.
Not: The old six Italian paintings have been sold.

But: The six old Italian paintings have been sold.
USE THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS OF ADJECTIVES
Adjectives can be used to make comparisons. For example, if you want to compare
three runners, you can say the first is fast, the second is faster, and the third is fastest.
Here are three ways to use adjectives in comparisons:
1. Add –er or –est to the basic form of the adjective.

2. Use more/most, less/least.
3. Change the spelling of the adjective.
ADDING –ER AND –EST
Add –er when comparing two nouns or pronouns; this form is called the comparative
form.
Add –est when comparing more than two; this form is called the superlative form.
Basic form: My sister is young.

Comparative: My sister is younger than I.
Superlative: My sister is the youngest of three children.
With adjectives that end in –y, first change the –y to –I and then add –er or –est.
CAUTION: Always use –er when comparing two nouns or pronouns; use –est when
comparing more than two.
Basic Comparative Superlative

tall taller tallest
cold colder coldest
loud louder loudest
funny funnier funniest
heavy heavier heaviest
USING MORE/MOST, LESS/LEAST
You can also put more/most or less/least before the basic form of the adjective to form
the comparative and superlative.
Basic Comparative Superlative

powerful more powerful most powerful
difficult more difficult most difficult
expensive less expensive least expensive
CHANGING THE FORM OR SPELLING OF AN ADJECTIVE
Irregular adjectives change their spellings (some even become new words) in the
comparative and superlative.
Not: Bad, badder, baddest

OR
Bad, more bad, most bad
But: Bad, worse, worst
FIVE RULES FOR USING COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
Rule 1: Use the comparative, the –er ending, only when comparing two things; use the
superlative, the –est ending, only when comparing more than two.
Not: Alaska is the larger state in the Union.

Of the two states, Alaska is richest in minerals.
But: Alaska is the largest state in the Union.
Of the two states, Alaska is richer in minerals.
Rule 2: Use more/less when comparing two things, most/least when comparing more
than two things.
Not: Of the two dancers, Gene Kelly was the most talented.
Gene Kelly was the more talented dancer in the company.
But: Of the two dancers, Gene Kelly was the more talented.
Gene Kelly was the most talented dancer in the company.
Rule 3: Don’t use more/most after adding –er or –est to an adjective.
Not: more brighter/most brightest

But: brighter/brightest
Or: more bright/most bright
Rule 4: Don’t use more/most with irregular adjectives.
Not: In 1932, the electorate believed Roosevelt would make a more better
president than Hoover would.
But: In 1932, the electorate believed Roosevelt would make a better president
than Hoover would.
Rule 5: In general, don’t add –er or –est to an adjective of more than two syllables.
Instead, use more/most or less/least.
Not: dangerous, dangerouser, dangerousest
But: dangerous, more dangerous, most dangerous
LEARN TO USE PARTICIPLES
Participles are adjectives made from verbs. Present participles end in –ing. Past
participles of regular verbs end in –cl, -ed, -en, -n, and –t.
PARTICIPLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS
Present participles of all verbs end in –ing. Past participles of irregular verbs must be
learned individually. You may want to print out the list of the principal parts of common
irregular verbs that follows.
Present Past Present participle Past participle

bring bought bringing brought
catch caught catching caught
cling clung clinging clung
come came coming come
dig dug digging dug
do did doing done
feel felt feeling felt
Fly flew flying flown
get got getting got, gotten
Go went going gone
hold held holding held
hurt hurt hurting hurt
keep kept keeping kept
lead led leading led
make made making made
meet met meeting met
ride rode riding ridden
run ran running run
see saw seeing seen
send sent sending sent
sit sat sitting sat
speak spoke speaking spoken
steal stole stealing stolen
sting strung stinging stung
teach taught teaching taught
tear tore tearing torn
throw threw throwing thrown
win won winning won
write wrote writing written
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

Present participles end in –ing. You use them to describe a noun or pronoun or to show
what a noun or pronoun is doing.
The driving rain entered the house.

Opposing the new tax bill, the president vetoed it.
THE PAST PARTICIPLE
Past participles of regular verbs end in –d, -ed, -en, -n, and –t. Past participles of
irregular verbs must be learned individually. (See the table above.) Use past participles
to show what is done to a noun or pronoun.
The rain, driven by strong winds, entered the house.

Though vetoed by the president, the tax bill became law.
PARTICIPLES VERSUS NOUNS AND VERBS
Participles are adjectives. To avoid confusing them with nouns and verbs, make sure
you have used the proper ending.
CAUTION: Not: She bought a use car.

But: She bought a used car.
ADVERBS
An tells something about (modifies) a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by

answering questions such as “Where?” “When?” “How?” “How much?” “How often?”
and “To what extend?”
William Butler Yeats (1865 – 1939) energetically supported a revival in Irish literature.
[Energetically modifies the verb supported.]
An extremely talented poet and dramatist, Yeats is still associated with Dublin’s Abbey
Theater.
[Extremely modifies the adjective talent]
His poems, plays, and Celtic tales are still very widely read.
[Very modifies the adverb widely.]
MASTER ADVERBS
Adverbs describe , adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbs answer questions such as
When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? and To what extend? Many
adverbs end in –ly. However, soon, very, fast, seldom, often, and well are also adverbs.
Verb: Musicologists believe that Rachmaninoff’s Third Concerto successfully

combines themes from Russian folk and liturgical music.
Adjective: Some parts of the Third Concerto are extremely meditative, even
dreamlike.
Adverb: When introduced during the composer’s 1909 American tour, the Third
Concerto was very well received.
USING ADVERBS VERSUS ADJECTIVES
Use an adverb, not an adjective, when you describe a verb, adjective, or other adverb. If
you are not sure whether a word is an adjective or an adverb, check the dictionary.
Not: Vladimir Ashkenazy played the two Rachmaninoff piano concertos skillful
and passionate.
But: Vladimir Ashkenazy played the two Rachmaninoff piano concertos
skillfully and passionately.
COMPARING ADVERBS
Like adjectives, adverbs can be compared. That is, they can be put into the comparative
and superlative forms. Use the comparative form to compare two things; use the
superlative form to compare more than two things. For example:
Adverb: Sam works quickly.

Comparative: Sam works more quickly than I.
Superlative: Of everyone in our class, Sam works most quickly.
To compare adverbs that end in –ly (there are many of these), add more/most or
less/least to the adverb.
Adverb Comparative Superlative

quickly more quickly most quickly
lively less lively least lively
NOTE: With adverbs that do not end in –ly (there are only a few of these), use the –er
and –est endings or use more/most or less/least. If you don’t know which method to
use, check the dictionary for the correct comparative and superlative forms.
Adverb Comparative Superlative

fast faster fastest
often less often least often
LEARN TO USE ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS WITH SENSE WORDS

Writers sometimes use verbs such as look, sound, smell, touch, and taste incorrectly,
especially if they confuse the subject of an action with its object.
Not: The taco didn’t taste well.

But: The taco didn’t taste good.
Make sure you know what you are describing. If you are describing how a taco tastes,
you might write
The taco tastes good.
If you are discussing your ability to taste, you might write
I can’t taste food well; I have a cold.
NOTE: In the first sentence, a noun, taco, is being described; therefore, the adjective
good must be used. In the second, a verb, taste, is being described; therefore, the
adverb well must be used.
CHECK YOUR MEANING: ADVERBS VERSUS ADJECTIVES
CAUTION: Substituting an adverb for an adjective can create a new meaning.
Adjective: Sam looked nervous.

Adverb: Sam looked nervously at his date’s father.
Sample Quiz questions
1. Identify the adverb(s) in the following sentence.

Sara speaks Portuguese well.
a. Sara
b. speaks
c. well
Answer: c. well
2. Identify the adjective(s) in the following sentence. Aberdeen is a seaport in the

northeastern part of Scotland.
a. northeastern
b. Scotland
c. part
d. in
Answer: a. northeastern
Apostrophes
MASTER THE APOSTROPHE (‘) – SEVEN RULES
An apostrophe (‘) shows possession:
the child’s toy the film’s star

the teacher’s desk the store’s prices
the city’s drug problem the dog’s tail
You can also use apostrophes to create special relationships between words: a night’s
sleep, two months’ pay.
SEVEN RULES FOR USING THE APOSTROPHE
Rule 1: Use the apostrophe to show possession; add –‘s to a singular .
Monrovia, Liberia’s capital, was named after U.S. president James

Monroe.
Add –‘s to a singular noun that ends in –s or –z, as long as doing so does not make the
pronunciation of that noun awkward. If doing so creates awkwardness, add only the
apostrophe.
Jazz’s origins go back to Afro – American spirituals.
BUT
Jesus’ teachings can be found in the New Testament.
Rule 2: Use the apostrophe to show possession; add only –‘ if the noun is plural
and ends in /-s.
The two countries’ borders were in dispute.
Rule 3: Use the apostrophe to show joint possession in a series; add –‘s only to
the last noun.
Groucho, Chico, and Harpo’s films are still funny.
Rule 4: Use the apostrophe to show individual possession in a series; add –‘s to
each noun.
Boston’s and San Francisco’s waterfronts are interesting, but I prefer

Seattle’s.
Rule 5: Use the apostrophe in in place of omitted numbers or letters.

She will graduate with the class of ’99.
Because it’s raining, we can’t go to the park.
CAUTION: It’s = it is; can’t = cannot.
Rule 6: Use the apostrophe to form the of a hyphenated word; add –‘s after the
last letter.
Not: My mother – in – laws home

Not: My mother’s – in – law home
But: My mother – in – law ‘s home
Rule 7: Add an apostrophe to and letters and numbers to make them .
Syed received three A’s and two B’s as final grades.

Three 747’s sat on the runway.
CAUTION: In general, do not use an apostrophe to form plurals.
Not: Hitler planned to conquer the nation’s of Europe.

But: Hitler planned to conquer the nations of Europe.
CAUTION: Do not add an apostrophe to a pronoun that is already possessive.
Not: Under Hitler, Germany sought it’s place in the sun.

But: Under Hitler, Germany sought its place in the sun.
1. Choose the correct sentence.

a. It’s time to stand up for what you believe, because if you don’t, you’ll be
left behind.
b. It’s time to stand up for what you believe, because if you don’t, you’ll be
left behind.
c. Its time to stand up for what you believe, because if you don’t, you’ll be left
behind.
Answer: b. It’s time to stand up for what you believe, because if you don’t, you’ll be left
behind.
2. Choose the correct sentence.

a. Hes so ill that he cant complete the homework.
b. He’s so ill that he can’t complete the homework.
c. He’s so ill that he cant complete the homework.
Answer: b. He’s so ill that he can’t complete the homework.
ARTICLES
are short words that point to a noun. The points to specific persons, places, and things.
A and an do not point to something specific.
The elephant charged the party of tourists. (A specific elephant charged.)

An elephant is unpredictable (Any elephant is unpredictable.)
MASTERING ARTICLES--NINE RULES FOR ESL STUDENTS
Rule 1: Use a or an for general reference. When you use a or an, you mean any item.
Al owns a car. [This is the same as saying any car.]
Nina saw a dolphin. [This is the same as saying any dolphin.]

Use the when you mean a single, specific person, place or thing. This unique person,
place or thing may have been mentioned using a or an earlier in the writing.
The car stalled. [The refers to a specific car.]
The dolphin jumped very high. [The refers to a specific dolphin.]
Rule 2: Place a or an before singular nouns only.
an atom atoms
a building buildings
a cell cells
a Canadian dollar Canadian dollars
an Indian elephant Indian elephants
Place the before singular or plural nouns.

the computer the computers
the disk drive the disk drives
the electric bill the electric bills
NOTE: In general, do not use an article before nouns that name

religions, philosophies, intellectual or artistic movements,
or nations.
Not: The Roman Catholicism

But: Roman Catholicism
Rule 3: Place a or an before nouns that can be counted. Don't use a or an before nouns
that cannot be counted.
Count
The mountain climber used a tank of
oxygen.
They marveled at the many cultural
wonders of France.
Jason was a hero.
Noncount
Oxygen and hydrogen combine to from
water.
They learned to speak French.
Jason had courage.
Rule 4: Use a before consonant sounds; use an before vowel sounds.

Consonant: A thick green slime covered the bay.
Sajid bought a copier and a fax machine.
Vowel: She developed an aptitude for skiing.

Andre saw an octogenarian leading an animal that
resembled an opossum.
CAUTION: Words beginning with a silent -h actually begin with a

vowel sound; they take an:
an hour, an honor
Some words beginning with -un take a:
a university, a union, a unicycle
Rule 5: If an adjective comes before a noun

a. Place a before adjectives that begin with consonants.
a disastrous error in judgement
a juvenile attempt to be funny
b. Place an before adjectives that begin with vowels.
an elegant reception at the British consulate
an online course in English composition
Rule 6: In most cases, don't use articles with abstract nouns, such as words that name
attitudes, diseases, emotions, holidays, languages, philosophies, religions, sports, and
studies.
Henri loves art history.
There are laws against sexual harassment.
Marion had recovered from pneumonia.
Enzo's only vice is gluttony.
Our vacation ends on Labor Day.
Paul studied Sanskrit.
My friends follow Buddhism.
Ernie believes excessive pride is a sin.
Rule 8: Don't use articles with these kinds of proper nouns:

a. People, real or fictional
Ms. Aarons, Superman

b. Countries, continents, states, provinces, cities, towns, islands
Chad, Asia, Minnesota, Ontario, Sardinia
c. Parks
Everglades National Park, Lincoln Park
d. Mountains
Mount Vesuvius, Mount Rainier
e. Lakes, ponds, other small bodies of water
Lake Victoria, Scudder's Basin
f. Names of specific political or religious leaders
President Ford, Pope John Paul II
Rule 9:Use articles with these types of proper nouns:

a. Regions of a country or of the world
the Far East, the West, the Arctic
b. Mountain ranges
the Cascade Mountains, the Caucasus

c. Groups of islands
the Shetland Islands, the Lipari Islands

d. Large bodies of water
the Bay of Bengal, the Caribbean Sea

e. Names of certain nations
the United States of America, the Netherlands, the People's Republic of China
f. Wars
the Russian Revolution, the Boxer Rebellion, the Second World War (But: World
War II)
g. Buildings, canals, bridges
the White House, the Suez Canal, the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge

h. Official titles of political and religious leaders
the president of the United States, the sultan of Brunei, the archbishop of
Canterbury

1. Click the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 1)
a. Did you ever own car?
b. Did he ever own a car?
c. Did she ever own a car?
Answer: b. Did he ever own a car?
2. Click the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 2)

a. A good dinner in Tokyo, says my guidebook, costs about $100.
b. The good dinner in Tokyo, says my guidebook, costs about $100.
c. A good dinners in Tokyo, says my guidebook, cost about $100.
Answer: a. A good dinner in Tokyo, says my guidebook, costs about $100.
3. Click on the letter of the sentence that is correct. (Refer to Rule 3)

a. I don’t like to ride in bus.
b. I don’t like to ride in a traffic.
c. I’d prefer to ride a bicycle.
Answer: c. I’d prefer to ride a bicycle.

a. A pride is the chief of the seven deadly sins.
b. Pride is the chief of seven deadly sins.
c. Pride is the chief of the seven deadly sins.
Answer: c. Pride is the chief of the seven deadly sins.

a. I made a silly mistake on the test.
b. Number 3 was an hard question.
c. However, number 4 was a easy one.
Answer: a. I made a silly mistake on the test.

a. I love languages and I plan to study the French in the fall.
b. I love the languages and I plan to study French in the fall.
c. I love languages and I plan to study French in the fall.
Answer: c. I love languages and I plan to study French in the fall.

a. The high school students usually like pizza.
b. High school students usually like pizza.
c. High school students usually like the pizza.
Answer: b High school students usually like pizza.

a. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the Asia.
b. The Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in Asia.
c. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in Asia.
Answer: c. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in Asia.

a. The Philippine Islands are found in the Pacific Ocean.
b. Philippine Islands are found in the Pacific Ocean.
c. The Philippine Islands are found in Pacific Ocean.
Answer: a. The Philippine Islands are found in the Pacific Ocean.

Capitalization
MASTER 16 RULES OF CAPITALIZATION
Rule 1: Capitalize the first word of a .
Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.
CAUTION: Words after a semicolon are not usually capitalized.
Consider the lilies of the field; they toil not, neither do they spin.
Rule 2: Capitalize proper . A proper noun names a specific person, place, or

thing.
Common noun: The city was dark and empty.

Proper noun: The city of Metropolis was dark and empty.
Rule 3: Capitalize proper . Proper adjectives are made from proper nouns.
French toast Norway maple

Rocky Mountain spotted fever Labrador retriever
Rule 4: Capitalize a title when used with a person’s name.
Professor Art Official BUT a professor

Dr. Serge E. Call BUT a doctor
Rule 5: Capitalize each letter in made from capitalized words.
IRS (Internal Revenue Service)

NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People)
NOTE: Some abbreviations are capitalized even though the words they stand for
are not.
RBI (runs batted in) MS (manuscript)
Rule 6: Capitalize days of the week, months, and special days.
Tuesday January Independence Day

CAUTION: Do not capitalize the seasons.
Not: the Fall semester

But: the fall semester
Rule 7: Capitalize major words in a title.

Books: Gone with the Wind
Newspapers: The Christian Science Monitor
Poems: “Dover Beach”
Plays: Death of a Salesman
Short
Stories: “The Lady, or the Tiger?”
NOTE: Articles (such as a, the), prepositions (such as of, with), and conjunctions
(such as or) of fewer than five letters do not get capitalized unless they
begin a title.
Rule 8: Always capitalize the pronoun I, even in contractions.
I’m not sure what I did to offend you, but I’ll surely make up for it.
Rule 9: Capitalize a region of the country or world; do not capitalize a direction.
The Confederacy is also referred to as the South.
BUT
Many retirees go south during the winter.
Rule 10: Capitalize the name of a place, organization, or business only if you give
its actual title.
Oak Street Pharmacy the pharmacy on Oak Street
BUT a television network
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
Rule 11: Capitalize words such as mother only if used as a title.
What big eyes you have, Grandmother!
BUT
My grandmother has big eyes.
Rule 12: Capitalize a rank or title only when used with a name.
I met General Colin Powell.

BUT
A general must consider the welfare of the troops.
NOTE: If you can put the word any in front of a noun, that noun should NOT be
capitalized.
Rule 13: Capitalize the name of a specific institution, not of a type of institution.
We attended Fullerton High School from 1991 to 1995.
BUT
I should have taken more math courses in high school.
Rule 14: Capitalize the name of an official academic course, not a branch of
learning.
No one got higher than a B in Biology 101.
BUT
I have always had a hard time with biology.
Rule 15: Capitalize a sacred name, not a secular word made from it.
God a godlike figure

the Koran a scriptural story
Rule 16: Learn to deal with words with two meanings.
George Bush is a Republican; Jimmy Carter is a republican.
In the case of George Bush, Republican refers to an official political party and should be
capitalized. In the case of Jimmy Carter, republican refers only to a type of government
and should not be capitalized.
1. Choose the sentence that contains no errors in capitalization.

a. Traditionally held on the last Thursday in November, thanksgiving is a
uniquely American holiday.
b. Traditionally held on the last Thursday in november, Thanksgiving is a
c. Traditionally held on the last Thursday in November, Thanksgiving is a
Answer: c. Traditionally held on the last Thursday in November, Thanksgiving is a
2. Choose the sentence that contains no error in capitalization.

a. One friend of mine has seen The Rocky Horror Picture Show almost a
hundred times.
b. One friend of mine has seen The Rocky Horror picture show almost a
hundred times.
c. One friend of mine has seen the rocky horror picture show almost a
hundred times.
Answer: a. One friend of mine has seen The Rocky Horror Picture Show almost a
hundred times.
Colons
LEARN FOUR USES FOR THE COLON (;)
A colon (;) is a mark of punctuation that appears within a sentence. Never use a colon
at the end of a sentence.
USE A COLON
1. Between independent (main) clauses.

2. After an independent clause to introduce information.
3. To introduce direct quotations.
4. For other purposes.
THE COLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES
Sometimes, you can use an independent clause to explain, add to, or clarify the
meaning of another. You should separate these clauses with a colon.
Stephen King has been busy; he was written more than 27 novels since
1974.
THE COLON AFTER AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE TO INTRODUCE INFORMATION
You can place a colon after an independent clause to introduce information naming
sometime in that clause.
Alaska is rich in several natural resources: oil, gold, copper, and uranium.
Only one city is called “eternal”: Rome.
THE COLON TO INTRODUCE DIRECT QUOTATIONS
You can use a colon to introduce a quotation.
The prisoner pleaded with his accusers: “I am innocent. Innocent, I tell

you!”
CAUTION: Don’t use a colon to introduce a direct quotation if that quotation is needed
to make the sentence you’re writing complete.
Not: Pope wrote that: “to err is human.”

But: Pope wrote that “to err is human.”
THE COLON FOR OTHER PURPOSES
1. In the salutation of a business letter:
Dear Professor Johnson:

2. To separate hours and minutes:
10:55 P.M.
3. Before a subtitle:
Thomas More: A Biography
CAUTION: Do not use a colon to separate objects or from . A object is the receiver
of an action. A complement comes after the verb and describes the .
Object
Not: She bought; a saw, a hammer, and a drill.

But: She bought a saw, a hammer, and a drill.
Complement
Not: He is; a good speller but a bad typist.

But: He is a good speller but a bad typist.
1. Click on the sentence that uses correct punctuation.

a. The choir sang the minister’s favorite song: “Amazing Grace.”
b. The choir sang: the minister’s favorite song: “Amazing Grace.”
c. The choir sang: the minister’s favorite song “Amazing Grace.”
Answer: a. The choir sang the minister’s favorite song: “Amazing Grace.”
2. Click on the sentence that uses correct punctuation.

a. Goldie’s Café: serves my favorite dish: Hungarian goulash.
b. Goldie’s Café serves my favorite dish: Hungarian goulash.
c. Goldie’s Café serves my favorite dish Hungarian goulash.
Answer: b. Goldie’s Café serves my favorite dish: Hungarian goulash.

COMMA SPLICES
AVOID COMMA SPLICES
A splice is an error similar to a fused sentence. A fused sentence joins two (main)
clauses without a and/or proper punctuation. A comma splice joins two complete
sentences with a comma. However, a comma is not strong enough to join two
independent (main) clauses. You can correct a comma splice by using the same five
methods used to correct fused sentences.
NOT: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city, Medina is also an important religious center.
BUT: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city. Medina is also an important religious center.
OR: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city, but Medina is also an important religious
center.
OR: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city; Medina is also an important religious center.
OR: Mecca is Islam’s holiest city; however, Medina is also an important
religious center.
OR: Although Mecca is Islam’s holiest city, Medina is also an important
religious center.
1. One of the following items contains a comma splice, another is a run – on (or
fused) sentence, and a third is correct. Click on the item that is correct.
a. My motorcycle wouldn’t start on Friday it had been hit by lightning.
b. My motorcycle wouldn’t start on Friday, for it had been hit by lightning.
c. My motorcycle wouldn’t start on Friday, it had been hit by lightning.
Answer: b. My motorcycle wouldn’t start on Friday, for it had been hit by lightning
2. One of the following items contains a comma splice, another is a run – on (or
fused) sentence, and a third is correct. Click on the item that is correct.
a. The forecaster said it would rain on Sunday it might be sunny.
b. The forecaster said it would rain; however, on Sunday it might be sunny.
c. The forecaster said it would rain, on Sunday it might be sunny.
Answer: b. The forecaster said it would rain; however, on Sunday it might be sunny.
Commas
LEARN NINE WAYS TO USE COMMAS
USE A COMMA IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE
A sentence contains two (main) clauses joined by a comma and one of the
conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet. An independent clause contains a and a
and expresses a complete idea. An independent clause is the heart of any sentence.
In a compound sentence, the comma comes before the coordinating conjunction.
subject verb cc subject verb

Andi has so she knows some Portuguese.
been
to
Brazil
,
subject verb cc subject verb

Jerry can yet she rarely does.
speak
ancient
Greek
,
Punctuating Long Compound Sentences
Some compound sentences begin or end with phrases. Other begins with dependent
clauses. Such phrases and clauses can also take commas.
subject verb subject verb

When he listened he began
my to
father opera
was ,
young and
,
to
learn
Italian
,
at
least
the
kind
used
on
stage.
USE A COMMA AFTER AN INTRODUCTORY ELEMENT
Introductory elements are words, , or clauses that come at the beginning of a

sentence.
Subordinate
(dependent) clause: As I walked through the crowd, someone picked my
pocket.
Phrase: In fact, all of my money was stolen.
Word: Fortunately, I was carrying only two dollars at the time.
NOTE: Remember that introductory elements
1. Begin .
2. Introduce clausess.
REVIEW THESE IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Phrase: Groups of words without a subject or predicate (verb).
Subordinate
clause: Group of words with a subject and predicate (verb) that does
not express
a complete idea.
Mainclause: Group of words with a subject and predicate (verb) that expresses
a complete idea. The main clause is the heart of a sentence.
USE COMMAS TO SEPARATE ITEMS IN A SERIES
To keep the meaning of your sentences clear, use commas to separate , , , , , and
that come one after another in a series.
NOTE: In general, do not set off pairs of words, phrases, or clauses with commas.
Not: Children feared the man who wore the red hat, and
the funny suit.
But: Children feared the man who wore the red hat and the
funny suit.
• Commas Separating Words in a Series
Nouns: Tibet, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal are countries in Asia.
Adjectives: A cold, rainy, windy day is no time to go camping in the Andres Mountains.
Adverbs: The pilgrims moved toward Mecca slowly, carefully, and devoutly.
• Commas Separating Phrases in a Series
: Lincoln wrote that “the government of the people, by
the
people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.”
: To be free, to care for children, and to worship God
are my
mother’s priorities.
: Running barefoot over rocks, climbing over barbed
wire,
and forging a stream, the young slave finally escaped.
• Commas Separating Clauses in a Series
clauses: For the most part, Mexicans speak Spanish,

Brazilians speak Portuguese, and Haitians
speak French.
clauses: Many problems remained between North and
South
after the last shot of the Civil War was fired,
after Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox,
and after Lincoln was assassinated.
NOTE: You may omit the comma before the last item if you are sure its absence
won’t confuse readers. Whichever method you use, be consistent.
USE A COMMA AROUND A NONRESTRICTIVE MODIFIER AND A SENTENCE INTERRUPTER
A nonrestrictive modifier (adjective) helps describe a noun but does not define it and
is not essential to its meaning. If you left that modifier out of the sentence, the
sentence’s meaning would not change.
A restrictive modifier identifies a noun or distinguishes it from all other such nouns.
This type of modifier limits the noun meaning ot one particular person, place or thing.
Nonrestrictive: Sally Franks, who learned to drive at age 13, works as an

mechanic at Ted’s Garage.
Restrictive: The woman who works as a mechanic at Ted’s Garage
learned to drive at age 13.
An Easy Way to Distinguish Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers
A modifier that can be removed without affecting the meaning of the sentence is
nonrestrictive and needs commas.
Students, who can use campus services free of charge, must show
their IDs before entering the library.
If you removed the modifier, the sentence would read

Students must show their IDs before entering the library.
The clause who can use campus services free of charge doesn’t restrict the meaning of
students to a specific group of students. The clause refers to all students.
A sentence interrupter is a word or phrase that appears in the middle of a sentence

and forces the reader to pause. Most interrupters introduce another though that is not
as important as the interrupted though. In other words, sentence interrupters are
nonrestrictive. Always place commas around sentence interrupters.
He was given all that money, we think, by his aunt.

The basement door, claims my father, was forced open.
USE A COMMA TO SEPARATE COORDINATE ADJECTIVES
Coordinate adjectives are two or more describers that follow one another and describe
the same noun.
An old, red barn sat on the hill.
Sometimes, adjectives you think describe the same noun really describe a larger term,
which contains an adjective and a noun.
The old high school was torn down.
High describes school, but old does not. Old describes the larger term highschool.
An Easy Way to Tell Whether Adjectives Are Coordinate
If placing the word and between the adjectives makes sense, they are coordinate and
can be separated by a comma.
Coordinate: The barn, which was old and red, sat on a hill.
Not Coordinate: The school, which was old and (?)high, was torn down.
CAUTION: Don’t separate two coordinate adjectives with both a comma and and.
Not: The old, and red barn sat on a hill.

But: The old, red barn sat on a hill.
USE COMMAS IN DATES, ADDRESSES, NUMBERS, AND TITLES
• Place commas in dates between the day, date, and year.

July 4, 1776
Thursday, March 31, 1939
CAUTION: Don’t use a comma if you are mentioning the month and year only.
Not: July, 1776

But: July 1776
• Place commas in addresses
In a sentence, use a comma to separate the street address from the city.
However, when addressing an envelope, place the street address on one
line and the city on the next. In this case, do not follow the street address
with a comma.
Bertrand Bong lives at 10 Willow Drive, Eugene, Idaho.
BUT
Bertrand Bong
10 Willow Drive
Eugene, Idaho 00000
Always place a comma between city and state or city and country. When
writing a sentence, use a comma to separate the state or country and any
information that follows.
They have lived in Mexico City, Mexico, since 1997; before

that they lived in Seattle, Washington, and several other
large American cities.
• Place Commas in Numbers
Use commas in units of more than three digits, setting off every third digit as you count
from the right.
They paid $95,000 for their house.

Her wedding dress cost $1,000.
• Use Commas with Titles and Degrees
Titles: LauraLegal, Esq.

Degrees: Philosophie, Ph.D.
NOTE: If you place a comma before a title or a degree, you should place one after
the title or degree unless the title or degree ends the sentence.
Steve Smith, M.D., graduated from Duke University.

USE A COMMA TO SET OFF A DIRECTION QUOTATION
A quotation uses another writer’s exact words within quotation marks. Use direct
quotations to include dialogue or to support your own ideas with opinions of others.
According to Shakespeare, “Crabbed age and youth cannot live together.”

“Praise be to Allah, the lord of creation,” said Muhammad.
CAUTION: Don’t use a comma if the quotation ends in a question mark or
exclamation point.
“Who was president of the Confederacy?” Jo asked.

“Don’t trust him!” she screamed. “He’s not one of us.”
USE COMMAS TO TAKE THE PLACE OF WORDS
Frequently, you can replace the conjunction and with a comma.
The
dog
was
frightened
,
tired
,
And
hungry.
OR
The
dog
was
frightened
,
tired
,
Hungry.
You can even use a comma to replace several words, thereby streamlining your writing
and giving it variety and emphasis. This practice is especially useful in sentences that
express a contrast.
He was hardworking, not brilliant.
USE COMMAS TO MAKE SENTENCES CLEAR
You can sometimes make sentences clearer by placing commas between words that,
when set side by side, might be misleading, confusing, or unintentionally humorous.
Not: Whenever he cooked the cat climbed onto the counter.
But: Whenever he cooked, the cat climbed onto the counter.
LEARN WHEN NOT TO USE A COMMA
1. To separate a subject and verb even if the subject is followed by several

adjectives:
Not: A bird with large, red wings and a bright yellow tail, perched on my window.
But: A bird with large, red wings and a bright yellow tail perched on my window.
2. To separate a verb and its object:

verb direct object
Not: dearly love, artichoke hearts.
verb direct object
But: dearly love artichoke hearts.
3. To separate a verb and its complement:
Complements are adjectives that come after the verb and describe the subject.
Not: The weather has been, cold and rainy.

But: The weather has been cold and rainy.
4. To separate an adjective and the word it describes:
Not: The prisoner climbed a 10 – foot, wall.

But: The prisoner climbed a 10 – foot wall.
5. To separate paired words and phrases:
Not: Professor Mendez teaches both French, and Spanish.

But: Professor Mendez teaches both French and Spanish.
6. To set off subordinate elements at the end of a sentence:
Not: The Romans built roads across their empire, because their armies needed to
move quickly from one province to another.
But: The Romans built roads across their empire because their armies needed to
move quickly from one province to another.
NOTE: For easier reading, you may put a comma before a participial phrase that
ends a sentence:
People lost in the cave screamed, hoping rescuers outside

world hear them.

1. Choose the item that uses a comma or commas correctly.
a. I try my best, but I still cannot understand the metric system.
b. I try my best but, I still cannot understand the metric system.
c. I try my best, but, I still cannot understand the metric system.
Answer: a. I try my best, but I still cannot understand the metric system.
2. Choose the item that uses a comma or commas correctly.

a. Originating in ninth – century China the story of Cinderella has many
forms.
b. Originating in ninth – century China, the story of Cinderella has many
forms.
c. Originating in ninth – century, China the story of Cinderella has many
forms.
Answer: b. Originating in ninth – century China, the story of Cinderella has many forms.
CONJUNCTIONS
(and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) join words or ideas of the same importance.
(such as although, because, rather than, since, though, unless, while, and
whenever) join ideas by showing that one is less important than the other. Such
conjunctions introduce subordinate (dependent) clauses.
Virginia is one of the original thirteen states, but West Virginia became a state in 1863.
Although Texas declared its independence from Mexico in 1836, that state did not
enter the Union until 1845.
1. Identify the conjunction (s) in the following sentence.

We were terrified, yet we remained calm.
a. terrified
b. yet
c. calm
Answer: b. yet
2. Identify the conjunction(s) in the following sentence.

Although he has traveled to Europe several times, Tim has never visited
Belgium.
a. Although
b. several
c. visited
Answer: a. Although
Dangling Modifiers
CORRECT DANGLING MODIFIERS
Modifiers must point clearly to the words they describe. Otherwise, sentences may
seem illogical. This happens if you forget to mention the word a modifier is supposed to
describe. In such cases, the modifier is said to “dangle”; it has nothing to hang on to.
Say you wrote
Dangling: Walking across the field, the river came into view.
Your reader would surely know that you – not the river – were walking. But that’s not
what the sentence says. To correct dangling modifiers, add the word(s) you forgot. To
do so, however, you might have to rewrite the sentence.
Revised: Walking across the field, I saw the river.
Now, Walking across the field clearly points to the pronoun I.
Working with It Is and It Was Constructions
You might create a dangling modifier if you follow a modifier with a main clause whose
subject is it and whose verb is was or another form of to be.
Dangling: Concerned about the rain, it was decided that the picnic
should be canceled.
[Concerned about the rain has nothing to modify except the

word it, which refers to no word in the sentence.]
Revised: Concerned about the rain, our club decided to call off the
picnic.
[Now, Concerned about the rain clearly refers to club, a

subject the reader can identify.]
1. Click on the sentence that contains a dangling modifier.

a. Touching Anna’s hand, Enrique’s heart pounded.
b. Touching Anna’s hand, Enrique felt his heart pounding.
c. Enrique’s heart pounded as he touched Anna’s hand.
Answer: a. Touching Anna’s hand, Enrique’s heart pounded.
2. Click on the sentence that contains a dangling modifier.

a. She heard a scream as she approached the house.
b. A scream was heard approaching the house.
c. Approaching the house, she heard a scream.
Answer: b. A scream was heard approaching the house.

Dashes
USE THE DASH ( -- )
You can create a dash ( -- ) by typing two hyphens with no space in between ( -- ). A
dash is used to
1. Set off material that needs emphasis.

2. Help clarify an idea.
3. Separate a list from an independent clause at the beginning or end of a
sentence.
SETTING OFF MATERIAL THAT NEEDS EMPHASIS
George Bush became the first incumbent vice president -- since 1836 -- to win election
to the presidency.
The phrase since 1836 is being emphasized.
HELPING TO CLARIFY AN IDEA
In 1989, President Bush responded effectively to the upheaval in Eastern Europe – by

offering economic aid to Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia and by lending his
support to the reunification of Germany.
NOTE: The more formal colon can replace the dash.
SEPARATING A LIST FROM AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
The strengthening of the Western alliance, the Persian Gulf War, and the signing of
several arms reduction treaties with the Soviet Union -- these were the great successes
of President Bush’s foreign policy.
NOTE: A dash can come before or after an independent clause.
1. Paying attention to the correct use of dashes, choose the best written item.
a. Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Grand Canyon these are three -- of my
favorite national parks.
b. Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Grand Canyon -- these are three -- of my
c. Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Grand Canyon -- these are three of my
Answer: c. Yosemite, Mount Rainier, and Grand Canyon -- these are three of my
2. Paying attention to the correct use of dashes, choose the best written item.
a. William Shakespeare, John Keats, William Butler Yeats -- these are my
favorite poets.
b. William Shakespeare -- John Keats -- William Butler Yeats -- these are my
favorite poets.
c. William Shakespeare, John Keats, William Butler Yeats these are my
favorite -- poets.
Answer: a. William Shakespeare, John Keats, William Butler Yeats -- these are my
favorite poets.
Hyphens
LEARN FOUR USES FOR THE HYPHEN
1. Use hyphens to join compound – words that work together to describe a noun.
Make sure these words come before, not after, the noun.
Hyphenated Not hyphenated
10 – foot pole a pole that is 10 feet long

executive – training course a course to train executives
Chicago – Los Angeles train a train from Chicago to Los Angeles
appliance – repair shop a shop that repairs appliances
2. Use hyphens to connect prefixes to capitalized words.
anti – Communist
pre – Colombian
un – American
3. Use hyphens to connect prefixes such as all-, ex-, post-, pro-, and self- to some
words.
all – inclusive
ex – husband
pro – family
self – absorbed
In many cases, however, prefixes are attached to words without hyphens.
midterm
online
premarital
postmortem
4. Use hyphens with two – word numbers from 21 (twenty – one) to 99 (ninety –
nine):
Fifty – five students in the freshmen class are majoring in psychology.
1. Click on the sentence that uses hyphens correctly.

a. Thirty – five employees were honored at the company’s annual awards
banquet.
b. Thirty five employees were honored at the company’s annual – awards
banquet.
c. Thirty five employees were honored at the company’s annual awards
banquet.
Answer: a. Thirty – five employees were honored at the company’s annual awards
banquet.
2. Click on the sentence that uses hyphens correctly.

a. The fifty – year – old company has begun an ongoing – review of its
plant’s equipment needs.
b. The fifty – year – old company has begun an ongoing review of its plant’s
equipment needs.
c. The fifty year old company has begun an ongoing review of its plant’s
equipment needs.
Answer: b. The fifty – year – old company has begun an ongoing review of its plant’s
equipment needs.
Italics
LEARN TO USE ITALICS
Italic style uses letters that slant upward and to the right. If you are not using a
typewriter or computer that makes italics, underline words that would appear in italics.
When underlining is not possible (such as in a text – based email message, often an
underscore character ( _ ) is used to indicate italics or emphasis.
1. Emphasize a word or phrase.
The speaker said, “The U.S. owes its lenders three trillion dollars. Now
that’s a deficit.”
The speaker said, “The U.S. owes its lenders three trillion dollars. Now that’s a
_deficit_.”
2. Show that a word or letter is being used as a word or letter.
The word separate contains two e’s and two a’s.
3. Write the title of a book, magazine, play, film, television show, long poems, or
newspaper.
The Stranger (novel)

The Atlantic Monthly (magazine)
Macbeth (play)
High Noon (film)
Sesame Street (television show)
The Canterbury Tales (long poem)
The Christian Science Monitor (newspaper)
1. Click on the sentence that uses italics correctly.

a. The New York Evening Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton.
b. The “New York Evening Post” was founded by Alexander Hamilton.
c. The New York Evening Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton.
Answer: c. The New York Evening Post was founded by Alexander Hamilton.
2. Click on the sentence that uses italics correctly.

a. Life magazine bought us vivid pictures of wars, floods, famines, and other
international tragedies when there was no television.
b. Life magazine bought us vivid pictures of wars, floods, famines, and other
c. “Life” magazine brought us vivid pictures of wars, floods, famines, and
other international tragedies when there was no television.
Answer: a. Life magazine bought us vivid pictures of wars, floods, famines, and other
Misplaced Modifiers
LEARN TO SPOT MODIFIERS
describe or reveal something about other words. Modifiers act as or . Adjectives

describe and . Adverbs describe , , and other adverbs.
adjective noun
An honest politician is a treasure.
[Honest describes politician.]
adjective noun
Towering above the city, the cathedral shimmered in the sunlight.
[Towering above the city describes cathedral.]
verb adverb
Questioned by the police, the suspect responded nervously.
[Nervously explains how the suspect responded.]
Adverb verb adjective noun

Before he entered the navy, my father worked as an automotive engineer.
[Before he entered the navy tells when father worked; automotive describes engineer.]
CORRECT MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Place the modifier as close to the word it describes as you can. If you don’t, your reader
may have difficulty telling which word in the sentence you want to modify.
Misplaced: When only a boy, Joe’s aunt took him to the rodeo.
Revised: Joe’s aunt took him to the rodeo when he was only a boy.
The first sentence actually describes Joe’s aunt as a boy.
AVOID CONFUSING MODIFIERS
Modifiers cause confusion when they refer to words that come before and after them at
the same time.
Confusing: She claimed Friday she saw a UFO. [Did the UFO appear on Friday, or
was Friday when she claimed to have seen it?]
Revised: Friday, she claimed she saw a UFO. [Friday is when she made the claim.]
OR
Revised: She claimed she saw a UFO Friday. [Friday is when she saw it.]
Placing the Words Only, Even, and Just
Where you place the words only and just in a sentence can change the meaning of a
sentence.
1. Sam only worked in Phoenix for three years.

2. Sam worked only in Phoenix for three years.
3. Sam worked in Phoenix for only three years.
NOTE: These three sentences are correct, but they mean different things.
Place the modifier as close as you can to the word it describes.
1. Sam only worked in Phoenix for three years.
Only modifies worked, a verb. The sentence means “Sam did nothing but work in
Phoenix for three years.”
2. Sam worked only in Phoenix for three years.
Only modifies in Phoenix. The sentence means “Sam worked nowhere but in Phoenix
for three years.”
3. Sam worked in Phoenix for only three years.
Only modifies three. The sentence means “Sam worked in Phoenix no more than three
years.”
CORRECT DANGLING MODIFIERS
Modifiers must point clearly to the words they describe. Otherwise, sentences may
seem illogical. This happens if you forget to mention the word a modifier is suppose to
describe. In such cases, the modifier is said to “dangle”; it has nothing to hang on to.
Say you wrote
Dangling: Walking across the field, the river came into view.
Your reader would surely know that you – not the river – were walking. But that’s not
what the sentence says. To correct dangling modifiers, add the word(s) you forgot. To
do so, however, you might have to rewrite the sentence.
Revised: Walking across the field, I saw the river.
Now, Walking across the field clearly points to the pronoun I.
Working with It Is and It was Construction

You might create a dangling modifier if you follow a modifier with a main clause who
subject is It and whose verb is was or another form of to be.
Dangling: Concerned about the rain, it was decided that the picnic should be
canceled.
[Concerned about the rain has nothing to modify except the word it, which refers to no
word in the sentence.]
Revised: Concerned about the rain, our club decided to call of the picnic.
[Now, Concerned about the rain clearly refers to club, a subject the reader can identify.]
MAINTAIN PARALLELISM
A sentence may contain a series of words, , or . To make it , be consistent within the

series: use with nouns, with verbs, clauses with subordinate clauses, and so on.
Not Parallel: He bought a tie, a shirt, and purchased a scarf.

Parallel: He bought a tie, a shirt, and a scarf.
The first sentence contains a series that is not consistent. The first two items are nouns,
but the third – purchased a scarf – contains a verb. In the second sentence, all three
items – tie, shirt, and scarf – are nouns.
USING PARALLELISM TO CREATE COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS
Always compare like things; otherwise, your sentence won’t be parallel.
Not parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than the East.
[This sentence compares things that are not alike: the mountains and the East.]
You can’t correct this problem in two ways:
Parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than the mountains of the
East.
Parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than those of the East.
CREATING PARALLELISM WITH CORRELATIVES
Some pairs of words can help make sentences parallel. These are correlatives: either
… or, neither ... nor, and not only … but also.
When you use these pairs, remember to join the same kinds of elements.
Not Parallel: In December, the weather is either cool, or we get a warming trend
with rain.
Parallel: In December, the weather is either cool or warm and rainy.
NOTE: In the first sentence, either introduces an adjective – cool – but or

introduces a clause – we get a warming trend with rain. In the second
sentence, or also introduces adjectives – warm and rainy.
USING THAT TO CREATE PARALLELISM
You can use the relative pronoun that to introduce a subordinate clause. But be
consistent if you use more than one subordinate clause. Make sure each is introduced
the same way.
Not Parallel: I knew that I wouldn’t get there and my friends would be worried.
Parallel: I knew that I wouldn’t get there and that my friends would be
worried.
NOTE: In the first example, one subordinate clause is introduced by that; the
other isn’t. In the second example, both subordinate clauses are
introduced by that; the sentence is parallel.
AVOID ILLOGICAL VERB TENSE SHIFTS
The of a verb is the time a verb expresses. If not done logically, shifting from one tense
to another in the same sentence can cause problems. The following sentence uses both
the present tense (drives) and the past tense (took) to express things happening at
different times. Therefore, in this case shifting from present tense to past tense is
logical.
present past
Usually he drives to work, but yesterday he took the bus.
Shifting verb tenses logically can serve a purpose; to show actions occurring at different
times. But shifting verb tenses illogically – without a good reason – can make a
sentence hard to read and understand.
past present
Illogical shift: Whenever visitors approached, our dogs barks loudly.
Approached is in the past tense; barks is in the present. But the logic of the sentence
demands that both verbs be in the same tense. After all, the sentence begins with
Whenever, so the dog must be barking at the same time the visitors approach.
Here are the two correct versions:
All present: Whenever visitors approach, our dogs barks loudly.

All past: Whenever visitors approached, our dog barked loudly.
AVOID ILLOGICAL VOICE SHIFTS
Verbs take various tenses. They also come in active voice or passive voice. A verb in
the active voice takes a subject – person, place, or thing – that does an action. A verb in
the passive voice takes a subject that is acted upon.
Active: The students admire the teacher.

Passive: The teacher is admired by the students.
NOTE: Verbs in the passive voice always contain at least two words: a
form of the verb to be (is) and the participle (admired).
CAUTION: Shifting from one voice to another in the same sentence often makes the
sentence hard to read. Shifting the voice also makes your messages less
direct and emphatic.
Inconsistent: Beautiful birds were seen as she entered the garden.

Consistent: She saw beautiful birds as she entered the garden.
The first example begins in the passive voice and then shifts to the active. In the second
example, both verbs are in the active voice.
1. Choose the item that has no misplaced modifiers.

a. In the summer of 2006, Donna, a graduate of my high school, made a film
about hurricanes.
b. Donna, a graduate of my high school, made in the summer of 2006 a film
about hurricanes.
c. Donna, a graduate of my high school, made a film about hurricanes in the
summer of 2006.
Answer: a. In the summer of 2006, Donna, a graduate of my high school, made a film
about hurricanes.
2. Choose the item that has no misplaced modifiers.

a. Bought by his wife, he found it hard to program the DVD player.
b. His DVD player, which his wife had bought him, proved hard to program.
c. His DVD player proved hard to program, which his wife had bought him.
Answer: b. His DVD player, which his wife had bought him, proved hard to program.
NOUNS
A names a person, place, or thing. There are two types of nouns: common and
proper. Proper nouns name specific persons, places, or things. Proper nouns are
capitalized.
Common Proper
continent Africa
country Zimbabwe
religion Islam
desert Kalahari
island Madagascar
ocean Indian Ocean
Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns
Concrete nouns name things we can see, hear, smell, feel, and taste. Abstract nouns
name ideas, emotions, and subjects.
Concrete nouns Abstract nouns

computer desk giraffe house difficulty beauty history honestly
kitchen lumber mother river hate idea jealousy love
tree umbrella window zoo romance religion sorrow weakness
Gerunds: Nouns That Show Activity
are nouns that end in –ing and that show activities, such as asking, driving, living,
moving, reading, seeking, and writing.
The Functions of Nouns in a Sentence
Nouns act as subjects and objects. A subject is the person, place, or thing that does an
action or that the sentence is describing. An object is a person, place, or thing that
receives an action.
Subject: The speaker gave an interesting lecture.

The speaker was well prepared.
Object: The audience applauded the speaker.
CAUTION: To be complete, a sentence does not need an object, but it must have a
subject. For example, The speaker was well prepared has no object, but it
is a complete sentence.
1. Identify the noun(s) in the following sentence.

The stapler is broken.
a. The
b. stapler
c. broken
Answer: b. stapler
2. Identify the noun(s) in the following sentence.

Mathematics can be difficult.
a. Mathematics
b. can
c. difficult
Answer: a. Mathematics
Numbers
WORK WITH NUMBERS AND NUMERALS
As a general rule, spell out numbers from one through nine. Use for all others.
The U.S. Senate welcomed nine new members.
BUT
There are 100 U.S. senators from 50 states.
However
1. Spell out large round numbers.
The populations of China is over one billion.
2. Spell out times unless you are giving the exact time; always use numerals with
A.M. and P.M.
He went to bed at 11 o’clock.
BUT
The train leaves precisely at 8:47 A.M.
3. Use numerals with units of measure and percents, but follow the general rule for
units of time.
The stock he bought has lost 4 percent of its value.
BUT
We will be back in two weeks.
4. Use numerals – not words – for dates, exact sums of money, scores of games,
addresses, page numbers, exact times of the day, and miles per hour.
He was born on March 1, 1941, at 6:15 A.M. at 10 Summit Street.

The book cost $27.99.
On page 17, I read my team had won by a score of 8 to 3.
He was going 78 mph in a 55 mph zone.
CAUTION: Never begin a sentence with a numeral. Write out a number that begins a
sentence or rewrite the sentence so that the numeral appears later.
Not: 170 people attend the fund – raiser.
But: One – hundred – seventy people attended the fund – raiser.
Or: The fund – raiser was attended by 170 people.
1. Click on the item that uses numbers or numerals correctly.

a. Enrollment in each class is limited to twenty – five students.
b. Enrollment in each class is limited to 25 students.
c. 25 students is the limit on enrollment in each class.
Answer: a. Enrollment in each class is limited to twenty – five students.
2. Click on the item that uses numbers or numerals correctly.

a. 50,000 tickets to the concert were sold on the first day; the price of the
tickets ranged from thirty – five dollars to sixty dollars.
b. Fifty thousand tickets to the concert were sold on the first day; the price of
the tickets ranged from thirty – five dollars to sixty dollars.
c. Fifty thousand tickets to the concert were sold on the first day; the price of
the tickets ranged from $35 to $60.
Answer: c. Fifty thousand tickets to the concert were sold on the first day; the price of
the tickets ranged from $35 to $60.
Parallelism
MAINTAIN PARALLELISM
A sentence may contain a series of words, , or . To make it , be consistent within the

series: use with nouns, with verbs, clauses with subordinate clauses, and so on.
Not Parallel: He bought a tie, a shirt, and purchased a scarf.

Parallel: He bought a tie, a shirt, and a scarf.
The first sentence contains a series that is not consistent. The first two items are nouns,
but the third – purchased a scarf – contains a verb. In the second sentence, all three
items – tie, shirt, and scarf – are nouns.
USING PARALLELISM TO CREATE COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS
Always compare like things; otherwise, your sentence won’t be parallel.
Not parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than the East.
[This sentence compares things that are not alike: the

mountains and the East.]
You can correct this problem in two ways:
Parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than the mountains of the East.
Parallel: The mountains of the West are younger than those of the East.
CREATING PARALLELISM WITH CORRELATIVES
Some pairs of words can help make sentences parallel. These are correlatives:
either … or; neither … nor; and not only … but also.
When you use these pairs, remember to join the same kinds of elements.
Not Parallel: In December, the weather is either cool, or we get a warming

trend with rain.
Parallel: In December, the weather is either cool or warm and rainy.
NOTE: In the first sentence, either introduces an adjective – cool – but or

introduces a clause – we get a warming trend with rain. In the second
sentence, or also introduces adjectives – warm and rainy.
USING THAT TO CREATE PARALLELISM
You can use the relative pronoun that to introduce a subordinate clause. But be
consistent if you use more than one subordinate clause. Make sure each is introduced
the same way.
Not Parallel: I knew that I wouldn’t get there and my friends would be worried.
Parallel: I knew that I wouldn’t get there and that my friends would be
worried.
NOTE: In the first example, one subordinate clause is introduced by that, the
other isn’t. In the second example, both subordinate clauses are
introduced by that, the sentence is parallel.
1. Choose the sentence that is not parallel.

a. The house’s new owners fixed the porch, planted three pine trees, and the
bedrooms were repainted.
b. The house’s new owners fixed the porch, planted three pine trees, and the
repainted the bedrooms.
c. Under the house’s new owners, the porch was fixed, three pine trees were
planted, and the bedrooms were repainted.
Answer: a. The house’s new owners fixed the porch, planted three pine trees, and the
bedrooms were repainted.
2. Choose the sentence that is not parallel.

a. In the winter, Sal plays hockey; in the summer, he plays baseball.
b. In the winter, Sal plays hockey; in the summer, baseball is played by him.
c. In the winter Sal plays hockey, but in the summer he plays baseball.
Answer: b. In the winter, Sal plays hockey; in the summer, baseball is played by him.
Parentheses
USE PARENTHESES [( )]
Parentheses [( )] enclose important words that would interrupt the flow of the .
Parentheses are used to
1. Set off an explanatory sentence within a sentence.

2. Set off words that specify.
3. Enclose brief definitions.
4. Enclose numbers or letters that mark items in a list.
NOTE: Parentheses are always used in pairs.
SETTING OFF AN EXPLANATORY SENTENCE
Ishmael (he is the speaker in Melville’s Moby Dick) takes his name from a biblical
character who was cast into the desert.
In this case, the words within parentheses form a complete sentence.
SETTING OFF WORDS THAT SPECIFY
Five countries (Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti) border Ethiopia.
Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti name the five countries.
ENCLOSING BRIEF DEFINITIONS
The Egyptians practiced embalming (the preservation of a corpse through chemical

treatment).
ENCLOSING NUMBERS OR LETTERS THAT MARK ITEMS IN A LIST
Before becoming president, George Bush was (1) a member of the House of
Representatives, (2) U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, (3) chief liaison officer to
China, (4) director of the CIA, and (5) vice president.
1. Choose the sentence that demonstrates the correct use of parentheses.

a. My brother finally succeed we always believed in him (in earning his Ph.
D. from Princeton University)
b. My brother finally succeeded we always believed in him (in earning his
Ph.D.) from Princeton University.
c. My brother finally succeeded (we always believed in him) in earning his
Ph.D. from Princeton University.
Answer: c. My brother finally succeeded (we always believed in him) in earning his
Ph.D. from Princeton University.
2. Choose the sentence that demonstrates the correct use of parentheses.

a. Jupiter (easily the largest planet in the solar system) was named after the
Roman king of the gods.
b. Jupiter easily the largest planet (in the solar system) was named after the
c. Jupiter (easily) the largest planet in the solar system was named after the
Answer: a. Jupiter (easily the largest planet in the solar system) was named after the
Phrases & Clauses
INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES
To be complete, a sentence must contain at least one clause. An independent clause

states a complete idea. Also known as a clause, an independent clause expresses the
sentence’s main idea even when joined with phrases or subordinate clauses.
subject verb
The president resigned.
Subject verb
My mother was born in Nigeria.
subject verb
Lenin’s revolution was successful.
DEPENDENT (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSES
A clause has a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A
dependent clause must be joined to an independent clause. Otherwise, the lone clause
will be a sentence fragment – an error. Also known as a clause, a dependent clause
expresses an idea less important than (subordinate to) an idea expressed in a main
clause.
Below, the words in bold are dependent clauses. They are attached to independent
(main) clauses in complete sentences:
After a long and successful career, the president resigned.

My mother, who is now 58, was born in Nigeria.
Lenin’s revolution was successful because living conditions in early – century
Russia were deplorable.
PHRASES
Phrases are groups of words without subjects. Like dependent clauses, phrases
express incomplete thoughts and cannot act as sentences. Phrases must be attached
to independent (main) clauses to avoid being fragments.
According to the Old Testament, Abel was the second son of Adam and Eve.
Cain, Abel’s older brother, murdered him out of jealousy.
1. Identify the dependent (subordinate) clause(s) in the following sentence.

To begin the concert, the conductor chose a piece by Mahler, who was an
Austrian composer.
a. who was an Austrian composer
b. the conductor chose a piece by Mahler
c. To begin
Answer: a. who was an Austrian composer
2. Identify the independent (main) clause(s) in the following sentence. The Greeks
defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon.
a. The Greeks defeated the Persians
b. at the Battle of Marathon
c. the Battle of Marathon
Answer: a. The Greeks defeated the Persians

PREPOSITIONS
A comes before a noun or pronoun and shows how that word relates to other words in
the sentence.
Lincoln spoke of a government "of the people."
In the First World War, Turkey fought against Britain and the Allies.
Prepositions
about before for out
above behind from over
across below in through
after between inside to
against beyond into toward
along by near under
among despite of upon
at during on with
1. Identify the preposition(s) in the following sentence.

The eagle flew across the blue sky.
a. eagle
b. across
c. blue
Answer: b. across
2. Identify the preposition(s) in the following sentence. Between the sixteenth and
nineteenth centuries, 15 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic in
slave ships.
a. Were
b. between/across/in
c. sixteenth/nineteenth
d. million
Answer: b. between/across/in
PRONOUNS
replace nouns. A pronoun stands for a person, place, or thing. There are five types of
pronouns: personal, relative, demonstrative, indefinite, and reflexive.
pronouns can act as subjects or objects. They can also show possession.
Subjects: I, we, you, he, she, it, one, they

Objects: me, us, you, him, her, it, one, them
Possessive: my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs
pronouns introduce dependent (subordinate) clauses – clauses that cannot stand

alone in a sentence.
Madagascar is a large island that offers a varied topography.
Madagascar lies in the Indian Ocean, which is the world’s third – largest body of water.
Relative pronouns
that whichever whom
whatever who whomever
which whoever whose
pronouns point out nouns that follow them.
“This country has been made better because of your example,” said the speaker.
Demonstrative pronouns
this that
these those
pronouns point to places and things that are not specific. They act as subjects or
objects, or they show possession.
Everyone in my tour group class wanted to visit the ancient Mayan city.
No one knew much about the Yucatan people who built it.
Indefinite pronouns
any each few nothing
anybody either many some
anyone everybody nobody somebody
anything everyone none someone
both everything no one something
pronouns refer to nouns or pronouns that act as subjects. Reflexive pronouns

always end in –self or –selves: myself, himself, herself, yourself, themselves.
She blessed herself as she entered the church.
The police advised him to control himself, or he would be arrested.
Sample Quiz Questions:
1. Identify the pronoun(s) in the following sentence. His photographs are beautiful.
a. His
b. photographs
c. are
Answer: a. His
2. Identify the pronoun(s) in the following sentence. Everyone must participate.

a. Everyone
b. must
c. participate
Answer: a. Everyone
Quotation Marks
WORK WITH QUOTATION MARKS (“ “)
Quotation marks (“ “) identify words you have taken directly from someone else. They
tell readers these words are exactly as your source spoke or wrote them.
“We don’t know a millionth of one percent about anything,” said Thomas
Alva Edison.
“Toots Shor’s restaurant,” claims Yogi Berra, “is so crowded nobody goes
there anymore.”
CAUTION: Don’t put quotation marks around an indirect quotation, which tells what
someone said without using his or her exact words.
Not: She said that “she was going to the party.”

But: She said that she was going to the party.
NOTE: Quotation marks are always used in pairs.
QUOTATIONS WITHIN QUOTATIONS
Use single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation.
Benita said, “I told Julio, ‘Don’t swing on that branch,’ but he ignored me
and told me to ‘get lost.’”
The writer quotes Benita, who is quoting herself and Julio. ‘Don’t swing on that branch’
and ‘get lost’ are quotations within a quotation.
QUOTATION MARKS WITH OTHER MARKS OF PUNCTUATION
1. Commas and periods appear inside quotation marks.
When I asked what he wanted, he calmly said, “Money.”
2. Colons and semicolons appear outside quotation marks.
“He who hesitates is not only lost but miles away from the nearest exit”;
now that’s the kind of line stand – up comics dream about.
QUOTATION MARKS AROUND TITLES
Use quotation marks around titles of newspaper, magazine, and articles; poems; short
stories; songs; and episodes of TV programs.
B.R. Jerman’s article, “Browning’s poem “My Last Duchess.”

The story “Guests of the Nation” is set in Ireland.
Gershwin’s “Summertime” and “I got Rhythm” are classics of American
song.
“Who Shot J.R.?” was the most watched episode of Dallas.
1. Click on the sentence that is punctuated correctly.

a. Robert Frost ends his short but lovely poem “Pasture” with an invitation to
the reader: “You come too.”
b. poem “Pasture” with an invitation to the reader: “You come too”.
c. Robert Frost ends his short but lovely poem Pasture with an invitation to
the reader: You come too.
Answer: a. Robert Frost ends his short but lovely poem “Pasture” with an invitation to
the reader: “You come too.”
2. Click on the sentence that is punctuated correctly.

a. Both Night and Day and Stardust were recorded by Frank Sinatra and
Tommy Dorsey Orchestra in the early 1940s.
b. Both “Night and Day” and “Stardust” were recorded by Frank Sinatra and
the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra in the early 1940s.
c. Both Night and Day and Stardust were recorded by Frank Sinatra and the
Answer: b. Both “Night and Day” and “Stardust” were recorded by Frank Sinatra and the
Run – on sentences
AVOID FUSED SENTENCES
A sentence, also called a run – on sentence, joins two (main) clauses without a
and/or proper punctuation. A fused sentence combines two complete sentences without
indicating where one stops and the other begins.
Fused: Chefs cook waiters serve.

Correct: Chefs cook; waiters serve.
Fused: The jury discussed the case carefully they reviewed each piece of
evidence.
Correct: The jury discussed the case carefully. They reviewed each piece of
evidence.
CORRECT FUSED SENTENCES IN FIVE WAYS
1. End one independent (main) clause with a period. Capitalize the first word of the
next.
Not: The apartment dwellers screamed fire engulfed the building.

But: The apartment dwellers screamed. Fire engulfed the building.
2. Place a comma (,) and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, yet, so)
between the independent clauses.
Not: Peter supported his parents and siblings only he had been able to
find a job.
But: Peter supported his parents and siblings, for only he had been able
to find a job.
3. Place a semicolon (;) between the two independent (main) clauses.
Not: The police car stopped the ambulance sped ahead.

But: The police car stopped; the ambulance sped ahead.
4. Place a semicolon (;) and a transition between the independent clauses.

Transitions include words and phrases such as
consequently nevertheless after all in fact

furthermore nonetheless as a result in other words
however therefore for example in the meantime
moreover thus in addition on the other hand
Not: Thomas Hardy is remembered chiefly for his novels he also wrote
poetry.
But: Thomas Hardy is remembered chiefly for his novels; however, he
also wrote poetry.
5. Turn one of the independent (main) clauses into a dependent (subordinate)

clause.
Not: William was the duke of Normandy he became king of England.

But: William was the duke of Normandy who became king of England.
1. One of the following items is a run – on (or fused) sentence, another contains a
comma splice, and another is correct. Choose the item that is correct.
a. We parked in front of a fire hydrant, for it was the only space available.
b. We parked in front of a fire hydrant it was the only space available.
c. We parked in front of a fire hydrant, it was the only space available.
Answer: a. We parked in front of a fire hydrant, for it was the only space available.
2. One of the following items is a run – on (or fused) sentence, another contains a
comma splice, and another is correct. Choose the item that is correct.
a. Kasia is a wonderful woman, she always goes out of her way to help
others.
b. Kasia is a wonderful woman; she always goes out of her way to help
others.
c. Kasia is a wonderful woman she always goes out of her way to help
others.
Answer: b. Kasia is a wonderful woman; she always goes out of her way to help others.
Semicolons
LEARN THREE USES FOR THE SEMICOLON (;)
Like a comma, a semicolon (;) tells the reader to pause. However, the semicolon is a
stronger mark of punctuation. It separates and that are closely related or that receive
the same emphasis.
Use a semicolon between
1. (main) clauses.
2. Independent (main) clauses joined by words and phrases.
3. A series of items that contain commas.
NOTE: Unlike periods, question marks, and exclamation points, semicolons

always appear within, not at the end of, sentences.
THE SEMICOLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES
Use a semicolon to connect two independent clauses that are closely related and are
not connected with a conjunction. An independent clause has a subject and a verb
and expresses a complete idea. The coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but, nor, for,
so, yet.
Woodrow Wilson was the president of the United States; he followed William Howard
Taft.
NOTE: Don’t capitalize a word that follows a semicolon unless it is a proper

noun.
Guadeloupe is in the Leeward Islands; Guatemala is in Central America.
THE SEMICOLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES JOINED BY TRANSITIONAL

WORDS AND PHRASES
In the middle of sentences, come in two forms: adverbs and transitional phrases.
Both emphasize and clarify the relationship between the independent clauses they join.
Conjunctive Adverb:
It’s a good thing Columbus came to America; otherwise, the Italians would never have
learned about the tomato.
Transitional Phrase:
People before Columbus knew the world wasn’t flat; in fact, Eratosthenes accurately
measured the earth’s circumference in the third century B.C.
NOTE: Use a comma after a conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase.
THE SEMICOLON BETWEEN A SERIES OF ITEMS THAT CONTAIN COMMAS
Use a semicolons to separate items in a series when some or all of the items in that
series contain commas.
Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122 – 1204) was the daughter of William X, duke of Aquitaine;
the wife of Louis VII, king of France; and later the wife of Henry of Normandy, who
became Henry II of England.
There are three items in this list: (1) the daughter of . . . ; (2) the wife of . . . ; and (3)
later the wife of . . . If the semicolons were replaced by commas, readers might not be
able to tell where one item ends and the next begins. After all, each item already
contains a comma of its own.
LEARN FOUR USES FOR THE COLON (;)
A colon (;) is a mark of punctuation that appears within a sentence. Never use a colon
at the end of a sentence.
Use a colon
1. Between independent (main) clauses.

2. After an independent clause to introduce information.
3. To introduce direct quotations.
4. For other purposes.
THE COLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSES
Sometimes, you can use an independent clause to explain, add to, or clarify the
meaning of another. You should separate these clauses with a colon.
Stephen King has been busy; he was written more than 27 novels since 1974.
THE COLON AFTER AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE TO INTRODUCE INFORMATION
You can place a colon after an independent clause to introduce information naming
something in that clause.
Alaska is rich in several natural resources: oil, gold, copper, and uranium.
Only one city is called “eternal”: Rome.
THE COLON TO INTRODUCE DIRECT QUOTATIONS
You can use a colon to introduce a quotation.

The prisoner pleaded with his accusers: “I am innocent. Innocent, I tell you!”
CAUTION: Don’t use a colon to introduce a direct quotation if that quotation is needed
to make the sentence you’re writing complete.
Not: Pope wrote that “to err is human.”

But: Pope wrote that “to err is human.”
THE COLON FOR OTHER PURPOSES
1. In the salutation of a business letter:
Dear Professor Johnson:
2. To separate hours and minutes:
10:55 P.M.
3. Before a subtitle:
Thomas More: A Biography
CAUTION: Do not use a colon to separate objects or from . A object is the receiver
of an action. A complement comes after the verb and describes the .
Object
Not: She bought; a saw, a hammer, and a drill.

But: She bought a saw, a hammer, and a drill.
Complement
Not: He is; a good speller but a bad typist.

But: He is a good speller but a bad typist.
WORK WITH QUOTATION MARKS (“”)
Quotation marks (“ “) identify words you have taken directly from someone else. They
tell readers these words are exactly as your source spoke or wrote them.
“We don’t know a millionth of one percent about anything,” said Thomas Alva Edison.
“Toots Shor’s restaurant,” claims Yogi Berra. “is so crowded nobody goes there
anymore.”
CAUTION: Don’t put quotation marks around an indirect quotation, which tells what
someone said without using his or her exact words.
Not: She said that “she was going to the party.”
But: She said that she was going to the party.
NOTE: Quotation marks are always used in pairs.
QUOTATIONS WITHIN QUOTATIONS
Use single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation.
Benita said, “I told Julio, ‘Don’t swing on that branch,” but he ignored me and told me to
‘get lost.’”
The writer quotes Benita, who is quoting herself and Julio. ‘Don’t swing on that branch’
and ‘get lost’ are quotations within a quotation.
QUOTATION MARKS WITH OTHER MARKS OF PUNCTUATION
1. Commas and periods appear inside quotation marks.
When I asked what he wanted, he calmly said, “Money.”
2. Colons and semicolons appear outside quotation marks.
“He who hesitates is not only lost but miles away from the nearest exit”; now that’s the
kind of line stand – up comics dream about.
QUOTATION MARKS AROUND TITLES
Use quotation marks around titles of newspaper, magazine, and articles; poems; short
stories; songs; and episodes of TV programs.
B.R. Jerman’s article, “Browning’s Witless Duke,” is about Robert Browning’s poem “My
Last Duchess.” The story “Guests of the Nation” is set in Ireland.
Gershwin’s “Summertime” and “I Got Rhythm” are classics of American song.
“Who Shot J.R.?” was the most watched episode of Dallas.
USE THE DASH ( -- )
You can create a dash ( -- ) by typing two hyphens with no space in between ( -- ). A
dash is used to
1. Set off material that needs emphasis.

2. Help clarify an idea.
3. Separate a list from an independent clause at the beginning or end of a
sentence.
SETTING OFF MATERIAL THAT NEEDS EMPHASIS

George Bush became the first incumbent vice president – since 1836 – to win election
to the presidency.
The phrase since 1836 is being emphasized.

HELPING TO CLARIFY AN IDEA
In 1989, President Bush responded effectively to the upheaval in Eastern Europe – by

offering economic aid to Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia and by lending his
support to the reunification of Germany.
NOTE: The more formal colon can replace the dash.
SEPARATING A LIST FROM AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
The strengthening of the Western alliance, the Persian Gulf War, and the signing of
several arms reduction treaties with the Soviet Union -- these were the great successes
of President Bush’s foreign policy.
NOTE: A dash can come before or after an independent clause.
USE PARENTHESES [( )]
Parentheses [( )] enclose important words that would interrupt the flow of the .
Parentheses are used to
1. Set off an explanatory sentence within a sentence.

2. Set off words that specify.
3. Enclose brief definitions.
4. Enclose numbers or letters that mark items in a list.
NOTE: Parentheses are always used in pairs.
SETTING OFF AN EXPLANATORY SENTENCE
Ishmael (he is the speaker in Melville’s Moby Dick) takes his name from a biblical
character who was cast into the desert.
In this case, the words within parentheses from a complete sentence.
SETTING OFF WORDS THAT SPECIFY
Five countries (Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti) border Ethiopia.
Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti name the five countries.
ENCLOSING BRIEF DEFINITIONS
The Egyptians practiced embalming (the preservation of a corpse through chemical

treatment).
ENCLOSING NUMBERS OR LETTERS THAT MARK ITEMS IN A LIST
Before becoming president, George Bush was (1) a member of the House of
Representatives, (2) U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, (3) chief liaison officer to
China, (4) director of the CIA, and (5) vice president.
MASTER THE APOSTROPHE (‘) – SEVEN RULES
An apostrophe (‘) shows possession:
the child’s toy the firm’s star

the teacher’s desk the store’s prices
the city’s drug problem the dog’s tail
You can also use apostrophes to create special relationships between words: a night’s
sleep, two months’ pay.
Seven Rules for Using the Apostrophe
Rule 1: Use the apostrophe to show possession; add –‘s to a singular .
Monrovia, Liberia’s capital, was named after U.S. president James Monroe.
Add –‘s to a singular noun that ends in –s or –z, as long as doing so does not make the
pronunciation of that noun awkward. If doing so creates awkwardness, add only the
apostrophe.
Jazz’s origins go back to Afro – American spirituals.

BUT
Jesus’ teachings can be found in the New Testament.
Rule 2: Use the apostrophe to show possession; add only –‘ if the noun is plural
and ends in /-s.
The two countries’ borders were in dispute.
Rule 3: Use the apostrophe to show joint possession in a series; add –‘s only to
the last noun.
Groucho, Chico, and Harpo’s films are still funny.
Rule 4: Use the apostrophe to show individual possession in a series; add –‘s to
each noun.
Boston’s and San Francisco’s waterfronts are interesting, but I prefer Seattle’s.
Rule 5: Use the apostrophe in in place of omitted numbers or letters.
She will graduate with the class of ’99.

Because it’s raining, we can’t go to the park.
CAUTION: It’s = it is; can’t = cannot.
Rule 6: Use the apostrophe to form the of a hyphenated word; add –‘s after the
last letter.
Not: My mother – in – laws home

Not: My mother’s – in – law home
But: My mother – in – law ‘s home
Rule 7: Add an apostrophe to and letters and numbers to make them .
Syed received three A’s and two B’s as final grades.

Three 747’s sat on the runway.
CAUTION: In general, do not use an apostrophe to form plurals.
Not: Hitler planned to conquer the nation’s of Europe.

But: Hitler planned to conquer the nations of Europe.
CAUTION: Do not add an apostrophe to a pronoun that is already possessive.
Not: Under Hitler, Germany sought it’s place in the sun.

But: Under Hitler, Germany sought its place in the sun.
1. Click on the sentence that uses punctuation correctly.

a. He left the office after 10 P.M.; the next day he arrived early to finish his
work.
b. He left the office after 10 P.M., the next day; he arrived early to finish his
work.
c. He left the office after 10 P.M., the next day he arrived early; to finish his
work.
Answer: a. He left the office after 10 P.M.; the next day he arrived early to finish his
work.
2. Click on the sentence that uses punctuation correctly.

a. The elevators; were not working he had to walk up the stairs.
b. The elevators were not working; he had to walk up the stairs.
c. The elevators were not working, he had to walk up the stairs.
Answer: b. The elevators were not working; he had to walk up the stairs.
Sentence Fragments
AVOID SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
LEARN TO SPOT FRAGMENTS
A sentence includes a subject and a verb and expresses a complete idea. A

fragment is a group of words punctuated like a sentence, but a fragment does not:
Contain a verb.
Contain a subject.
Express a complete idea.
No verb: Visiting Tokyo (What about “Visiting Tokyo”?)

No subject: Visiting Tokyo (Who “Visited Tokyo”?)
Incomplete Idea: When Tanya visited Tokyo (What happened when she
“visited Tokyo”?)
LEARN THREE WAYS TO CORRECT SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
Add a verb:
NOT: The Himalayas in Asia

BUT: The Himalayas are in Asia.
Add a subject:
NOT: Climbed Mt. Everest.

BUT: Edmund Hillary climbed Mt. Everest.
Complete the idea:
NOT: Covered with snow.

BUT: Covered with snow, the mountain peaks glistened.
LEARN OTHER WAYS TO SPOT FRAGMENTS
Look for adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, relative pronouns and –ing words
(gerunds and participles) not followed by complete ideas.
: When they traveled to Nepal. They saw Mt. Everest.

: As they climbed the mountain. Breathing became more difficult.
: They planned a brief trip. To the Tibetan capital of Lhasa.
Pronoun: Earth’s highest mountain is Everest. Which lies between Nepal and
Tibet.
-ings words: Even experienced climbers have been killed. Attempting to
climb Mt. Everest.
To correct such fragments, simply combine sentences.
When they traveled to Nepal, they saw Mt. Everest.

As they climbed the mountain, breathing became more difficult.
They planned a trip to the Tibetan capital of Lhasa.
Earth’s highest mountain is Everest, which lies between Nepal and Tibet.
Even experienced climbers have been killed attempting to climb Mt.
Everest.
1. Which of the following is a complete sentence?

a. Baseball, my favorite sport.
b. Baseball is my favorite sport.
c. Because baseball is my favorite sport.
Answer: b. Baseball is my favorite sport.
2. Which of the following is a complete sentence?

a. I was glad I passed the chemistry test.
b. Passing the chemistry test.
c. When I learned I had passed the chemistry test.
Answer: a. I was glad I passed the chemistry test.

Spelling
LEARN SIX RULES FOR SPELLING
Rule 1: Place –i before –e, except after –c or when sounded like –ay as in
neighbor and weigh
-i before –e: achieve, believe, relieve, siege

except after –c: ceiling, perceive, receive
or when sounded like –ay: neighbor, sleigh, vein
exceptions: ancient, conscience, counterfeit, foreign,
heir, leisure, seize, weird
Rule 2: To change the ending on a word that ends in –y, first change –y to –i if the
–y follows a consonant (any letter but a, e, i, o, u).
penny + less = penniless

cry + ed = cried
beauty + ful = beautiful
But keep the –y if it follows a vowel (a, e, i, o, u).
attorney + s = attorneys
buoy + ed = buoyed
donkey + s = donkeys
Always keep the final –y in a word when you add –ing:
justify + ing = justifying
Rule 3: Toadd –able, -ed, or –ing to a word ending in a consonant, double that
consonant only if the sound before it is short.
hope + ing = hoping hop + ing = hoping

BUT
scare + ed = scared scar + ed = scarred
Rule 4: If the final –e in a word is not pronounced, drop that –e when you add an
ending that begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u).
fame + ous = famous

solve + ing = solving
clone + ing = cloning
But keep the –e when you add an ending that begins with a consonant (any letter but a,
e, i, o, u).
time + ly = timely
pave + ment = pavement
EXCEPTIONS
responsible + ly = responsibly
true + ly = truly
Rule 5: Follow seven guides for forming plurals.
a. In general, add –s or –es:
building buildings
flash flashes
machine machines
b. Form the plural of an acronym by adding –s. An acronym is a word made up of

the first letters of a name or title:
VCRs, TVs, BTU’s
c. If a noun ends in a –y that follows a consonant, change the –y to –I and add –es:
society societies
treaty treaties
But if the –y follows a vowel, just add –s:
attorney attorneys
bay bays
d. If a word ends in –f or –fe, change the ending to –v and add –es:
knife knives
thief thieves
e. Add –s to some words that end in –o, -es to others:
piano pianos
tomato tomatoes
CAUTION: The plural of hero is heros or heroes.

heroes = brave people
heros = long sandwiches
f. To form the plural of a word with hyphens, add –s or –es to the first noun in the
group:
editor – in – chief editors – in – chief

father – in – law fathers – in – law
g. Irregular nouns don’t follow the rules. Some even change their spellings in the
plural:
child children
woman women
Some are spelled the same in the plural and the singular:
deer deer
Rule 6: Create contractions by joining two words with an apostrophe.
can + not = can’t it + is = it’s
will + not = won’t they + are = they’re
CAUTION: In made with not, put the apostrophe between the n and the t:
Not But
could’nt couldn’t
are’nt aren’t
1. Click on the item that is correct.

a. Gettysburg is famous because more American lives were lost in the Civil
War battle fought there than in any other single battle.
b. Gettysburg is fameous because more American lives were lost in the Civil
c. Gettysburg is famous because more American lifes were lost in the Civil
Answer: a. Gettysburg is famous because more American lives were lost in the Civil
2. Click on the item that is correct.

a. Like radar, ultrasound, which is a medical technique, relies on echos.
b. Like radar, ultrasound, which is a medical technique, relies on echoes.
c. Like radar, ultrasound, which is a medical technique, relys on echoes.
Answer: b. Like radar, ultrasound, which is a medical technique, relies on echoes.
Subject / Verb Agreement
WHAT IS AGREEMENT?
As you know, when words agree they are of the same number. This concept means that
take singular . subjects take plural verbs. Singular means one; plural means more
than one.
CHOOSE BETWEEN SINGULAR AND PLURAL VERBS
To decide whether to use a singular or a plural verb, first determine whether your
subject is singular or plural. Most plural nouns end in –s or –es.
Singular: horse, dress

Plural: horses, dresses
With singular nouns, use verbs that end in –s or –es. Otherwise, use the simple form of
the verb.
Singular: The horse runs through the field.

Plural: Horses run through the field.
CAUTION: Use verbs that end in –s or –es with pronouns in the third person singular.
These are he, she, it, and one. Otherwise, use the basic form of the verb.
WORK WITH COMPOUND SUBJECTS

Subject Joined By AND
Use plural verbs with compound subjects, which are joined by and.
Brazil and Argentina border [not borders] Uruguay.

Where were [not was] she and you on the night of the murder?
Subject Joined by OR
Use singular verbs with subjects joined by or if both subjects are singular.
Bill or Sam has [not have] been elected to feed the pig.
Use plural verbs with subjects joined by or if both subjects are plural.
I can’t remember whether the Marx Brothers or the Three Stooges are [not
is] her favorite comedians.
If one subject is singular and the other is plural, the verb agrees with the one that is
closer to it.
Millie’s brother or her sisters are scheduled to visit next October.

BUT
Millie’s sisters or her brother is scheduled to visit next October.
COMPOUND SUBJECTS FOLLOWED BY SINGULAR COMPLEMENTS
A complement is a noun or adjective that describes the subject but comes after the
verb. When a compound subject is followed by a complement, the verb is plural even if
the complement is singular.
Overeating and forcing yourself to vomit are [not is] a symptom of bulimia.
COMPOUND SUBJECTS THAT NAME THE SAME PERSON, PLACE, OR THING
When the parts of a compound subject name the same person, place, or thing, the verb
is singular.
The commander of the colonial army and our first president was [not were]
George Washington.
COMPOUND SUBJECTS AS ONE UNIT
When two subjects form a unit, the verb should be singular.
Peas and carrots is [not are] my favorite side dish.
CAUTION: When the subjects are considered separate items, the verb should be
plural.
Peas and carrots grow [not grows] in the garden by the window.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS FOLLOWING COMPOUND SUBJECTS
When a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, or whose) refers to compound
elements, the verb following that pronoun is plural.
Spanish and Portuguese, which are [not is] Romance languages, are both
spoken in Europe and South America.
ADJECTIVES USED TO FORM COMPOUND SUBJECTS
If separate are used to distinguish two types of the same noun, the verb is plural even
if the noun is singular.
College and professional football share [not shares] many of the same
rules.
MASTER SPECIAL SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT PROBLEMS
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS
When a pronoun – who, which, or that – is a subject, make the verb agree with its ,
the word to which a pronoun refers.
The movie was about a woman who wins the lottery.
The subject of who wins the lottery is who. The antecedent of who is woman. Woman is
singular; therefore, who takes a singular verb, wins.
GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS
A is a noun that ends in –ing and that stands for an activity: running, writing, studying,
working, reading, understanding. Deal with gerunds as you would other nouns.
Donating food at our church helps [not help] the needy.

Swimming and running are [not is] my favorite exercises.
SENTENCES THAT BEGIN WITH THERE I HERE
If a sentence begins with there or here, the subject comes after the verb. Look for it
there.
Once there were [not was] two men who claimed to be the true pope.
Here are [not is] your two choices: either get a job or get out!
VERBS THAT COME BEFORE SUBJECTS
If the verb comes before the subject, read the whole sentence and find the subject
before deciding whether the verb is singular or plural.
At the end of the Reflecting Pool stands the Washington Monument.

From the top of Mt. Etna rise smoke and ash, warning inhabitants and
tourists
alike that it is time to leave.
SINGULAR NOUNS THAT END IN –S
Some singular nouns end in –s. These include academic subjects such as mathematics,
statistics, and physics. News, mumps, tennis, politics, and acoustics are also singular.
Such nouns take singular verbs.
Not: Genetics are the study of heredity.

But: Genetics is the study of heredity.
TITLES
Titles of books, movies, television programs, plays, and other works are always
considered singular. They take singular verbs.
Not: Dubliners are a book of short stories by Joyce.

But: Dubliners is a book of short stories by Joyce.
TERMS OF QUANTITY
Words that name quantities, such as majority, number, dollars, and years, are singular
or plural depending on their use. If you are considering items together in one group, use
a singular verb. If you are considering separate items within a group, use a plural verb.
Singular: The number of people in this club is increasing.

Plural: A number of people in this club are retirees.
WORK WITH PHRASES AND CLAUSES BETWEEN SUBJECTS AND VERBS
FINDING THE TRUE SUBJECT
Words that come between the subject and verb can sometimes hide the real subject of
a sentence.
Not: The attractions of the city includes its many parks.

But: The attractions of the city include its many parks.
In the first sentence, the writer mistakenly assumes that the subject is city, which would
take the singular verb includes. But the real subject is attractions, a plural noun that
takes the plural verb include.
To find the true subject of a sentence, first look for the sentence’s verb. The verb is the
word that conveys action or that helps describe another word by linking it with an
adjective.
Shows action: Students sitting in the last row never ask questions.
Describes: Our hopes of winning the game were dead.
After finding the sentence’s verb, ask the question, Who or what does the action? Or
Who or what is being described/identified? That word will be the true subject.
Question: Who never asks questions? Answer: Students.
PAYING SPECIAL ATTENTION TO COLLECTIVE NOUNS
noun name groups of persons or things. They include words such as family, tribe,
nation, list, flock, pair, and team. Usually, collective nouns are singular and take singular
verbs no matter what words come between.
Not: Every night, a family of raccoons attack my trash cans.
But: Every night, a family of raccoons attacks my trash cans.
NOTE: The subject of the sentence is not raccoons; it is family, which is singular.
Therefore, the verb must be singular.
WORK WITH INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
An pronoun stands for a noun that is not specified in the sentence. An easy way to
remember indefinite pronouns is to place them into four categories.
OTHER INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
BODY ONE THING OTHER INDEFINITE

WORDS WORDS WORDS PRONOUNS
Anybody Anyone Anything All Few Much
Everybody Everyone Everything Both Little Neither
Nobody None Nothing Each Many Several
Somebody No one Something Either Most Some
One
Someone
MAKING SINGULAR INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AGREE WITH VERBS
Some indefinite pronouns are singular; they take singular verbs.
SINGULAR INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Anybody Everybody Neither
Anyone Everyone Somebody
Anything Everything Someone
Each Little Something
Either Much
Everybody has [not have] to pay the registration fee.

My sisters are professionals; each has [not have] her own career.
MAKING PLURAL INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AGREE WITH VERBS
Some indefinite pronouns are plural; they take plural verbs.
Few survive [not survives] the effects of the disease.

The rebels were defeated; several were [not was] hanged.
USING INDEFINITE PRONOUNS THAT CAN BE SINGULAR OR PLURAL

Some indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural depending on the meaning of the
sentence.
Singular: All is lost.

Plural: All of our employees have been trained.
Singular: None of the defendants was guilty.
Plural: None were honored more than the wounded.
WORKING WITH WORDS THAT COME BETWEEN SUBJECTS AND VERBS
When checking agreement between indefinite pronouns and verbs, ignore words that
come between; focus on the subject. Try setting off the words that come between.
subject verb
No one living in the neighborhood fears a break – in.
subject verb
Anyone who hikes in these hills has to watch for bears.
USING PHRASES THAT BEGIN WITH OF
Don’t let phrases that begin with of and that come between the subject and verb
confuse you. Focus on the indefinite pronoun to decide whether a subject is singular or
plural.
subject verb
Each of the cars were stolen in a different city.
subject verb
Some of the cars are antiques.
WORKING WITH SUBORDINATE CLAUSES THAT COME BETWEEN SUBJECTS AND VERBS
pronoun – that, which, who, whom, and whose – introduce subordinate , which refer
to and describe a or . Ignore those subordinate clauses when you make the subject
and verb of the clause agree.
subject verb
Anybody who studies Russian knows the Cyrillic alphabet.
USING EACH AS AN INDEFINITE PRONOUN OR ADJECTIVE
Each is an pronoun. However, it can be used as an if placed immediately before a

noun.
Pronoun: Each pays his or her own way.

Adjective: Each student pays his or her own way.
In all cases, the verb is singular.
MAINTAIN SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT WHEN USING EITHER/OR AND NEITHER/NOR
Joining nouns and pronouns with and creates compound subjects, which are plural. But
this situation isn’t true when you use or and nor between subjects. Or and nor tell us to
consider subjects separately, not together. The joining word helps us determine whether
a verb should be singular or plural.
Sam and Paul ride motorcycles.
BUT
Either Sam or Paul rides a Harley – Davidson.

Neither Sam nor Paul rides on Sundays.
USING EITHER/OR AND NEITHER/NOR WHEN BOTH SUBJECTS ARE SINGULAR
Either/or and neither/nor constructions make us consider the two subjects separately,
not as a pair. Therefore, if both subjects are singular, the verb must be singular:
Not: Either Thailand or Sri Lanka were her home.

But: Either Thailand or Sri Lanka was her home.
NOTE: The subjects is Thailand or Sri Lanka, not Thailand and Sri Lanka. Since
both subjects are singular, the verb must be singular: was, not were.
USING EITHER/OR AND NEITHER/NOR WHEN BOTH SUBJECTS ARE PLURAL
You learned that if both subjects in an either/or or neither/nor sentence are singular, the
verb is singular. By the same token, if both subjects are plural, the verb is plural
Not: Neither the cats nor the dogs has torn the screen.
But: Neither the cats nor the dogs have torn the screen.
USING EITHER/OR AND NEITHER/NOR WHEN ONE SUBJECT IS SINGULAR AND THE OTHER IS
PLURAL
When one subject is singular and the other is plural, the subject closer to the verb
determines whether the verb is singular or plural.
Neither the company nor the workers want a strike.
BUT
Neither the workers nor the company wants a strike.

In the first, workers is the subject closer to the verb. Since workers is plural, the verb is
plural. In the second, company is closer to the verb. Since company is singular, the verb
is singular.
USING EITHER AND NEITHER AS ADJECTIVES
When either or neither comes immediately before a noun, the noun is singular.
Therefore, the verb that follows is also singular.
Either restaurant serves [not serve] the food we like.

Neither bookstore stocks [not stock] novels by Verga.
MAKE VERBS AGREE WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS
A noun names a single unit. It stands for a group of people or things. Although
collective nouns seem to be plural, they are usually singular. Collective nouns usually
take singular verbs.
The Congress has passed gun – control laws.

The National Football League employs hundreds of people.
Locate the verb in the sentences above. In each case, it comes directly after the
subject.
Question: What do these verbs have in common?

Answer: They end in –s; they are all singular.
AN EXCEPTION TO THE RULE
Sometimes collective nouns refer to individuals in a group rather than to the group as a
whole. In such cases, use a plural verb:
Group as a whole: The college, faculty numbers less than 80.

[The verb, numbers, is singular.]
Individuals within a The faculty come from several countries.

group:
[The verb, come, is plural.]
WORKING WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS FOLLOWED BY PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
CAUTION: Collective nouns are sometimes followed immediately by phrase, which

begin with words such as of, on, to, and with. When such phrases end in
plural nouns, don’t be fooled into thinking that the sentence’s verb must be
plural, too.
Instead, base your decision on the sentence’s meaning. First, separate the prepositional
phrase from the subject and verb. Then decide whether the verb is singular or plural.
subject verb
Singular: The union of masons and artisans organized in 1892.
BUT
subject verb
Plural: A majority of voters think their taxes are high.
WORKING WITH SUBORDINATE CLAUSES BETWEEN COLLECTIVE NOUNS AND VERBS
CAUTION: Subordinate clauses begin with relative pronouns such as that, which,
who, whom, and whose. Don’t let such clauses distract you when making
verbs agree with collective nouns.
Not: The club, which were once open only to men, now recruit women.
But: The club, which was once open only to men, now recruits women.
USING NOUNS OF QUANTITY
Some nouns of quantity, though plural, really suggest just a single unit. They always
take singular verbs.
Fifty dollars, hidden in my closet, has been stolen.

Thirty – five pounds is the price we paid for two theater tickets in London.
MAKE PRONOUNS AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS – SIX RULES
Just as a verb agrees in number with its subject, a pronoun agrees with an , the word it
refers to. Antecedents are nouns or other pronouns.
RULE 1: If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun that refers to it is singular. If the
antecedent is plural, the pronoun that refers to it is plural.
Singular: The Dow Jones Industrial Average surged; it rose more than 200 points.
Plural: Both the investor and her broker were jubilant; they both made money.
RULE 2: Use singular pronouns to refer to nouns joined by or, either … or, and
neither…nor if both the nouns are singular. However, use plural pronouns
if both nouns are plural.
Singular: Neither Fred nor Bill has paid his [not their] dues.
Plural: Neither sea otters nor seals make their [not its] home in the Caribbean.
RULE 3: Use a singular or plural pronoun to refer to a collective noun depending on
the sense of that noun.
Singular: The Cheng family researched its origins in China.

Plural: My family cannot agree on where to take their vacation.
RULE 4: Use singular pronouns when you refer to indefinite pronouns.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
One words Body Words

each anyone no one anybody
either everyone one everybody
neither none someone nobody
somebody
Both men had amnesia; neither recalled his own name.

Komal and Sejal are bright women; either can hold her own in a political debate.
RULE 5: Use singular pronouns when referring to each, either, and neither, even
when these words are followed by of phrases that end with plurals.
Neither of my aunts brags about her [not their] doctoral degree.

Each of the Cub Scouts was required to bring his [not their] lunch.
RULE 6: Use singular pronouns when referring to singular nouns that end in –s.
These nouns include mathematics, physics, economics, and politics.
Once again, politics rears its [not their] ugly head.
AVOID SEXISM WHILE MAINTAINING AGREEMENT
WHAT ARE SEXIST PRONOUNS?
Indefinite pronouns, such as anybody, someone, and something, do no refer to specific

persons or things. Indefinite pronouns are singular. But sometimes writers use only
masculine pronouns -- he, his, and him – to refer to indefinite pronouns. This usage can
make writing sexist, and it offends readers.
AVOIDING SEXISM WHEN REFERRING TO INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
One way to avoid sexism is by using both masculine and feminine pronouns:
Sexism: Anyone who parked in lot 3 must move his car.

Revised: Anyone who parked in lot 3 must move his or her car.
A second way to avoid sexism is to replace the pronoun with an article: a, an, or the.
Sexist: Each is free to express his opinion.

Revised: Each is free to express an opinion.
A third way to avoid sexism is to replace the indefinite pronoun with a plural noun.
Sexist: Everybody should vote his conscience.

Revised: Citizens should vote their conscience.
AVOIDING SEXISM WHEN REFERRING TO GENERIC NOUNS
Most nouns in English are generic -- – they are considered neither female nor male.
Included are words such as teacher, engineer, nurse, and judge. Nongeneric nouns
identify the sex of a person; they include grandmother, father, and aunt.
One way to avoid sexism when referring to generic nouns is by replacing a masculine
pronoun with both a masculine and feminine pronoun.
Sexism: A candidate for Senate should reveal his income tax returns.
Revised: A candidate for Senate should reveal his or her income tax returns.
A second way to avoid sexism when referring to generic nouns is by replacing the
pronoun with an article: a, an, or the.
Sexist: A truck driver must have his commercial license.

Revised: A truck driver must have a commercial license.
A third way to avoid sexism when referring to generic nouns is to replace a singular
generic noun with a plural noun and then use a plural pronoun.
Sexist: A person who believes in himself can achieve much.

Revised: People who believe in themselves can achieve much.
1. Choose the item with correct subject – verb agreement.

a. These Boston terriers runs fast.
b. These Boston terriers run fast.
Answer: b. These Boston Terriers run fast.
2. Choose the item with correct subject – verb agreement.

a. The Jeep Cherokee resembles the Explorer.
b. The Jeep Cherokee resemble the Explorer.
Answer: a. The Jeep Cherokee resembles the Explorer.
Verbs
A shows what a subject does (action), or it helps describe a subject.
Shows action: Pediatricians treat children.

Helps describe: They are medical specialists.
NOTE: Words that end in –ing cannot act as verbs unless they are paired with
helping verbs, such are, is, was, and were.
The surgeons are removing the patient’s gall bladder.
LEARN WHAT A VERB DOES
A Verb
1. Tell what a does, did, or will do.

2. Tells what is, has been, or will be done to a subject.
3. Describes a subject by joining it with .
A Verb Shows Action by Telling What a Subject Does, Did, or Will Do
Present: Coyotes howl at the moon as it shines on the hills.
Past: John Donne wrote poetry and sermons.
Future: My sister will major in Spanish.
A Verb Shows Action by Telling What Is Done to a Subject
Present: Raspberries are baked in delicious pastries.
Past: Andrea was elected class president.
Future: Science 109 will be offered in the spring term.
A Verb Describes a Subject by Joining It with Adjectives
Present: The house is old, large, and drafty.
Past: Richard was intelligent.
Future: When remodeled, our kitchen will be spacious.
MASTER VERB TENSES

The of the verb shows time: past, present, and future. Verbs can be classified as
regular and irregular. Regular verbs follow set patterns in all tenses. Irregular verbs do
not; they change their forms and have to be learned individually.
PRESENT TENSE
In the present tense, a verb tells what is happening right now. The present tense also
shows action that happens over and over again. Therefore, you can write
I eat chili with meat and rice.
OR
I eat chili with meat and rice every Thursday.
NOTE: The third person singular is the only exception to the rule. It ends in –s.
Present Tense – The Irregular Verb To Be
The irregular verb to be significantly changes its spelling in the present tense.
Singular Plural
First Person: I am We are
Second Person: You are You are
Third Person: He, She, is They are

It, One
PAST TENSE
Verbs in the past tense relate action or events that have been completed. To form the
past tense of a regular verb, add –d or –ed to the verb’s basic form:
I lived in Alabama once. We helped my parents move.

You ruined my new shirt. You carried the burden yourselves.
Jana earned $500 a week. They visited me in the hospital.
Past Tense – Irregular Verbs
The past tense of irregular verbs is formed in various ways. These verbs don’t follow a
pattern. That’s why they are called irregular. A list of irregular verbs appears below. You
will want to make a copy and study it.
Irregular Verbs—Present and Past

Present Past Present Past Present Past
arise arose fall fell ride rode
awake awoke feel felt rise rose
beat beat fly flew run ran
break broke forgive forgave see saw
bring brought get got send sent
catch caught give gave sit sat
choose chose go went speak spoke
cling clung hold held steal stole
come came keep kept teach taught
dig dug know knew tear tore
do did lead led throw threw
draw drew lose lost win won
drive drove make made write wrote
eat ate meet met
Once you know the past tense of an irregular verb, you can apply it in all cases.
Singular Plural
First Person: I drove We drove
Second Person: You drove You drove
Third Person: He, drove They drove

She,
It, One
NOTE: The only exception is the past tense of to be.
Past Tense – The Irregular Verb To Be
Singular Plural
First Person: I was We were
Second Person: You were You were
Third Person: He, was They were

She,
It, One
NOTE: The first and third person singular are different from all the rest.
FUTURE TENSE
The future tense tells us what will be true or what will happen at a later time. To form the
future tense, attach the helping verbs will, is going to, or are going to to the basic form
of the verb:
She will meet you tomorrow at the gym.

Ari is going to visit Japan next year.
THE PERFECT TENSES
The present perfect uses the helping verb have or has with the past participle of a verb.
The past perfect uses the helping verb had with the past participle. To form the past
participle of regular verbs, add –d or –ed to the basic form of the verb.
NOTE: The present, past, present participles, and past participles of irregular
verbs do not follow a pattern. You must learn each of them individually.
GUIDE TO IRREGULAR VERBS

Present Past Present Past
Participle Participle
arise arose arising arisen
awake awoke awaking awaked
beat beat beating beaten
break broke breaking broken
bring brought bringing brought
catch caught catching caught
can could
choose chose choosing chosen
cling clung clinging clung
come came coming came
dig dug digging dug
do did doing done
draw drew drawing drawn
drive drove driving driven
eat ate eating eaten
fall fell falling fallen
feel felt feeling felt
fly flew flying flown
forgive forgave forgiving forgiven
get got getting got, gotten
give gave giving given
go went going gone
hang hanged hanging hanged (to execute someone)
hang hung hanging hung (to hang a thing)
hold held holding held
keep kept keeping kept
know knew knowing known
lead led leading led
lose lost losing lost
make made making made
meet met meeting met
ride rode riding ridden
rise rose rising risen
run ran running run
see saw seeing seen
send sent sending sent
sit sat sitting sat
speak spoke speaking spoken
steal stole stealing stolen
teach taught teaching taught
tear tore tearing torn
throw threw throwing thrown
win won winning won
Write wrote writing written
The Present Perfect
Use the present perfect to talk about actions that begin in the past and continue into the
present. Verbs in present perfect use the helping verb have except in the third person
singular. Then they use has.
I have run two miles a day for six years.

They have developed new drugs to fight AIDS.
The Past Perfect
Use the past perfect to talk about actions that happened in the past and that came
before other events that happened in the past. Verbs in the past perfect use the helping
word had, the past tense of have, in all cases.
Before the revolution, Russia had been a monarchy.

AVOID ILLOGICAL VERB TENSE SHIFTS
The of a verb is the time a verb expresses. If not done logically, shifting from one tense
to another in the same sentence can cause problems. The following sentence uses both
the present tense (drives) and the past tense (took) to express things happening at
different times. Therefore, in this case shifting from present tense to past tense is
logical.
present past
Usually he drives to work, but yesterday he took the bus.
Shifting verb tenses logically can serve a purpose: to show actions occurring at different
times. But shifting verb tenses illogically – without a good reason – can make a
sentence hard to read and understand.
past present
Illogical shift: Whenever visitors approached, our dog barks loudly.
Approached is in the past tense; barks is in the present. But the logic of the sentence
demands that both verbs be in the same tense. After all, the sentence begins with
Whenever, so the dog must be barking at the same time the visitors approach.
Here are two correct versions:
All present: Whenever visitors approach, our dog barks loudly.

All past: Whenever visitors approached, our dog barked loudly.
KEEP VERB TENSES CONSISTENT
The tense of the verb refers to time. Keep verb tenses consistent. You don’t have to
stick to one tense in a sentence or paragraph. However, when you change tenses, you
must do so logically and only when necessary. Choose a main or controlling tense and
switch to other tenses only when you want to discuss events happening at other times.
Let’s say you begin a paragraph with the following sentence, which uses verbs in the
present tense:
I study Spanish two hours a day, but I still have trouble passing tests in that
class.
You can write a second sentence that compares your college Spanish class with one
you took in high school:
In high school, I barely studied Spanish two hours a week, yet I got good
grades.
You might even use of the future tense in a third sentence:
However, knowing Spanish will help me with the career I will pursue after
graduation.
Your finished paragraph might look like this:
I study Spanish two hours a day, but I still have trouble passing tests in that
class. In high school, I barely studied Spanish two hours a week, yet I got good
grades. However, knowing Spanish will help me with the career I will pursue after
graduation.
CAUTION: Do not shift from one tense to another without purpose. For example, DO
NOT write the following:
I study Spanish two hours a day, but I still had trouble passing tests in
that class.
Being Logical When Changing Tenses in a Sentence
Sometimes you will need to talk about things happening at different times in the same
sentence, and you will have to use more than one tense. Just make sure you move from
tense to tense logically:
past present future

Friends who spoke to Jake yesterday say now that he will arrive tomorrow.
Being Consistent When Using the Perfect Tenses
The present perfect uses the helping verb have or has with the past participle of a main
verb. To form the past participle of regular verbs, add –d or –ed to the basic form of the
verb. A list of participles for irregular verbs can be found in this chapter.
Using the Present Perfect Tense
To maintain consistency, remember that the present perfect is used to talk

about actions that begin in the past and continue into the present.
Not: He is interested in stamp collecting ever since he was 17.
But: He has been interested in stamp collecting ever since he

was 17.
Using the Past Perfect Tense

Verbs in the past perfect use for helping word had with the past participle
of a verb. To maintain consistency, remember that the past perfect is used
to talk about actions that happened in the past but that came before other
past events.
Not: Before Columbus came to America, the Mayans built a

remarkable civilization.
But: Before Columbus came to America, the Mayans had built a

remarkable civilization.
THE PROGRESIVE TENSES
The progressive tenses combine forms of the verb to be with present participles.
Present participles always end in –ing. Use the progressive tense to show continuing
action.
I am studying. We have been eating pizza.

You are trying hard. You are holding up traffic.
She was sleeping. They will be discussing taxes.
The Present Progressive
The present progressive shows continuing action in the present. It combines the present
tense of the verb to be with the present participle.
I am watching you!
Someone is parking in my spot!
They are visiting relatives.
The Past Progressive
The past progressive shows continuing action in the past. It combines the past tense of
the verb to be with the present participle.
I was standing on the corner.
We were speaking very loudly.
They were shouting.
The Future Progressive
The future progressive shows continuing action in the future. It combines will be, which
is the future tense of the verb to be, with the present participle.
Prof. Martinez will be attending a symposium for three days.
Next year, automakers will be negotiating a labor contract.
USE LINKING VERBS, HELPING VERBS, AND MODALS
Linking verbs do not show action. Instead, they help describe a subject by connecting it
to a , , or . Linking verbs include am, are, is, was, and were.
To a noun: She was the queen of his heart.

To a pronoun: It is I!
To an adjective: Our bellies were full.
Helping verbs are used with main verbs to form the future, the perfect, and the
progressive tenses. They include forms of the verbs to be, such as am, are, be, been,
being, is, was, and were. They also include will and shall and forms of the verbs to have
and to do.
The engineers were draining the swamp.
The scholarship ball has raised thousands of dollars.
Including Needed Helping Verbs
Sometimes leaving out needed helping verbs can cause a sentence fragment, that is, a
sentence that is not complete, or can create a subject/verb agreement error.
Fragment: She carrying the baby in her arms.
Complete: She was carrying the baby in her arms.
Agreement error: The band practice on Thursday.
Correct: The band will practice on Thursday.
Modals are helping verbs. Unlike most helping verbs, however, they cannot act as main
verbs. They are used before main verbs to create special meanings.
can do may shall will

could does might should would
did must
Stephanie can drive a tractor.
He must return by midnight or face the consequences.

Andrea should win the award for best actress.
If you will cook the snails, I will eat them.
LEARN TO USE VERB MOODS
What is Mood?
Verbs come in various tenses. They also come in four : indicative, imperative,
subjunctive, and conditional. A verb’s mood helps show the writer’s intention or
purpose.
Use the indicative mood to make a statement or ask a question:
How many people in this country have hay fever?
Twenty – two million Americans suffer from this allergy.
The imperative mood gets its name from “imperial,” an adjective describing empires. It
is natural that the imperative be used to give commands. However, it is also used to
make requests and give directions.
Command: Close the door!
Request: Please pass the gravy.
Directions: Turn right at the traffic light.
The subjunctive mood is used for three purposes:
1. To express a wish or desire.

2. To explain a demand, a request, or a suggestion.
3. To make a statement that is contrary to fact.
Wish: I wish I owned [not own] a Corvette.
Demand: The police demanded that the thief drop [not drops] the gun.
Contrary to If Sam were [not was] patient, he would master the computer
fact: easily.
NOTE: In the subjunctive mood, the past tense is expressed with the helping verb
had.
If she had gone [not went], she would have enjoyed herself.
If he had left [not left] earlier, he would have avoided traffic.

The conditional mood is used to answer questions such as What would happen if? or
What happens when? A conditional sentence usually begins with an “if” or “when”
clause, which states the condition. The first clause is followed by a clause that tells what
will happen “if” or “when” that condition comes true.
If we do well this term, we will keep our scholarships.
When a parolee commits a crime, he or she is returned to jail

immediately.
The conditional and the indicative forms are the same. The problem comes in
distinguishing the conditional from the subjunctive.
Conditional: If he exercises, he will lose weight.
Subjunctive: If he were exercising, he would lose weight.
The conditional says he will lose weight, but only if he exercises. The subjunctive says
that he is not exercising and that he is not losing weight. In many cases, the second
clause of a conditional sentence contains will; the second clause in a subjunctive
sentence contains would.
USE GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES CORRECTLY
A gerund is an –ing noun formed from a verb. A gerund names an activity and is used
the same way any other noun is.
Subject: Hiking is my favorite sport.
Object: The French have perfected wine making.
An infinitive is the basic form of a verb preceded by to. Infinitives can be nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.
Noun: To cry over a friend’s death is not a sign of weakness.
Adjective: When I go shopping, I make a list of things to buy.
Adverb: She stopped to buy some groceries.
Using Gerunds and Infinitives with Verbs
Some verbs can be used with both and with no change in meaning:
Gerund: I love watching old science – fiction movies.

Infinitive: I love to watch old science – fiction movies.
However, other verbs mean one thing when used with a gerund and another when used
with an infinitive:
Gerund: Ali forgot writing a check to the landlord.
Infinitive: Ali forgot to write a check to the landlord.
USE THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES
Verbs have tenses and moods. They also have voices. The voice is the form a verb
takes to indicate whether the subject of the sentence does an action or is acted upon.
Active: Ramon wrote the letter.
Passive: The letter was written by Ramon.
A sentence in the active voice uses a subject, person, place, or thing that does an
action. A sentence in the passive voice uses a subject that is acted upon.
In general, Choose the Active over the Passive Voice
There are four problems with using the passive voice:
1. Since the passive requires more words than the active voice requires, the former
can make a sentence wordy.
Active: The small audience applauded the violinist.

Passive: The violinist was applauded by the small audience.
• The passive voice sometimes takes emphasis away from the subject and makes
a sentence awkward and hard to read.
Active: The small children ran into the house.
Passive: The house was run into by the small children.
• Using the passive voice might cause the writer to forget to include the subject.
This omission might be a serious mistake, for knowing the doer of an action is
often just as important as knowing what happened.
Active: Governor Santiago approved funds for a new super highway.
Passive: The funds for a new super highway were approved.
2. Using the passive voice can lead to sentence structure problems.
Problem: Going down in the elevator, the verdict was discussed by the lawyers.
Correct: Going down in the elevator, the lawyers discussed the verdict.
NOTE: In the first example, the modifier (adjective) going down in the elevator
seems to refer to the verdict. That, of course, would make the sentence
illogical.
WHEN TO USE THE PASSIVE VOICE: TWO EXCEPTIONS
1. Using the passive voice can help you emphasize the action over the doer of an
action.
Passive: Ann was elected to the Monroe city council.
The sentence above places more emphasis on Ann’s election than does the following
version:
Active: The citizens of Monroe elected Ann to the city council.
2. Using the passive voice is also appropriate when you don’t know who did an
action.
Doors and windows had been left open; books, clothing, and small items
of furniture had been scattered across the room; and curtains, sheets,
and blankets had been torn to shreds.
AVOID ILLOGICAL VOICE SHIFTS
Verbs take various tenses. They also come in active voice or passive voice. A verb in
the active voice takes a subject – person, place, or thing – that does an action. A verb in
the passive voice takes a subject that is acted upon.
Active: The students admire the teacher.

Passive: The teacher is admired by the students.
NOTE: Verbs in the passive voice always contain at least two words: a form of the
verb to be (is) and the participle (admired).
CAUTION: Shifting from one voice to another in the same sentence often makes the
sentence hard to read. Shifting the voice also makes your message less
direct and emphatic.
Inconsistent: Beautiful birds were seen as she entered the garden.
Consistent: She saw beautiful birds as she entered the garden.
The first example begins in the passive voice and then shifts to the active. In the second
example, both verbs are in the active voice.
1. Choose the words that would correctly complete the sentence. Click on the right
choice. As a child, Susan did not like basketball, but …
a. she liked it now.
b. she likes it now.
c. she will like it now.
d. she had liked it now.
Answer: b. she likes it now.
2. Choose the sentence that uses the correct verb forms.

a. Many people decide to buy digital cameras even though their film cameras
work perfectly.
b. Many people decided to buy digital cameras even though their film
cameras work perfectly.
c. Many people decided buying digital cameras even though their film
cameras work perfectly.
Answer: a. Many people decide to buy digital cameras even though their film cameras
work perfectly.
3. Choose the sentence that contains a verb in simple present tense.

d. Julie arises for work every day at 5 A.M.
e. Julie arose for work every day at 5 A.M.
f. Julie will arise for work every day at 5 A.M.
Answer: a. Julie arises for work every day at 5 A.M.
4. Identify the verb(s) in the following sentence. I learned computer programming

and wrote my own software.
a. learned/wrote
b. learned/programming
c. programming/software
Answer: a. learned/wrote
Word Choice
AVOID SEXIST LANGUAGE
Sexist language can occur when he or she is used exclusively to refer to an indefinite
pronoun such as anyone, everybody, someone and nobody. It also occurs when a sex-
specific noun is used to name a group with both male and female members. For
example, calling mail carriers mailmen implies that only men deliver mail.
SEXISM WITH INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns, such as anybody, each, neither, and someone, can be general in
meaning and not refer to specific persons, places, or things. They are singular.
Unfortunately, writers sometimes use masculine pronouns – he, his, and him – to refer
to indefinite pronouns. Using only feminine pronouns to refer to indefinite pronouns is
less frequent, but it too is sexist.
Three Ways to Avoid Sexism When Using Indefinite Pronouns
1. Use both masculine and feminine forms or remove the pronoun of reference.
Sexist: Everyone should cast his vote on Election Day.

Revised: Everyone should cast his or her vote on Election Day.
Revised: Everyone should vote on Election Day.
NOTE: To drop the pronoun, you might have to rewrite the sentence.
2. Replace the pronoun with a, an, or the.
Sexist: Each employee reports to his supervisor.

Revised: Each employee reports to a supervisor.
3. Use a plural noun and a pronoun.
Sexist: Everyone should communicate with his professor.

Revised: Students should communicate with their professors.
CAUTION: Make sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent – the
word it refers to. Use singular pronouns with singular antecedents; use
plural pronouns with plural antecedents.
SEXISM WITH GENERIC NOUNS
Generic nouns do not refer to a specific sex. Most nouns in English are generic.
Exceptions include such words as mother and father. You can use the methods you just
learned to avoid sexist language when using pronouns that refer to generic nouns,
nouns that are neither male nor female.
Sexist: A student must show his identification card at the library.
Revised: A student must show his or her identification card at the library.
Revised: A student must show an identification card at the library.
Revised: Students must show their identification cards at the library.
Sexism also becomes a problem when you use female pronouns to refer to members of
a group that contains both men and women.
Sexist: A nurse must regularly update her skills.

Revised: Nurses must regularly update their skills.
CAUTION: When correcting sexist language, make sure that pronouns agree with
their antecedents.
Incorrect: The student is required to bring their calculators to class.

Revised: Students are required to bring their calculators to class.
NOTE: Another way to avoid sexism is to replace sex – specific terms with sex –
neutral terms when appropriate. For example, you might easily substitute
firefights for firemen.
INCLUDE NECESSARY WORDS
While it is important to edit for redundancy and repetition, it is also important to make
sure you have included all the words needed to make your writing clear, logical, and
complete.
USING COMPLETE VERBS
Many verb forms contain more than one word. Sometimes you will have to add a
helping word or a participle (a short word following a verb) to make the tense or
meaning of your verb clear.
Incomplete: Soon after I eaten dinner, I began to throw bits of spoiled meat.
Complete: Soon after I had eaten dinner, I began to throw up bits of spoiled
meat.
INCLUDING THE RELATIVE PRONOUN THAT
Sometimes including that is necessary, especially when you rephrase what others have
said.
Not: The psychologist told the audience children need both love and discipline.
But: The psychologist told the audience that children need both love and
discipline.
MAKING COMPARISONS CLEAR, COMPLETE, AND LOGICAL

1. Make sure your sentence compares like things; otherwise, it will be illogical.
Not: The mountains of Switzerland are older than Colorado.

But: The mountains of Switzerland are older than those of Colorado.
The first sentence is illogical; it compares unlike things – mountains and Colorado. The
second is logical; it compares like things – mountains and mountains (those of
Colorado).
2. When you compare people, places, or things, show that they belong to the group
to which they are being compared. To do so, include words such as other or else.
Not: A Ferrari is more expensive than most cars.

But: A Ferrari is more expensive than most other cars.
CREATE AN APPROPRIATE TONE
Tone is the style in which you express yourself. Your tone may vary depending upon
purpose and audience. For example, if you are writing a letter to a friend, you might use
an informal tone and include slang, jargon, colloquialisms, and contractions. If you are
writing a college essay, on the other hand, you will want to use a formal tone.
To maintain a formal tone, avoid slang, jargon, and colloquialisms. Also, choose
language carefully and include only idiomatic expressions.
AVOID SLANG
Slang is language that has a private and often short – lived meaning. Slang can be very
powerful, but it is often inexact and is usually understood by only a select group.
For example, teenagers often use words and their parents have never heard of and that
are not found in contemporary newspapers, textbooks, and the like.
Slang: When the dude split, he left the chick with a kid and no bread.
Formal: When the man left, he abandoned the woman with a child and no money.
AVOIDING JARGON EXCEPT WITH SPECIAL AUDIENCES
Jargon is language used by experts in a particular field. It includes technical words, new
compounds, and familiar words used in a unique way. Jargon is appropriate as long as
your readers are familiar with the field from which it comes. But jargon can make your
writing complicated and unclear to those who are unfamiliar with such language.
Jargon: After booting up the computer and activating the printer, Amie
made hard copies of his business correspondence.
Familiar: After turning on the computer and the printer, Amie printed his
business letters.
AVOIDING COLLOQUIALISMS
Colloquial expressions, while not always incorrect, are informal and more appropriate in
spoke conversation among friends than in formal writing.
Colloquial: I found the puppy sleeping back of the couch.

Formal: I found the puppy sleeping behind the couch.
USE IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
An idiom is an expression whose meaning often has little to do with the individual
meanings of the words it contains. An idiom must be understood as a unit, and its
meaning can be learned only through experience.
Say you wrote, “I won’t put up with his rudeness.” You mean that you won’t tolerate his
rudeness. But this meaning cannot be arrived at by translating each of the three words
in the idiom putupwith. You can use idioms in formal writing, but you must use them
correctly.
Not: We are angry at our landlord.

But: We are angry with our landlord.
COMMON IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
NOT BUT
afraid on afraid of
agree to (an opinion) agree with (an opinion)
angry on angry at (a situation)
angry with (a person)
arrive to (a place) arrive at/in (a place)
at peace in (oneself) at peace with (oneself)
comply to comply with
conform on (a rule) conform to (a rule)
contend against contend with
content against content with
depend in depend on
die with (a disease) die of/from (a disease)
different than different from
equal with equal to
frightened of frightened by
get in (a car) get on (a car)
get in (a plane, bus, train)
get on (a plane, bus, train)
impatient at (a person) impatient with (a person)
inferior than inferior to
listen on/at listen to
live in (a street) live on (a street)
live in (an address) live at (an address)
live at (a city) live in (a city)
look to (a picture) look at (a picture)
married with (someone) married to (someone)
park on (a driveway) park in (a driveway)
park in (the street) park on (the street)
partake in partake of
participate on participate in
prior than prior to
report in report on
superior than superior to
tired with tired of
wait for (a customer) wait on (a customer)
wait on (a letter) wait for (a letter)
AVOID CLICHÉS
A cliché is an expression that has been overused. As a result, it sounds stale and dull.
In fact, as soon as you begin to hear or read a cliché, you can predict how it will end.
Read the following sentences and try to figure out how the cliché in them will end:
She baked a cake that was as light as a ________.
Jason’s remark was right on ___________.
Janice, you have hit the nail _______ _________ _________.
A cliché is an expression that has been overused. As a result, it sounds slate and dull.
In fact, as soon as
After being crushed, the can lay flat as a __________.
Watch for cliché as you rewrite the drafts of your papers. Make one last check for cliché
as you edit your final draft. Trust your instincts to come up with alternatives that are
clearer, more appealing, less wordy, and often more specific than cliché are:
A LIST OF Cliché
acid test hit the sack

as good as done hot potato
as the crow flies keep your shirt on
at all costs ladder of success
better half like the plague
bit the dust little lady
breaking my neck old hat
broken record on your own
clear as mud paid your dues
cold, hard facts passed away
cool as a cucumber picture perfect
dark horse pure as snow
dead as a doornail rest assured
drunk as a skunk rite of passage
early bird sacred cow
easy for you to say short and sweet
edge of the seat sick as a dog
face the music sink or swim
fall on deaf ears stone cold sober
fly like an eagle stone's throw
foaming at the mouth strong as an ox
going places tighten our belts
green with envy to the point
grinning from ear to ear turn for the worse
healthy as a horse white as a ghost
hit the deck
USE THE CORRECT WORD – A GLOSSARY OF USAGE
Sometimes writers use words whose meaning they don’t fully understand. This practice
can lead to sentences that are incorrect, unclear, or both. To make sure that the word
you are using means what you think it does, check its meaning in the dictionary.
Words Often Confused or Misused
accept The community college will accept any applicant who has a high
school diploma.
except My nephew likes all vegetables except broccoli.
advice The value of good advice is not immediately recognized.

advise The faculty member advised the student to drop the course.
affect Automobile emissions affect the earth's atmosphere.

effect The effects of global warming are difficult to measure.
all right The children were all right.

alright This word does not exist.
alot This word does not exist.

a lot A lot of fans began shouting when the concert was delayed.
allot The manager allotted the parking spaces according to seniority.
altogether The dancer was altogether brilliant in her performance.

all together The campaign workers were all together at the rally.
among Among the candidates, he was the most popular.

between Dan's choice was between dropping out of college and finishing the
semester.
another This form does not exist. (See in other words.)

words
anymore Barry does not work at that restaurant anymore.

any more Mia ate two pancakes and didn't want any more.
are Before you leave this evening, check whether our hours are posted
hour on next week's schedule.
our
axe The axe is missing its handle.

ask Don’t ever be afraid to ask the teacher a question.
The first is a tool; the second means "to request." Do notconfuse
them.
beyond Giselle's beauty is beyond comparison.

be on It's wise to be on time for job interviews.
brake The sign warned drivers to brake.

break The bartender washed the glasses carefully inorder not to break
them.
breath After running, Jamal was out of breath.

breathe The scuba instructor showed us how to breathe under water.
choose If you choose to study electronics, you must take several math
courses. [present tense]
chose Mary Beth chose to spend last weekend at the ocean. [past tense]
cite In reports, one must cite all research.

sight The cabin came into sight.
site A construction site is full of hazards.
cloths Soft cloths work best for polishing a car.

clothes Al spends Saturday mornings washing clothes.
complement His flowered tie does not complement his checkered jacket.
compliment He complimented us on our performance.
could of This form does not exist.

could have Tim could have been a manager.
desert Few animals can survive in the desert as well as the camel can.
dessert You can have ice cream for dessert.
genes Your physical characteristics are passed on to you by your parents

through their genes.
jeans I ripped my favorite pair of jeans.
hang She wants to hang the pictures in the den.

hung The sail hung loosely when the wind died.
heros We always have heros for dinner on Mondays.

heroes Children often think of athletes as heroes.
in In other words, the choice is not as easy as it appears to be.

otherwords
irregardless This word does not exist.

regardless They decided to buy a new car regardless of the cost.
its' This form does not exist.

its The college will hold its graduation Thursday.
it's Since storm clouds are rolling in, it'’s likely to rain before evening.
knew Ramona knew the secret password.

new The new equipment will allow surgeons toperform the operation in
less time.
know His brother asked, "Do you know him?"

no "No," he replied.
now The judges will now announce the winners of the contest.
lead The mayor will lead the marchers downtown.

lead Many older buildings are contaminated with lead paint.
led The performer led the audience in a sing-along.
loose Amy prefers loose clothing when it is humid.

lose I predict the team will lose on Saturday.
maybe Maybe he will win the lottery.

may be The tests may be inaccurate, but the doctors are still worried.
passed With help from a tutor, he passed the exam.

past Alexis didn't consider her husband's past before she married him.
principal The principal closed the school at noon.
principal Dehydration is the principal cause of heatstroke.
principle Religious principles are important to many people throughout the
world.
should of This form does not exist.

should have Sharon should have come home earlier.
stationary The table is stationary; it can't be moved.

stationery She wrote the letter on expensive stationery.
than Jodi and Bill arrived earlier than the other ticket buyers.
then Read the instructions; then assemble the bicycle.
their Their house is on the corner.

there Stand there if you want to see the president.
they're They're too tired to stay awake.
to To vote, you have to register at city hall.

too Since the classroom was too cold, the professor canceled the
lecture.
two The two of them decided to attend the reception.
try to Bob's mother should try to understand his problem.

try and Avoid using this form; it is wordy.
whose Whose car are we taking to the dance?

who's Who's going to the dance with Brandy?
would of This form does not exist.

would have Walt would have canceled his appointment.
your Someone found your purse in the college center.

you're You're lucky that your money was not stolen.
1. Choose the word or phrases that uses correct standard English to complete the
following sentence.
The child who had ______ was soon revived.
a. passed out
b. passed over
c. passed on.
Answer: a. passed out

2. Choose the word or phrase that uses correct standard English to complete the
following sentence:
The car _______ crashed into a large truck if the driver hadn’t swerved.
a. would have
b. would of
c. would a
Answer: a. would have

COM 3110 - Grammar Quiz Notes

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Abbreviations

FOLLOW THESE GUIDELINES WHEN USING ABBREVIATIONS:

USE PERIOD WITH SINGLE – WORD ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations of single words usually take periods.

WRITE INITIALISMS WITHOUT PERIODS

ATM Automatic Teller Machine

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Adminstration

WRITE ACRONYMS WITHOUT PERIODS

SCUBA Self – Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

RADAR Radio Detecting And Ranging

SARS Severe Acute Respirator Syndrome

LASER Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

AVOID ABBREVIATIONS FOR TITLE BUT USE THEM FOR DEGREES

Use the spell – out version of a title in formal prose:

Not: The pres. Of our graduating class has a straight A average.

But: The president of our graduating class has a straight A average.

Text of Letter Address

Use abbreviations for academic degrees.

Not: Dr. Alice Conway, Ph.D

But: Dr. Alice Conway

Or: Alice Conway, Ph.D

USE FAMILIAR ABBREVIATIONS

APR Annual Percentage Rate

GPO Government Printing Office

AVOID ABBREVIATIONS WITH DATES

Write out days of the week and months of the year.

USE ABBREVIATIONS FOR WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Heat the beaker of liquid for no more than 10 min.

The city is 29 km. ahead.

We bought an 8 ft. pine board.

My new car gets 45 mpg.

The beaker should be heated for only a few minutes.

We still have several kilometers to drive.

USE ABBREVIATIONS FOR TEMPERATURE AND TIME

238 B.C. 432 A.D. 5:52 P.M. 98.6° F

AVOID ABBREVIATIONS WITH MOST PLACE NAMES EXCEPT THOSE IN

U.S. (or USA)

In addresses use standard postal abbreviations for states and possessions:

NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS MP

Armed Forces Africa AE

Armed Forces Americas (except Canada) AA

Armed Forces Canada AE

Armed Forces Europe AE

Armed Forces Middle East AE

Armed Forces Pacific AP

USE ABBREVIATIONS OF COMMON LATIN EXPRESSIONS

i.e. (idest -- that is)

e.g. (exempligratia -- for example)

et al. (et. alii -- and others)

cf. (confer -- compare)

N.B. (notabene -- note well)

USE ABBREVIATIONS IN BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATIONS

p. (page) pp. (pages) para. (paragraph) pars. (paragraphs).

AVOID SYMBOLS IN FORMAL WRITING

Not: The car costs $45,000 dollars.

But: The car costs $54,000.

Smith and Jones Imports

Johnson & Johnson

Sample Quiz questions:

1. Click on the sentence that uses abbreviations correctly.

2. Click on the sentence that uses abbreviations correctly.