Diploma Module 1

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Mr. Oyom Joseph Jolly, joswaldlyn@yahoo.com, 0772957506/0701702033

“A GOOD FOUNDATION LAID, A GOOD FUTURE FORESEEN”
DEDICTION
To all my students of Ndejje University, Uganda Martyrs University- Nkozi, St. Joseph
ECD Training Institute-Lira, DOT ECD Centre –Entebbe, Mirembe Girl’s ECD and
Vocational Training Centre- Zana, Sure Prospect Institute, Sonlife ECD Centre –
Nalugala, COSA Institute Wobulezi, MORET Masindi, Hossana NTC, Pearl NTC- Gulu
and St. Daniel Comboni ECD- Pakwach .
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PREFACE
Wishing you luck as we journey together in Developing and nurturing the future
generation. Remember when you lay the foundation weakly, you have destroyed the
future of the child, family, community, society, nation or state. For that matter, try to
understand what has been put down in the Study Modules (There are three Modules
breaking down 38 course units of Two Years Diploma in ECE). Do not just read them
to pass your University Examinations but internalize, assimilate and put them in
practice or your day to day life as a parent.
I want to caution you students to value Educational resources. Most of you after
completing University Examinations you throw away the notes; it is like burning the
library. As caregivers, ECD advocates and teachers, more so parents or potential
parents, we need to refresh our knowledge and update ourselves with our fields of
specialization. So let the modules help you now and be your future reference books
from time to time, the modules are informative and instructive.
Do not be convinced that all are contained in the Study Modules, do more research
and consult different books, journals and other information sources on ECD. We are
not masters of our fields because we lack the spirit of research. So, if you want to be a
master of your field and more knowledgeable, do more research and then you will be a
full consultant in the field of study.
Note ECD course units cut across you may find a topic in a unit coinciding with
another. So, they are integrated, when reading confer to other course units’ notes or
information for good understanding. These Study Modules are compiled basing on the
Course Outlines/Contents stipulated in the Training Programme set by Ministry of
Education, Sport and Technology (MoEST), UNICEF and Ndejje University- Faculty of
Education course structure for Diploma in Early Childhood Development and
Education.
Success and Good luck!
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Greatly I thank the Almighty God for His providence and for giving me good health
during the period of compiling this Educational Resource Book. Further to all the
Religious Leaders and Laity who often offers prayers for us Bishops, Priests, Pastors,
Religious and women and men of God. Special mention my beloved sister Rev. Sr. Dr.
Christine Gabriela Achola (MSMMC), Rev. Fr. Alberto Rienzner Ocen (Baba), Mummy
Cecila Akumu, mummy Ventorina Ameto and Mummy Scovia Alyek .
The officials of Ministry of Education TIET department Dr. Jane Egau Commissioner,
Dr. Mugenyi and all ECD consultants at MoES, NCDC, UNICEF, Madrasa Resource
Centre, Kyambogo University, Ndejje University, Uganda Martyrs University, ECDTIA
Uganda for providing Training Programmes and other resource materials that were of
great help in the writing of these modules.
The subject specialists whose materials contributed towards the writing of these
modules: Dr. Lubwama Henry (Curriculum Consultant Ndejje University), Mr. Semivule
George William, Ms. Claire Tinkamanyire (Exam Coordinator Ndejje University), Mrs.
Semivule Hellen (Head of Dept. ECD Ndejje University), Ms. Bernadette Bukirwa, Mrs.
Nakwagala Agatha (MUK/DOT), Ms. Beatrice Namugalu (Research- UMU), Mr. Okira
Abner (Language Dept. Ndejje University), Dr. Jude (ICT Dept. Ndejje University), Mr
Santo S. Auma Okumu ( Dept. of Psychology Kyambogo University).
Other authors whose Resource Books were of great help in coming up with these
modules: Mary Madudu and Tabitha Akosio, Mary Kibera, Pamela Mawanda, J.C,
Aggawarla, Kanatta Adhul, Catherine etal., Margaret Mwangi, Paulines Publication
Africa’s The Journey of Faith series, Tumusiime Dez and many others whose works
were consulted thank you for all the information you have given on children and family
life.
My colleagues lecturers and tutors in different Universities and ECD Training

institutions thanks for your encouragement and contributions: Bernadette Bukirwa
(Ndejje/ UMU), Beatrice Namugalu (UMU),Micheal Atiku (Ndejje) Lule Simon (Mirembe
Girls ECD), Francis Kawuma (Nkumba University/Mirembe), Mildred Alice Esaite
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(DOT), David Ariko (DOT), Kitaka Mubarak (Sure Prospect), Miria Abonwaku (Son life),
Martin Isaac Abwango (JECD),Tonny Akwanga (St. Joseph), Haggai Okullo (JECD),
Ogwang Richard (JECD), DL Okello (JECD), Joan Amollo (JECD), Mrs. Margret
Ekwang (MORET), Ayena Patrick (Hossana), Opoo Emma (Pearl) and Jackson Ongol
(St. Peters NTC).
The pioneer students of St. Joseph’s ECD Training Institute you gave me a great
backup to write these modules as you were the pilot scheme of the modules: H.M.
Eunice Arim Ogwang Edola, Moses Oryokot, Eunice Ayugi, Lucy Akello, Mummy
Beatrice Akello, Lucy Achola, Neversis Apiyo, Semmy Modester Abua and Rev. Sr.
Brenda Amongi (MSMMC). In the same note also pioneer staffs, Ms. Lillian Babra
Akullo, Dillish Akullo, and Mrs. Sharon Akwanga.
Last but not least great appreciation to my ECD mentors: Mama Mary Ojacor (RIP), Dr.
Ejuu Geoffrey, Mrs. Philda Okello, Hellen Semivule, Ms. Takia Nalwoga, Rev. Sr.
Catherine Aceng (RIP) and Rev. Sr. Dr. Clotida Nalugwa.
Finally, to all my professors and lecturers who taught me during my Graduate Studies
in ECD at Ndejje University and those still giving me more information and knowledge
in Early Childhood Education especially Prof. Samuels Woltyla (University of South
Wales International) and Prof. Mugagga Anthony (MUK).
May the Almighty God through His son Jesus Christ and the intercession of St. Joseph
and the Blessed Virgin Mary bless you all Amen!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICTION ........................................................................................................................................... 1
PREFACE .............................................................................................................................................. 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 3
ABOUT THE AUTHOR ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
UNIT 1 .................................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT (ECD) ......................................... 1
UNIT TWO ........................................................................................................................................... 15
CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................... 15
UNIT THREE ....................................................................................................................................... 50
CHILD CARE AND PARENTING PRACTICES ............................................................................. 50
UNIT FOUR ......................................................................................................................................... 69
CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION.................................................................................................. 69
UNIT FIVE............................................................................................................................................ 79
HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN ECD ............................................................................................... 79
UNIT SIX ............................................................................................................................................ 110
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION ....................................................................................................... 110
UNIT SEVEN ..................................................................................................................................... 150
COMMUNICATION SKILLS............................................................................................................ 150
UNIT EIGHT ...................................................................................................................................... 170
COMPUTER APPLICATION .......................................................................................................... 170
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UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT (ECD)

This unit introduces you to concepts of ECD as they are used in Uganda. It also
explains children’s rights and responsibilities. This unit has the following objectives:
 Introduce learners to the concept of ECD

 Explain the importance of ECD
 Explain the benefits of ECD to the child, family, community and
nation
 Introduce learners to the objectives of ECD in Uganda
 Describe the history of ECD in Uganda
 Explain Children’s rights and responsibilities
 Clarify concepts of Child abuse, labour, and neglect
 Explain issues on children in difficult circumstances
1.1 CONCEPT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT (ECD)
ECD can be considered as a process, stage or set of programmes. As a process, ECD

is a process through which young children grow and thrive physically, mentally,
socially, emotionally and morally (MoES, 2005). The process begins from conception
and extends up to 8 years of age. As a set of programmes, ECD involves a set of
actions and behaviours that support the child’s development in a holistic manner.
Some of these actions include: feeding, clothing, shelter and supervision it also
involves prevention and attending to illnesses, engaging a child in meaningful
interaction, provision of stimulating and safe environment for play and exploration. It
also involves providing affection, love and security and enabling the development of
self-esteem and self confidence. As a stage, ECD can be referred to as the initial stage
of the child’s life from conception to age eight (0-8years). There are two reasons for
including this age range within a definition of ECD.
This time frame is consistent with the understanding within the developmental
psychology of the ways in which children learn. Children below the age of eight learn
best through play. They learn best with objects they can manipulate when given
opportunity to explore and discover the world around them, and when they can
experiment and learn by try and error with in safe and stimulating environment. This
advocates for developmental activities to be given to the children of 0-8yrs and through
play way method as recommended in the learni9ng framework and the government
white paper. At about the age of 7 or eight children enter the ‘age of reason’ and they
begin to view the world differently. They can manipulate ideas, can learn concepts
mentally and are less dependent on objects. So the parents, caregivers and other
adults are tasked with providing a rich environment and to give the opportunity of
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allowing children to select materials depending on their own choice; in terms of
learning theory the birth through age 8 time period provides time in life by doing
predominate although children also learn through observation and listening
The international definition of Early childhood includes prenatal and, cognitive

development and continues through the early primary school years ages (6-8). It
should be noted that the most rapid period of brain development takes place in the first
two years of life laying the pay ways for significant intellectual emotional physical and
social functions. Therefore the children 0-8 years should be prepared well under this
unit to lay a good foundation for the next stage.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF ECD
The objectives of ECD as outlined in the Uganda Government White Paper on

Education (1992) are:
1. To develop capabilities and healthy physical growth of the child through play/health
activities.
2. To help the child develop good social habits as an individual and as a member of
the society.
3. To develop moral values of the child
4. To enrich the child’s experiences by developing imagination, self-reliance and
thinking power
5. To help the child towards appreciating his/her national cultural background and
customs and developing a feeling of love and care for other people and for Uganda
and a sense of unity leading to a national stance.
6. To develop language and communication skills in the mother tongue.
1.3 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs) AND EDUCATION

FOR ALL (EFA) GOALS FOR ECD
The first of the EFA goals in the 2000 Dakar Framework for Action is “expanding and
improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most
vulnerable and disadvantaged children” (UNESCO, 2000, p. 8).
From these international commitments and declarations, Early Childhood programmes

all over the world now have to be implemented to promote an integrated approach to
Early Childhood Development.
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1.4 BENEFITS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
It is important for us to focus more resources and attention towards ECD because of
the following reasons:
 Proper ECD lays a good foundation for physical, social, emotional, moral
spiritual, intellectual and aesthetic development of the child.
 Diseases that affect children before birth and up to the age of 8 years may
retard many aspects of their development in later years.
 Children in early childhood tend to be more prone to illnesses and accidents
than adults.
 We now know that a child’s environment and experiences begin in the uterus
and does not only affect brain development, but also physical and mental health,
learning, and behavior for a lifetime.
 Scientists have shown definitively that brain development is experience-based
and has long-lasting effects (Young & Mustard, 2009). These experiences are
best provided at ECD stage.
 ECD programs tap into critical and sensitive windows of opportunity and periods
of brain development.
To be competitive in the world marketplace, now and in the future, nations must
develop, adopt, and support local, regional, and national policies that provide ECD
programs. Countries that have recognized the importance of investing in ECD to
improve the competence, health, and well-being of their populations include Cuba,
the Scandinavian countries, and several Asian countries (such as Japan,
Singapore, and South Korea). The following are the benefits that have been found
for different category of people:
Child
 Improved nutrition and health. ECD programs help to ensure that children
receive health care and nutrition that enhances children’s health.
 Higher intelligence. ECD programs encourage young children to explore the
environment. They also facilitate social interactions that promote children’s
mental development.
 Fewer dropouts. Children attending ECD programmes are less likely to drop out
of school than those not participating in these programs.
 Research show that attendance in ECD programs matches with increased
enrollment, children’s readiness for school and retention in primary and
secondary school, improved behavior, and better academic performance (Myers
1995).
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Family
For families, ECD programs involving parents can;
 Improve parent child relationships,

 “Free up” older siblings from caregiving responsibilities to attend school,
 Enable mothers to participate in the paid workforce and increase the family’s
income.
 If girls are retained in school longer, it delays early pregnancy for young girls
 With children in school, mothers will be empowered thus improving family
situations and reduced instances of domestic violence.
Community
 Decreased gaps between the rich and poor, the privileged children and
underprivileged in society
 Children in ECD are taught to behave well and be creative as job makers. This
leads to reduced criminal behaviour while they are adults in their community
 ECD programmes empower parents to reduced morbidity and mortality among
children
 ECD ensures fewer cases of malnutrition and stunting. Health programmes
promotes improved personal hygiene and health care in the community.
 With increased parental awareness of the importance of early childhood
development in influencing later life of a child, there will be fewer cases of child
abuse and neglect in the community
 ECD programmes free parents from some stressful parenting roles thus
improving physical and mental health of adults in the community.
Nation
 Early interventions in ECD leads to increased earnings as many more people

will be job creators
 ECD produces healthy citizens who have a longer life span for productivity that
benefits the nation.
 Funds that are usually used to cater for retraining or remedial activities will be
saved by nations that embrace comprehensive ECD programmes (Heckman
1999).
 Improving human development in the early years is the surest way out of
poverty because it has a very high economic rate of return. ECD is the first step
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in this process, as reflected in the priorities that emerged from the Dakar EFA
meetings (UNESCO 2000).
 ECD is an employment sector which caters for a number of professionals
 ECD is an income generating sector that produces revenue for nations.
1.5 TYPES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

PROVISIONS
According to the ECD policy in Uganda the following are the ECD programmes
provisions:
Day care centres

These institutions will provide fully institutionalised care for half or a full day for
children bellow 3 years. They may or may not be for profit. They will provide an
environment that will not only offer care and protection but also infant
stimulation based on positive adult /child interaction
Home based ECD Centres

Home based ECD centres will operate in a home of an individual who
volunteers his or her home to be used as a centre. Such centres will provide
full institutionalised care for half day or full day. They will provide an
environment that is safe and stimulating based on positive adult /child
interaction.
Community based ECD Centres

These centres will have a structure which will be permanent or temporary but
safe. The community will be involved in selecting the site for the centre and in
the construction of the centre. The centre may be in a church or mosque.
Nursery schools/ Kindergarten

These are schools providing pre-primary education to children between 3-6
years of age. Such schools may be established and managed by an individual
person, NGOs, groups of people, community or religious body.
Lower Primary classes (P1-3)

Primary schools provide formal basic education or primary education to
children of school going age 6+ years. The official entry age to this cycle of
education is 6 years as spelt out in the government policy. Curriculum
emphasis is on literacy, numeracy and life skills as the priority.
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1.6 HISTORY OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT IN
UGANDA
In the traditional Ugandan society, education of the child was governed by
family and community traditions and by social structures. Each community had
its own education system to socialize children into its culture, values, and
traditions. The child’s education began at birth and continued through various
stages and age groups, with a system of education defined for every stage.
Early education transmitted important aspects of culture and values, such as
sharing, social responsibility, belonging, mutual dependence, mutual respect,
continuity, obedience, respect for elders, cooperation, fear of God, and ability
to relate with other people (Dembele 1999; Kenyatta and Kariuki 1984; Kilbride
and Kilbride 1990; Mwamwenda 1996).
Beginning in infancy, children were taught through lullabies, songs, and

games, mainly by their mothers, although other caregivers such as
grandparents, aunts, and older siblings assisted. Stories and legends were
used to instill morals and to teach the community’s history and traditions (Mbiti
1982). Fathers, elders, and neighbors participated in the education and
socialization of older children. Grandparents played a special role of teaching
children sensitive topics (such as sexuality) and of passing on morals, values,
history, and traditions through stories, legends, and conversations.
In Uganda, Nursery education (ECD) was brought by the British colonialists.

The beginning of pre-primary education in Uganda can be traced back to the
1930s when it was initiated by the Europeans Missionaries, Goans and Asians.
The pre-schools were private, established exclusively for the use of private
communities. Obua-Otoa (1996) noted that the objectives of establishment of
the Pre primary school then among the colonialists were to assist the
European working mothers who wanted their children taken care of but did not
want them to be left at home with the Ugandans and to prepare European
children in basic skills that they would later use to fit in European schools when
they went back home.
By the 1950s, the learned Ugandans and the Goans (Indians) had learnt and
copied the new practices that the Europeans had introduced and set up their
own pre-schools to cater for their children. Among the first nursery school was
Nakasero nursery established in 1948. The private individuals persisted in their
effort to provide pre-school education to the African children amidst challenges
that ranged from negative publicity by the white missionaries, poor working
conditions and lack of government support.
The private sector continued providing ECD services with limited government
support till government declared her commitment to support ECD in the ECD
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policy (2008). The ECD policy proposes that the initiation and implementation
of ECD programmes in Uganda shall remain the responsibility of the private
sector. Government of Uganda took upon itself the development and
dissemination of policy guidelines, curriculum for ECD centres and ECD
teacher education. It also pledges to fund assessment and qualification
framework, advocacy, community mobilization, monitoring, evaluation and
research for quality assurance.
1.7 EARLY ADVOCATES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

Martin Luther Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Martin Luther’s perspective on the role of education in children’s lives:
 The primary role of education is to teach children to read.
 The ability to read was considered essential in acquiring knowledge of the Bible.
 The family plays the most important role in educating children.
 Communities played a critical role in ensuring all children were educated, and
therefore in providing parents with necessary supports.
 Contributed to idea that ALL children need to be educated (today referred to as
universal education).
 Contributed to view that learning to read is critical (today referred to as literacy).
 Shaped idea that parents are the child’s first and most important teacher.
 Contributed to viewpoint that communities play a critical role in ECE.
Comenius’s perspective on the role of education in children’s lives:

 Education should begin in early years to fulfill human’s godlike image.
 Children have a timetable for growth and learning, and knowledge should be
presented based on readiness.
 The senses provide children with the means of acquiring information, and
therefore, all education should be sensory.
 Pictures in books provide opportunities to teach children the names and concepts
of objects.
 Developed first picture book, providing a complement to the development of
literacy.
 Emphasized sensory training, now considered a foundational practice within
ECE.
John Locke’s perspective of the role of education in children’s lives:

 The environment determines children’s development and ultimately, who the
child will become.
 Children are “blank slates” (tabula rasa) that the environment fills with
knowledge.
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 The quality of the environment will impact the quality of children’s learning and
development.
 Contributed to the idea that early education is a means for compensating for an
impoverished environment.
 Emphasized the role of environmental activities and design in children’s success
in school.
 Contributed to view that a well-developed sensory environment is essential.
Rousseau’s perspective of the role of education in children’s lives:

 Children should be encouraged to develop their own strengths, in an
environment that lacks interference or restrictions (referred to as natural
education).
 Education should support children’s happiness, spontaneity, and inquisitiveness.
 Children’s development occurs over time and in accordance with the child’s own
innate timetable (referred to as unfolding).
 Contributed to concept of readiness, where skills and knowledge are presented
based on children’s internal timetable.
 Supported present-day belief that children’s social and emotional development
is an important part of the ECE curriculum.
 Provided founding belief that the child should be the center of the educational
curriculum and responsible for shaping their learning path.
Pestalozzi’s perspective of the role of education in children’s lives:
 Education should follow the child’s nature, and mothers are children’s most
important teachers.
 Formal education within a school is needed for children to integrate knowledge
of home life, vocational education, and reading and writing.
 All education is based on sensory impressions.
 Object lessons that focused on learning through manipulative are a critical tool
in ECE.
 The teacher’s role is one that should focus on teaching children, not subjects.
 Contributed to idea that the family is the child’s first and most important
educator.
 Shaped practices educating parents as well as teachers on how to best support
children’s development.
 Contributed to idea of children’s development following a natural timetable, as
well as the idea that the environment is an essential facet of the educational
process.
Owen’s perspective of the role of education in children’s lives:
 Children learn about themselves and the world through their environment.
 The best interests of society should shape children’s education.
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 Through controlling the circumstances and outcomes of childrearing, children’s
development is best supported.
 Infant schools for children ages birth to ten were needed educational institutions
to control the environments children were exposed to.
 Contributed to idea that environment plays a critical role in children’s
development.
 Shaped belief that early education is in the best interests of society.
 Contributed to view of early education as a progressive experience that can
serve to overcome environment deficits in other areas of the child’s life.
Maria Montessori
Maria Montessori was born in Italy in 1870. She was the first
woman to graduate from medical school in Italy. After her
studies, she got interested in feebleminded children. These
children were unable to fit in schools or families and had no
other kind of public support. It was through interaction with
these children that she developed her educational methods
which became so successful that even children with special
needs began to pass examinations for normal children.
Maria contributed the following to ECD;
 Designed classrooms to suite children’s needs and level

 She designed children’s learning materials suitable for different ability
levels. She ensured that all the materials she gave to the children were
graded and arranged according to different levels of difficulty.
 Designed teaching procedures for children with special needs such that the
children taught her how to teach them.
 Montessori also created the ‘game of silence,’ somewhat like meditation,
where each child was able to start the day with a sense of peace and focus.
 She had tactile equipment that enhanced senses and the mind.
 Montessori felt that a teacher should never be an obstacle between the
child and the learning experience.
 She designed children sized furniture and materials used in classrooms.
 She believed that children can learn easily if sequential steps were used to
present activities.
 Montessori emphasized training of children in self help skills where each
child would learn how to take care of the self and live an independent life.
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Friedrich Froebel
Froebel was a German educator. In 1840 he created the word

kindergarten which means a garden for children. In the
kindergarten, he designed educational materials known as gifts.
Froebel contributed the following to ECD;
 He suggested that education should develop the good morals and spiritual
wellbeing of man.
 He encouraged the creation of educational environments that involved practical
work and the direct use of materials. This was to be done through allowing
children to engage with the world, which promoted understanding as it unfolds.
 He developed special materials called gifts that comprised of shaped wooden
bricks and balls.
 He emphasized the importance of play in teaching and that children should be
provided with toys.
 He encouraged children to do manual work of the right level for children to help
them in their physical development.
 He trained the first batch of ECD teachers to handle children in his kindergarten.
This was done to emphasize that children have to be taught by trained
teachers.
1.8 CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
A right is a basic need that a person is entitled to by virtue of being a human

being. It is not merely freedom to do what one wants. With regards to children
because of their special needs, they are entitled to special rights that are
separate from the rights of adults. Children are entitled to enjoy their rights but
are also required to exercise their rights responsibly. So they should not
misbehave or act in a wrong manner.
Categories of children’s rights
Children’s rights are in four categories that include:
 Survival rights are the rights that a child needs to survive. This includes food,
medical care, clothing, shelter and parental care
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 Protection rights are the rights that a child needs in order to be safe and secure.
This includes the right to life and liberty, freedom from child abuse,
discrimination, child labour, sexual abuse and exploitation. They also have a
right to a name and nationality.
 Developmental rights are the rights that a child needs to develop physically,
mentally, socially and culturally. They include rights to education, right to access
information, rest and play.
 Participation rights are the rights that a child needs to participate in the national
and social activities so as to realize their rights. They include freedom of
opinion, freedom of association, freedom of worship, expression, rights to
engage in cultural activities that are not harmful.
Importance of promoting children’s rights

If a child’s rights are observed and protected,
 children will grow up happy,
 Children will develop knowledge and skills in their day to day activities.
 Children will have healthy bodies and well developed minds
 Children develop confidence to face future challenges
 Promotes equality amongst children
Roles of different stakeholders in promoting children’s rights and
responsibilities
Child
 Report any abuse to caregiver or parents

 Participate in activities provided to them
 Take up any learning opportunity given to them
 Politely ask for anything they feel they need or deserve
 Keep near caregiver, parent or adult supervisor when playing or out on field visit
Parents
 Provide for the needs of the children

 Protect and care for the children at all times
 Guide the children on appropriate behavior in different situations
 Provide opportunity for the children to enjoy their rights
 Provide developmental activities for the children to do
 Cater for medical and health care for the children
 Protect the children from all forms of abuse and harassment
 Provide variety of play materials for children
Caregivers
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 Develop developmental activities for children to do
 Provide variety of play materials for children
 Guide and counsel children in their time of difficulty
 Be a role model to children
 Defend children at all times to ensure their rights are protected
 Listen to children’s ideas and act accordingly
 Report all cases of child abuse to relevant authorities
ECD Centre Heads
 Sensitize parents on the children’s rights and responsibilities

 Encourage parents and other community members to report violation of
children’s rights to relevant authorities
 Sensitize parents on their roles in protecting children during wars, natural
calamities or disasters.
 Supervise caregivers to ensure that children’s rights are upheld
 Sensitize caregivers on the best practices that can be used to promote
children’s rights and responsibilities at the centre.
Local Council Officials
 Be a watchdog in their communities to ensure that children’s rights and

responsibilities are promoted and protected.
 Have activities that promote children’s rights and responsibilities in their
community work plans
 Sensitize parents on the children’s rights and responsibilities
 Encourage parents and other community members to report violation of
children’s rights to relevant authorities
 Forward all cases on violation of children’s rights to relevant authorities for
action
Other children
 Respect other children and know that they are all equal and have the same
rights and responsibilities
 Report all cases of violation of their friends rights to relevant authorities
 Ensure that their friends perform their responsibilities to promote their rights
 Behave appropriately in different situations so as to avoid tempting others to
violate their rights
 Carry out their responsibilities as expected of them so as to avoid tempting
others to abuse their rights
Child Welfare and Probation Officers

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 Advocate for the promotion of children’s rights in the community
 Be children’s advocate or lawyer in courts of law handling cases on violation of
children’s rights
 Mediate between different parties on behalf children to promote their rights
1.9 GENDER RESPONSIVENESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
DEVELOPMENT
Gender responsiveness refers to a situation where caregivers are sensitive to

the gender of different categories of children while offering services. Boys and
girls have equal abilities to learn. They should be given equal opportunity to
access and complete the education cycle. We can promote gender
responsiveness by doing the following in ECD centres or homes:
 Assign all responsibilities equally to both boys and girls without showing
preferences to any gender
 Promote cultural practices that encourage equality for all children
 Provide opportunity for both boys and girls to participate in leadership roles at
different levels.
 Provide a safe and protective environment that ensures that children are not
abused. For example avoiding situations that leave young girls with older men
alone who may defile them.
 Putting in place appropriate sanitation rules and regulations as well as separate
latrines, washrooms and wash facilities.
 Provide regular guidance and counseling to both boys and girls to cater for their
growth and development needs and questions. You should be sensitive while
providing answers to children’s questions
 Sensitize parents on the need to provide equal opportunity for children of both
sexes. For example school opportunity, being heard, providing for needs and
care.
 In ECD institutions, try to have both male and female staff who will act as role
models to children of different gender.
 While using instructional materials or reading materials, try to use those that
positively portray children of both sexes
 While making work plans in the ECD centres, try to include activities and
equipment for both boys and girls.
1.10 CHILD ABUSE, CHILD NEGLECT AND CHILD LABOR
Child abuse occurs in three different forms. These include sexual abuse, physical
abuse and emotional abuse.
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Child sexual Abuse
This abuse occurs when children are forced or persuaded into sexual acts or situations
by others. These may involve penetrative sex including anal or oral sex. It can also be
in form of sexual suggestions, indecent assault, touch of a child’s sexual organs,
showing childrenpictures of naked persons, child prostitution, early marriage, forcing a
child to touch an adult’s sexual organs, defilement or rape of a child, exposing a child
to sexual affairs.
Physical child Abuse
Child physical abuse occurs when children are hurt or injured by parents or other
people. Physical child abuse refers to all violent attacks made on a child. Physical
abuse may take the form of hitting hard, battering, corporal punishment, cutting a child
violently, burning, starving, female genital mutilation, and child labour.
Emotional Abuse
Emotional abuse occurs when children are not given love, approval or acceptance. It
occurs when a child is constantly criticized, abused, blamed, shouted at and rejected
by those he/she looks up to for acceptance. Emotional abuse usually breaks down the
confidence of a child and leads to low self-esteem and sometimes self resentment.
Child Neglect
Child neglect means not caring for a child in a way that he/she deserves to be cared
for. It is a stubborn, willful and deliberate refusal to fulfill the needs of the child. The
common forms of child neglect include: isolating a child, abandonment, denial of food,
clothing, warmth, care and love.
Children in difficult circumstances
These are the category of children who find themselves in situations that is very
challenging for their age. It includes children who are orphans, children living in war
situations, children affected by natural disasters, children affected or infected with
HIV/AIDS, street children.
These children suffer different challenges that include: Loss of parents, guidance,
parental love and care, Sexual abuse, Child labour, Dropping out of school, Child
trafficking, Child sacrifice, Malnutrition, Exposure to diseases, Lack or low self-esteem,
Harsh and violent environment, Living in absolute poverty, Limited education services,
Limited health services, Death, homelessness.
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UNIT TWO
CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

This unit introduces you to concepts of child growth and development in relation to the
Ugandan child care practices. This unit has the following objectives:
 The concepts of child growth and development

 Characteristics of growth and development
 Implication of characteristics of growth and development for
caregivers
 General characteristics of young children
 Developmental needs of young children
 Stages of child growth and development
 Factors affecting children during post natal stage
 Developmental milestones for children in ECD
 Development of attachment and bonding
 Early learning and stimulation
 Growth promotion and monitoring (GPM)
2.1 THE CONCEPTS OF CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth and development in this unit is considered basing on nature of children. It

should be noted that a child in the Ugandan context is a person below eighteen
years. However, for the purpose of ECD, when we talk about a child, we shall be
referring to children in the age bracket of birth to 8 years. With this in mind, we
shall now consider child growth and development as:
 Growth refers to physical changes in the child’s structure. It involves changes in

weight, height and size. This can be observed right from birth on wards.
 Development is a process of change in which the child masters more and more
complex levels of moving, thinking, feeling and interacting with people and
objects in the environment. It involves physical, mental, social, moral, spiritual
and emotional changes.
Characteristics of growth and development

The following are the characteristics of development that must be borne in the mind by
the teachers faced with any age group of learners. However, we shall also look at the
characteristics of young children at a later section of this unit.
 Development is characterized by constant change from the moment of
conception until the time of death.
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 Growth is a continuous and orderly process. As Gesell puts it “The child sits
before he stands; he babbles before he talks; …. He draws a circle before he
draws a square; he is selfish before he is altruistic; he is dependent on others
before he achieves dependence on self.”
 In development, the child adjusts to the environment. Before birth a baby lives in
an environment where everything needed for its comfort is supplied and it needs
to do nothing at all. On being born, this state of comfort changes. The baby no
longer receives its food and warmth automatically. It becomes the baby’s
responsibility to ask for these things, or rather to make its needs known to the
mother when any of the needs is lacking. In doing so the baby adjusts itself to
the new environment.
 Growth occurs on two planes: size and maturity. A child grows in size and
matures in structure and function. As he becomes bigger or taller, he also
passes through successive changes which indicate his progress as he grows up
towards maturity.
 Growth does not proceed at the same rate throughout development. Although
growth is orderly and continuous in its sequence, the pace or rate of growth
differs from one period to another. There are periods of rapid and perceptible
growth and periods of slow growth. In the first three years of life, the rate of
physical growth is very rapid.
 Development of different aspects of growth may not occur at the same time. At
the beginning of life, the child grows in weight and height and in perceptual as
well as motor abilities. These different aspects of growth appear to occur
simultaneously. For example, we see a child as a new born baby whose whole
body reacts to stimuli to any part of it, and who cannot perceive the world
around him with any recognizable intelligibility.
 All aspects of growth are interrelated in a complex manner. The physical
aspects of a child relates to his mental, social, emotional and moral
development. For example, Lack of adequate rest, lack of adequate food and
lack of adequate exercise will not only result in emotional problems for the child,
but also in intellectual inadequacy and physical retardation.
 Environmental factors can influence development. Nutrition is important here.
Malnutrition often originates from scarcity of adequate diet, either through
poverty, ignorance or a poor harvest. Other environmental factors include health
and the physical condition of the home, as far as the provision of adequate rest
and sleeping arrangement are concerned. The social and emotional climate of
the home is also important in determining the all round growth and development
of the child.
 The child as a whole must always be considered. The concept of holistic growth
demands that all emphasis on training in one aspect of growth must take into
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account development in other aspects, and must aim for the harmonious
development of all other aspects.
 The growth pattern is unique for each child. Individual differences exist among
children in the way they grow and in different aspects of their development.
Implications of growth and development for the teacher/caregiver

Purposeful teaching requires effective understanding of children and how they
grow. So the characteristics mentioned above have implications for the teachers
who bear them in mind in the following ways:
 The knowledge of the characteristics of growth and development should
enable the teacher to make allowance for their learners’ growth patterns,
and not to expect too much from them.
 The teacher should be able to make provision for the development of
whatever capacity the learners have.
 Teachers should be able to judge the pace of growth for any given child
and thus be able to work with that pace. The passing phase must be
recognize in behavior and avoid regarding children as behavior problems
when they are responding temporarily to quite natural phases of growth.
 Teachers should understand growth pattern to be able to provide and use
appropriate teaching materials, methods, companions, incentives and
opportunities for the expression of behavior to each stage of
development. Such understanding should lead teachers to understand
the significance of giving encouragement to learners. It should prevent
teachers insisting upon the performance of activities which are not
meaningful to the growth characteristics of a particular child.
 Teachers should blame a child for what he cannot help because of his
developmental pattern.
 Teachers should gradually remove their authority and allow the free
development of the desirable characteristics in their learners. Children
should be given a reasonable rich and diversified environment and free
opportunity to learn, they will take their own next steps in growth in its
different aspects.
2.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Young children have characteristics that they show in different situations and age
level. A child will show a combination or many characteristics depending on
freedom and nature of the environment he/she is placed in. some of these
characteristics include:
 Young children are active and work on their own development
 They are curious, imaginative and inquisitive about things and what happens
around them.
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 They learn through ‘real’ experiences and while using all their senses of touch,
smell, taste, sight and hearing.
 They are self centered/ego centric
 They hate blames
 They collect anything they come across
 They see all things as living. That is they do not realize the differences between
living and non- living things. For example, if a child knocks him/herself on a chair
he/she may beat the chair for knocking it and expect the chair to feel pain or say
sorry.
 They have a short attention span. This means that they do not engage in a
single activity for a long time. Depending on the activity, developmental interest
and maturation of the child, the attention span is limited to less than 15 minutes
for a single activity.
 Children have different abilities and learning needs.
 Children are interested in play and respond spontaneously to opportunities for
play. They enjoy repetition of stories, songs, and play activities for example
rhymes, actions and movements that attract their attention.
 Children learn through doing things. They are always eager to handle and
manipulate objects in their environment.
 They have difficulty in abstract thinking for example; they cannot understand the
idea of democracy or justice because they have not yet developed the ability for
abstract thinking.
 Children naturally develop likes and dislikes spontaneously and are keen to
demonstrate to others.
2.3 GENERAL DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF YOUNG CHILDREN
As children develop, they have some needs that caregivers must provide to help
each achieve his/her potentials. A developmental need is an internal argue or drive
that a child desires to achieve or be given to help him/her change towards
something good, better, complex or purposeful. These needs can be physical,
social, emotional, intellectual or spiritual as explained below:
1. Physical needs include:

 Need for proper feeding
 Need for a healthy environment
 Need for exercise and play to develop gross and fine motor skills
 Need for sleep and rest
 Need for adequate clothing and shelter
 Need for care and attention/protection from diseases.
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2. Social and moral needs include:
 Need to live with and relate with others
 Need to belong to a group
 Need to lead and follow
 Need to understand right and wrong
 Need to become independent
3. Emotional needs include:

 Need for love and security
 Need for success and self-worth
 Need for opportunities to express anger, fear, tenderness and happiness
4. Spiritual needs include:

 Need to understand the creator and creation
 Need to understand God as a loving father who cares for them and
others.
5. Intellectual needs include:

 Need for stimulation
 Need for opportunities to explore, experiment and discover
 Need for opportunities to use language
 Need for purposeful play
Provision needed for Physical needs include:

 Provide children with space, time for exercise and play
 Give opportunities to develop fine motor skills
 Provide children protection from danger
 There is need to give children adequate immunization
 Give children proper feeding and health care.
Provision needed for social and moral needs include:

 Give opportunities to learn to care for themselves
 Give opportunities to live and relate with others
 Give opportunities for taking responsibilities and making choices
Provision needed for emotional needs include:

 Expression of anger, fear, tenderness and happiness
 Encourage children to develop self-control, cooperation and persistence in
completing projects
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Provision needed for Spiritual needs include:
 Encourage children to listen to songs, stories about God
 Let children to retell stories
 Let children act play about God’s creation
Provision needed for Intellectual needs include:

 Entertainment, reading readiness and writing readiness skills
 Encourage a lot of recitation, songs, being read to.
 Give activities that will develop a sense of mastery of a variety of skills and
concepts
2.4.1 STAGES OF CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Child growth and development occur in progressive stages. The major categories
are pre-natal and post-natal.
a) The Pre-natal stage:
This is a period before birth.
It starts from conception till birth. It lasts for 9 months on average, but it may go
beyond or less than 9 months. The child’s physical growth and development starts from
at conception. By the seventh month the pre-natal development of the child is almost
complete. The last two months in the womb enables the child to grow larger and
stronger. The length of the unborn baby doubles and the weight triples. A mother at
this stage needs to be very careful because different factor can influence the wellbeing
of the unborn baby.
Factors that affect prenatal stage

 Nutrition
 Exercise
 Miss use of drugs / alcohol / smoking
 Stress / violence Accidents
 Over working
 Lack of proper ante- natal care
 Maternal emotional state
 Physical exercise
 Mothers age
 Maternal diseases
b) Postnatal stage
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It is the stage after birth. It consists of infant stage, toddler stage, early childhood (pre-
school age), late childhood and adolescent.
Infant stage (Birth -1 year)

It is the stage when the child is in the first twelve months of life. The foundation years
of life determine the overall direction and characteristics of life. No period in one’s life
is as important as the first two years of life. Psychologists and educators agree that
never again in life will a person learn as fast or as much as he/she does during the first
two years.
Toddler stage (1-3 years)

It is the stage when the child is in the first three years of life. It is between infancy and
childhood. A toddler is a young child who is at the age of learning to walk. Toddling
usually begins between the ages of 12 to 18 months. During the toddler stage, the
child also learns a great deal about social roles, develops motor skills and starts to use
language.
The childhood stage/pre-school

This stage is from 3-6 years. It is divided into 3-4 years, 5 years, 6 years.
Three – Four years: This is the age when most children start pre-school education.
Children at this stage are like live wires from the time they wake up until they go to
sleep. They are busy discovering the big world around them. Children are never dull
although it may sometimes be frustrating for those who may have limited
understanding of their development.
Five years: At this stage children are influenced by their immediate environment.
Children grow rapidly in their motor control. Experiences at this stage contribute a lot
to the formation of the children’s personality.
Six years: This is the stage when children are in transition from pre- school to primary
school. The child begins to experience and enjoy expanded social interactions/contacts
as he/she goes to meet friends, playmates both at home and school. They also start to
follow rules and morality.
Seven to eight years: At this stage the child is systematic in thinking and language
use. The child engages in peer activity and obeys group rules.
Note:
As a teacher, you should know that children’s development overlap the stages. It is not
true that characteristics shown at one stage is fixed and only for that stage. A child can
show characteristics of the earlier stage and that of the later stage while still in one
stage.
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Factors affecting children during post natal stage
Children in early childhood can be affected by many factors that make their growth and
development challenging. Some of these factors include:
 Domestic violence
 Poor medical attention/ diseases
 Poor feeding
 Divorce exercises
 Child neglect
 Alcoholism, Drug abuse
 Peer pressure
 Abandonment
 Death of parents
 HIV / aids
 Insecurity
 Culture
 Accidents
 Ignorance
 Poor birth attendant methods
2.4.2 THEORISTS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Stages of Social-Emotional Development – Erik Erikson
This page presents an overview of the developmental tasks involved in the social and
emotional development of children and teenagers which continues into adulthood. The
presentation is based on the Eight Stages of Development developed by psychiatrist,
Erik Erikson in 1956.
According to Erikson, the socialization process consists of eight phases – the “eight
stages of man.” His eight stages of man were formulated, not through experimental
work, but through wide – ranging experience in psychotherapy, including extensive
experience with children and adolescents from low – as well as upper – and middle –
social classes. Each stage is regarded by Erikson as a “psychosocial crisis,” which
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arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated.
These stages are conceived in an almost architectural sense: satisfactory learning and
resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is to manage the next and subsequent
ones satisfactorily, just as the foundation of a house is essential to the first floor, which
in turn must be structurally sound to support and the second story, and so on.
Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development
1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)
Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life.
The child, well – handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic
optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful.
2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)
The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early childhood,
probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The “well –
parented” child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found
control, and proud rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely
synonymous with assured self – possession, initiative, and independence but, at least
for children in the early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self – will,
tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For example, one sees may 2 year olds
resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they
cross the street. Also, the sound of “NO” rings through the house or the grocery store.
3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)
Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the “play
age,” or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry
into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to
broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with
others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs
on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted
both in the development of play skills and in imagination.
4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)
Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse,
during what he calls the “school age,” presumably up to and possibly including some of
junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1)
relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be
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elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball
and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the
need for self-discipline increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and
successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of
initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will
doubt the future. The shame – and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and
inferiority.
5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)
During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the
child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question
of “Who am I?” But even the best – adjusted of adolescents experiences some role
identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor
delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self – doubts flood the youngster, and so on.
Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is
developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness
and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different – usually constructive – roles
rather than adopting a “negative identity” (such as delinquency). He actually anticipates
achievement, and achieves, rather than being “paralyzed” by feelings of inferiority or by
an inadequate time perspective. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity – manhood
or womanhood – is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire
him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the
case of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence
affords a “psychosocial moratorium,” particularly for middle – and upper-class
American children. They do not yet have to “play for keeps,” but can experiment, trying
various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them.
6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)
The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy – the sort of
intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship.
7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care)
In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands Generativity, both in the sense of

marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively.
8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)
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If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the mature
adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is independent and
dares the new. He works hard, has found a well – defined role in life, and has
developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without strain,
guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates – his children, his
work, or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been
resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair.
These eight stages of man, or the psychosocial crises, are plausible and insightful
descriptions of how personality develops but at present they are descriptions only. We
possess at best rudimentary and tentative knowledge of just what sort of environment
will result, for example, in traits of trust versus distrust, or clear personal identity versus
diffusion. Helping the child through the various stages and the positive learning that
should accompany them is a complex and difficult task, as any worried parent or
teacher knows. Search for the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts for much
of the research in the field of child development.
Socialization then is learning – teaching process that, when successful, results in the
human organism’s moving from its infant state of helpless but total egocentricity to its
ideal adult state of sensible conformity coupled with independent creativity.
KOLHBERG'S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
This theory states that we progress through three levels of moral thinking that build on
our cognitive development.
Key Points in Kolhberg’s theory of moral development
o Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist

Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children, which he
believed follows a series of stages.
o Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: pre-conventional,
conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has two distinct stages.
o During the pre-conventional level, a child's sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such
as parents and teachers, and they judge an action based on its
consequences.
o During the conventional level, an individual's sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules
of authority figures, but this is now because they believe that this is
necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
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o During the post-conventional level, a person's sense of morality is defined
in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that
some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
o Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for its cultural and gendered bias
toward white, upper-class men and boys. It also fails to account for
inconsistencies within moral judgments.
 morality
Recognition of the distinction between good and evil or between right and
wrong; respect for and obedience to the rules of right conduct; the mental
disposition or characteristic of behaving in a manner intended to produce good
results.
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to
explain the moral development of children. Kohlberg believed that moral development,
like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used the idea of moral
dilemmas—stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10
to 16 year-old boys about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created
by Kohlberg is the "Heinz" dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying the law
versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons
about a dilemma that determines positive moral development.
After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s
responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning. According to
Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality
(before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and
toward attaining post-conventional morality (once Piaget's idea of formal operational
thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve. Each level of morality contains two
stages, which provide the basis for moral development in various contexts.
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Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and

post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral
development.
Level 1: Pre-conventional
Throughout the pre-conventional level, a child's sense of morality is externally

controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents
and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or
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internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses
largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child's desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished;
the worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the "what's in it for me?" position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning
shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further
the individual's own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or
intrinsic respect, but rather a "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours" mentality. An
example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks
"what's in it for me?" and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an
allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child's sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these
stages, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being "nice" to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance
in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone,
and obeying rules by doing what one is "supposed" to do is seen as valuable and
important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval
exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus
there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of
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society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an
outside force.
Level 3: Post-conventional
Throughout the post-conventional level, a person's sense of morality is defined in terms

of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own
ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions,
their behavior especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at
the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may
never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not
promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest
good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five
reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical

principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus
on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are
grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey
unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate
those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best
interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg
insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently
operated at that level.
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Critiques of Kohlberg's Theory
Kohlberg has been criticized for his assertion that women seem to be deficient in their
moral reasoning abilities when compared to men. Carol Gilligan (1982), a research
assistant of Kohlberg, criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based so
narrowly on research using white, upper-class men and boys. She argued that women
are not deficient in their moral reasoning and instead proposed that males and females
reason differently: girls and women focus more on staying connected and maintaining
interpersonal relationships.
Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice to the exclusion of other
values, with the result that it may not adequately address the arguments of those who
value other moral aspects of actions. Similarly, critics argue that Kohlberg's stages are
culturally biased—that the highest stages in particular reflect a westernized ideal of
justice based on individualistic thought. This is biased against those that live in non-
Western societies that place less emphasis on individualism.
Another criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that people frequently demonstrate significant

inconsistency in their moral judgments. This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving
drinking and driving or business situations where participants have been shown to
reason at a lower developmental stage, typically using more self-interest driven
reasoning (i.e., stage two) than authority and social order obedience driven reasoning
(i.e., stage four). Critics argue that Kohlberg's theory cannot account for such
inconsistencies.
GESELL’S MATURATIONAL THEORY
The Maturational Theory of child development was developed beginning in 1925 by

Arnold Gesell, an American educator, medical doctor and psychologist whose studies
in child psychology were primarily concerned with biological maturation and how it is
related to overall development. Gesell carried out many observational studies during
more than 50 years working at the Yale Clinic of Child Development. Gesell and his
colleagues constructed a set of behavioral norms that illustrate sequential and
predictable patterns of growth and development. Gesell asserted that all children go
through similar stages, although each child may move through these stages at their
own rate Gesell's Maturational Theory have influenced child-rearing and primary
education methods for many years.
Principles of Development
He believed that a child’s growth and development is influenced by both their

environment and heredity, but he largely investigated the children's physiological
30
development. He called this process maturation, that is, the process by which
development is governed by intrinsic factors, principally the genes.
According to Gesell, the rate at which children develop primarily depends on the
growth of their nervous system, consisting of the complicated web of nerve fibers,
spinal cord, and brain. As the nervous system grows, their minds develop and their
behaviors change accordingly.
The Concept of Maturation
Gesell observed that maturational development always unfolds in fixed sequences: an

embryo's heart is always the first organ to develop, then the central nervous system
(the brain and spinal cord), followed by the peripheral organs. After birth, babies first
gain control over their lips and tongues, then their eye movements, followed by control
over their neck, shoulders, arms, hands, fingers, legs, and feet. There is a genetic
cephalo-caudal (head-to-foot) trend in both prenatal and postnatal development.
As a baby grows, they learn to sit up, stand, walk, and run; these capacities develop in
a specific order with the growth of the nervous system, even though the rate of
development may vary from child to child. Gesell believed that individual differences in
growth rates are a result of the internal genetic mechanisms.
Maturational theory states that while the child’s social and cultural environments also
play a role in their development, these socializing forces are most effective when they
are harmonious with the inner maturational timetable. He opposed efforts to teach
children things ahead of their developmental schedule, asserting that once the nervous
system had matured adequately, a child would begin mastering tasks such as sitting
up, walking, and talking from their own inner urges.
The Study of Patterns
Gesell studied infant behavior and how early motor behavior develops. He determined
that growth is best measured not quantitatively but in patterns. A pattern can be
anything that has a definite shape or form such as an eye blink. Gesell looked for
patterns in the process by which actions become organized; for example, the steps in
the development of eye-hand co-ordination.
Reciprocal Interweaving
Gesell created the term "reciprocal interweaving" to describe the developmental

process in which two opposite tendencies gradually reach an effective balance. For
example, when a child is developing a preference for “handedness”, he or she uses
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first one hand and then the other, and eventually ends up with a preferred pattern of
hand use.
Gesell also applied the concept of reciprocal interweaving to the development of the
personality. Gesell asserted that, like motor behaviors, personality also develops as a
back and forth pull between two opposite poles. He gave the example of a child going
through a cycle of introverted and extroverted tendencies, beginning at age three, until
the two tendencies become integrated and balanced. Gesell believed that
developmental progress requires temporarily loss of equilibrium, but followed by
reintegration at higher levels of organization.
Functional Asymmetry
Gesell found asymmetric development to be common in children. In motor behaviors,

this can be seen in an infant’s tonic neck reflex, where babies prefer to lie with their
heads turned to one side and extend their arm to which the head is turned and flex the
other arm behind the head. It is a reflex where the infant directs vision towards the
hand or fist in extension.
Self-Regulation
Gesell believed that even newborns could regulate their own development, and
demonstrated that babies were able to determine their own schedules for eating and
sleeping.
Gesell also observed self-regulatory mechanisms in personality and overall integration

and equilibrium. He interpreted development as a process where behavior advances in
a spiral pattern, alternating between equilibrium and disequilibrium as children enter
new phases. While tensions arise, these self-regulatory mechanisms ensure that the
organism never goes too far in one direction.
Individuality
Critics often point out that when summarizing his findings, Gesell gave the impression
that all children behave in exactly the same way at each age. However, his position
was that the developmental sequences are common to all children, but they vary in
their individual rates of growth. He suggested that these growth rates are possibly
related to differences in temperament and personality. For example, he speculated that
a child who grows slowly might be cautious, even-tempered, and patient, where as a
child who develops more quickly might be more outgoing, happy, and quick to react.
Gesell believed that a child’s environment should be adjusted to his or her
temperament and growth style.
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Philosophy of Child-rearing
Gesell believed in a child-centered approach to raising children. He urged parents to

recognize the inborn schedule that babies are born with; pointing out that it is the
product of over three million years of biological evolution. He observed that babies
appeared to know what they needed and what they were ready to do and learn. He
directed parents to look to the children themselves for cues on how to help the child
develop as an individual, and to set aside their own expectations of what the baby
“ought” to be doing, particularly in the first year.
Gesell developed a series of development schedules summarizing the sequences of

development in children. He believed that parents familiar with these sequences will
become more patient and understanding during times of disequilibrium and instability
knowing that they will eventually disappear.
Criticisms
Modern critics of Gesell point out that he put too much emphasis on maturation and not
enough on environmental factors such as learning. Criticisms also include that his
developmental stages imply too much uniformity as if all children go through the stages
at the same age. He does not specify how much variation can be expected at each
age. In addition, Gesell’s research was limited to middle-class children in a university
setting so critics are hesitant to generalize his findings to other cultures.
Critics also have asserted that the Maturational Theory can be used as an excuse to
withhold treatment and educational opportunities from children.
Recent research has challenged Gesell’s age norms, showing that newborns may have
more abilities than was reported and that his developmental picture may be too slow.
Newborns have been found to be a lot “smarter” than Gesell originally reported
showing advanced competencies at early ages. Despite the many criticisms,
pediatricians and infant specialists still use Gesell’s norms to help them determine what
babies should be able to do at various ages
2.5 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES FOR CHILDREN IN ECD
As children grow and develop through different stages, they are supposed to show
certain characteristics that unique to particular stages of development as explained by
the theorists of growth and development. It is these characteristics that children show
at different stages that we have to observe and use them to note children’s level and
progress in growth and development. Those observable characteristics of children
seen at particular stages of development are called developmental milestones. The
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milestones that we look for are according physical, social and emotional and
intellectual aspects. A caregiver is supposed to observe these milestones from children
and use them to assess children’s progress in different stages. The caregiver can also
use suggested activities to give to children to do to promote better development at a
given stage in a particular aspect.
Note:
The developmental milestones for children overlap the stages. A child can show
milestones of the earlier stage and that of the later stage while still in one stage.
Developmental milestone for children at different stages of development are given

according to the aspects of development. These include physical, social, emotional,
moral and intellectual.
Physical aspect of development: refers to the child’s increase in height, size and
maturation. It is also concerned with the growth rate of the child, energy level,
functioning of senses, motor skills, health, handedness and teething.
Social aspect of development: refers to social relationships, the acquiring of social

skills for successful functioning in society, the development of social attitudes and
values, and in general, how the individual adjusts and relates to society. The child’s
social development is brought about by two major social processes that include
socialization and acculturation. Socialization is the formal process in which a child
picks the social skills, ideas and acceptable values of the society in which he/she lives.
These are acquired through interaction with peers, parents, teachers and significant
others. Acculturation on the other hand is a process where a child learns the
acceptable socio-cultural beliefs, values and traditions of his/her society as passed on
from generation to generation.
Mental aspect of development: is concerned primarily with the brain abilities and
functions or mental process like thinking, reasoning and formation of ideas (concepts).
It deals with how children grasp ideas; understand concepts, how the thinking process
operates, the meaning of intelligence and how it is enhanced. Knowledge of mental
development or how the brain processes work and intellectual characteristics of
children will help teachers to design proper syllabi, conduct assessment in proper
ways, choose appropriate methods and make relevant instructional materials.
Note:
The intellectual characteristics of children influence their development in other aspects
i.e their interaction and emotional ability/control/moral judgment and reasoning. It also
influences their sense of right and wrong. Intellectual abilities determine the children’s
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view of the world in which they live.
Moral aspect of development: is concerned with the process by which children learn
principles of right and wrong, or good and bad behavior, moral reasoning and moral
conduct. Moral reasoning involves how the child learns and adopts rules and standards
by which moral decisions and actions are made. Moral conduct refers to actual
behavior shown in situations, demanding some moral or ethical action. An important
part of moral behavior is a sense of moral judgment, which results from accepting
responsibility for oneself and others, viewing individual rights in clear perspective with
rights of others, and seeing the relationship of one’s own present behavior to one’s
own future being.
In Early childhood, morality refers to their concept of what is right and wrong, which
behavior is good and which is bad, the development of conscience, and scale of values
which basically tells them what is correct and is not worthwhile.
Note:
Children from the age of o-5 have no morals. They do not understand the concept of
morals. This is because moral development starts at the age of about 6 years.
Therefore, do not expect young children to show appropriate moral behaviour and
judgment.
Emotional aspect of development: Deals with the effective component of the child’s
“feelings” towards certain objects, persons or situations. Emotional development
influences one’s personality. Personality is the sum total of individual’s psychological
makeup (Farant, 1990).It is the project of oneself as seen by others. The child is
guided primarily by his/her feelings towards teachers, peers, parents, siblings,
significant others in his interpersonal relationships with them. The child’s emotions are
important as they determine the direction and quality of his interpersonal relationships
and therefore, his/her behavior patterns. A child who loves his mother will do all he can
to remain in her favor. Hatred for a person results in negative, hateful behavior.
Emotions are both positive and negative in nature. Positive emotions like love,
adoration, compassion, happiness, joy etc result in positive consequences. Negative
emotions like anger, jealousy, hatred, sorrow result in unpleasant harmful behavior.
Note:
 Emotions can be positive or negative.
 General patterns of children’s emotions change in emotional behavior take place
most rapidly during the early years of a child’s life.
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 Emotions and feelings start getting established by late childhood.
 Every child has primary emotional behavior patterns based on inborn factors
and universal (general) emotional behavior observed by all members of the
society/culture to which he/she belongs.
 Learning experiences at school or environment experiences may cause positive
changes in children’s’ primary emotional behavior.
 One of the most important emotional needs of all children (irrespective of
cultural or religious background) is a feeling of confidence.
 Confidence increases as one has successful experiences
 Emotional learning is influenced largely by the emotional climate in the home,
especially a negative self image.
 Children need help in learning how to express their emotions in ways that are
acceptable to others.
 Set up a social environment to help children attain enough maturity to use
emotions effectively and establish healthy inter personal relationships.
 Social development directly affects emotional development and vice versa.
 A child’s emotional state directly affects performance in school. Children, who
are emotionally stable, perform well academically.
 It is teachers’ responsibility to provide emotional stability in school. Teachers
should serve as role models in managing emotions
Characteristics of young children’s emotions
 Children’s emotions are short lived (last a short duration like only a few minutes
and they end abruptly). This is because children act out whatever and how they
feel, without observing self control hindrances. As a result, they overcome their
feelings very easily.
 Children’s emotions are intense. This means that they feel anger, joy, hatred,
sorrow in extreme degrees which they bring out in their own language and
behaviour.
 Children’s emotions are transitory. They shift from one extreme to another
easily for example from laughter to tears, from anger to smiles or from jealousy
to affection.
 Children’s emotions appear frequently. This is because children are in the habit
of acting out instantly without reason, on everything they feel.
 Children’s emotional responses differ from child to child due to differences in
social background, age, sex etc.
 Children’s emotions can be detected by symptoms of behaviour. Even if they do
not show their emotions directly, it can be seen or detected by their
restlessness, tension, inactiveness, anxiety, day dreaming or lack of interest.
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 Children experience a range of emotions. The number of emotions experienced
by children is large and commonly includes fear, worry, anger, jealousy, love,
joy, pleasure, delight or happiness, curiosity, sorrow/grief, hatred etc.
37
The developmental milestones of children according to different aspects are summarized in the following tables.
2.6 Developmental milestones for 3-4 year olds

Age Aspect Milestones Developmental/ Provision needed
Range learning needs
0-3 Emotional  Cries easily  Love and security  Provide love and security
years development  Often unable to control impulses  Opportunities to  Let children express
 Begins to express affection express fear, anger, anger, fear, tenderness
 Begins to perceive emotions of others excitement and and happiness
 Expresses self, sometimes empathetically tenderness
 Wants to be independent.  Routines and security
 Success and self-

worth
0-3 Physical  sits and crawls  Proper feeding and  Provide nutritious food
years Development  Walks and begins to run health environment  Organize the environment
 Fine moor skills develop eg can pick up small  Development of gross free that is from harm and
objects and fine motor skills spacious for children to
 Feeds self with a spoon. play
 Climbs on to furniture  Provide materials that
 Likes to dress and undress promotes gross and fine
 Follows commands moor skills
0-3 Social  Responds to others  Live with and relate  Encourage them to make
years Development  Enjoys company of other children for a short with others friends
time  To have an  Let children imitate
 Is unable to share without coaxing atmosphere for actions of others
 Imitates actions of others imitation of actions of
 Begins to engage I parallel play others
 To belong to a group
38
0-3 Mental  Development of concept is rapid  Stimulation  Encourage a lot of
years Development  Can follow a simple command with an  Opportunities to use recitation; songs rhymes
associated gesture. language.  Provide materials for
 Sorts toys  Purposeful play children to sort , match
 Searches for hidden objects.
 Address others with greetings
 Develop a sense of object permanence.
1.7.1 Developmental milestones for 3-4 year olds

Rang learning needs
e
3-4 Emotional  Can tolerate some frustration  Opportunities to play  Board and indoor games
years development  Develops some self-control  Group activities  Let them have the
 Begins to show some sense of humor  Rules and regulations opportunity to show
 Fears darkness, being abandoned and strange  Opportunities to preferences
situations express feelings  Let there be space and
 Shows preferences such as clothes and  Positive rewards time for them to play
entertainment  Assurance of no harm  Provide play materials
 Knows how to play different games considers  Praise and  Guidance
teachers/adults as figures of authority to be encouragement  Explain reason for
listened to ie child thinks adults know best.  Emotional security desired good behavior.
 Analyze behavior objectively and does not  Stories told and their  Maintain links between
consider the motives of situations of an action. moral lessons values at home and those
 Moral judgment confined to the amount of danger explained in school.
done.  Leadership  Involve children in setting
opportunities conflicts and decision
39
making regarding
punishment.
3-4 Physical  Fine motor skills develop eg can pick up objects  Proper feeding and  Provide nutritious food
years Development  Feeds self with a spoon. health environment  Organize the environment
 Climbs on to furniture  Development of gross free that is from harm and
 Likes to dress and undress and fine motor skills spacious for children to
 Follows commands play
 Provide materials that
promotes gross and fine
moor skills
3-4 Social  Enjoys company of other children for a short time  Live with and relate  Encourage them to make
years Development  Shares play materials with others with others friends
 imitates actions of others  To have an  Let children imitate
 Engages in group activities atmosphere for actions of others
imitation of actions of
others
 To belong to a group
 variety of play
materials
3-4 Mental  Development of concept is rapid  Stimulation  Encourage a lot of
years Development  Can follow commands  Opportunities to use recitation; songs rhymes
 Sorts toys language.  Provide materials for
 Searches for hidden objects.  Purposeful play children to sort , match
 Address others with greetings Develop a sense of
object permanence.
2.8 Developmental milestones for 5-6 year olds

40
Rang learning needs
e
5-6 Physical  Develops physical skills.  Feeding and health  Provide a good
years Development  Walks up and down stairs alternating feet. environment. environment for children to
 Jumps with both feet.  Support and guidance play.
 Climbs on play ground equipment.  Approval from adults.  Protect them from physical
 Turns somersault. danger.
 Fine muscle control increases  Provide materials and
 Cuts on lines. encourage them to play.
 Pastes and glues  Provide jump ropes and
 Handedness is well established. hula hoops for
experimenting with
movement and control
5-6 Social  Responds to others.  Opportunities to  Schedules play activities.
years Development  Enjoys company of others. develop social skills.  Mediate in case of
 Can maintain involvement with other children  Love and security. disagreements
 Has a strong feeling towards home and family.  Sleep and rest.  Provide opportunities to
 Shows a growing sense of self reliance  Opportunity for choice develop positive attitudes
 Expresses rigid ideas about sex roles.  Positive co-existence towards opposite sex.
 Has best friend for short periods of time.  Being independent.  Provide a relaxed learning
 Parallel play is common/cooperative play begins  Belonging to a group environment.
 Able to take direction and follow rules. or family/community.  Encourage group games.
 Aware of sex differences.  Teach skills for conflict
 Quarrels often but anger is short lived. resolution
 Able to share and take turns.  Provide opportunity to
 Eager to participate in school experiences. participate in home/school
activities
 Provide empathy for fears
41
5-6 Mental  Shows a growing attention span.  Opportunities to use  Provide group activities for
years Development  Able to put objects in order. language to children to talk about.
 More accurate in judgments. communicate.  Give children support to
 Differentiates between imaginations and reality.  Opportunities to choose as many of their
 Uses language extensively experiment explore own activities as possible.
 Interested in numbers and letters and discover.  Provide materials that
 Knows names of colors, shapes.  Listening and retelling children can dismantle and
stories, rhymes explore.
 Being listened to.  Provide open ended
materials to challenge the
child.
 Encourage children to
follow their interests.
5-6 Moral/Spiritu  Learns right and wrong.  Resist temptations  Encourages children to
years al  Develops conscience.  Knows God as a listen to songs, stories and
Development  Influenced by other people’s behavior Creator, provider and poems/rhymes about God.
 Develops moral values eg. Respect, honesty and protector.  Let children act plays about
trust  Understands God as a God’s creation.
loving father.  Opportunities to make
 Being trusted. choice
 Include spiritual formation
activities in the school
routine, Sunday school,
prayer time.
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2.9 Developmental milestones for 7-8 year old children
Rang learning needs
e
7-8 Physical  Physical skills increase.  Body balance  Provide climbers.
years Developme  Walks up and down stairs, alternating feet, Runs.  Motor control  Let children walk up and
nt  Jumps with both feet  Development down stairs
 Climbs on play ground equipment.  Involve children in many
 Undresses and dresses self. activities that keep them
 Catches ball with arms extended. on their feet or that require
 Walks backward and on tip toe them to use their trunk and
 Holds crayon with fingers limbs.
 Fairs grip of writing tools.  Provide relevant materials
 Less motor control eg. Soft rubber balls.
 Large muscles(of legs and trunk) are more  Provide many moving
developed than finer muscles (of fingers) experiences
 Give manipulative
activities.
7-8 Social  Becomes aware of self.  Self awareness and  Promote co-existence.
years Developme  Becomes aware of racial and sexual differences. self esteem.  Provide opportunities for
nt  Is able to take direction, follow some rules.  Positive co-existence direction and choice.
 Have strong feelings towards home and family. with children of  Give plenty of group
 Shows a growing sense of self reliance. different sex and color. activities.
 Parallel play is common.  Ability to make choice.
 Cooperative play begins  Self directive
 Imaginary playmates are fairly common.  Belonging to and
 Sometimes play with imaginary playmates. identifying with family
/class
43
 Independence.
7-8 Emotional  Can tolerate some frustration  Emotional stability.  Frequently remind children
years Developmen  Develop some self control.  Freedom to express that you love them.
t  Appreciate surprises and new things. feelings.  Show love using possible
 Begin to show sense of humor.  Explanation and means.
 Want to be shown love. assurance on things  Explain and re-assure
 Fear darkness, being abandoned and strange and situations he/she children about things they
situations like accident sites, fierce films, death fears. fear.
and mourning gathering.  Allow children to express
their fears.
7-8 Mental  Follows instructions of two commands.  Proper concept  Provide mental puzzles and
years Developmen  Makes quick judgments without reasons. development. other forms of stimulation.
t  Makes frequent mistakes.  Mental stimulation  Provide time to respond to
 Develops vocabulary rapidly.  Use of language questions, listen to
 Uses number without understanding their value.  Tolerance from children’s experiences.
 Has difficulty in differentiating imagination and parents.  Set up a rich environment
reality  Incidental learning and encourage new
 Begins to classify things mainly by function opportunities. discoveries through
 Begins to use some functional abstract words.  Challenging mental questions.
 “Why” questions are constant. activities.  Record pupils’ progress.
 Thinking is very egocentric (thinks from own point  Listening adults to  Exhibit patience with
of view). respond patiently to children’s questioning
their questions habits.
7-8 Moral/Spiritu  Follows moral standards of parents.  Learning accepted  Nurture confidence and
years alDevelopm  Follows rules blindly ie without reason. behaviour of society feeling of self-worth.
ent  Fairly knows the expectations of adults in different eg respect, honesty,  Respect children’s
situations and understands when in wrong. love, trust. uniqueness and
 Has difficulty understanding God in abstract  Understanding God as individuality.
44
nature. a loving father and  Assess holistic child
 Recites some prayers without much meaning but provider of needs; development and give
with child like trust and language. protector. timely feedback.
 Views punishment as necessary and feels that it  Feeling confident and  Accept emotionally
should amount to the damage done not in terms of self-worth. disturbed children for their
the prevailing conditions.  Respect for weaknesses and strengths.
 Authority is seen as absolute (complete/final) individuality  Use more praise than
 Actions are judged by their consequences blames.
45
2.10 DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT AND BONDING
Bonding refers to the unconditional love between parents and their child. It is the
development of strong ties of attachment between an adult and a child. It is a process
of establishing a strong and close relationship between a parent or guardian and the
child. This relationship should develop through close skin and eye contact from the early
weeks of life. It is a process which continues through the first eight years of life.
Bonding can be done by showing love and security through a series of actions that may
include: Holding the baby close to the chest, putting the child’s head close to your chick,
Pecking the chick, Patting the child, and Hugging the child. It can also be through eye
contact with the child, constant interaction, breastfeeding (for mothers), Cuddling,
Soothing, and soft touches. We can also develop bonding by expressing feelings like
smiling, saying ‘I love you’ with feelings attached, providing for basic necessities, and
giving surprises in form of gifts to celebrate key days in the child’s life e.g birth day,
baptism day, or saints day.
2.11 EARLY LEARNING AND STIMULATION
Early learning and stimulation begins as early as when the child is still in the womb. A
child can be talked to, sang to or listened to by mother and father when still in the
womb. Therefore, it is important that parents have this knowledge. The following are
some of the ways children can learn early in their life time when stimulated:
Singing: It is one of the ways in which children learn. Children in the womb can be
sung to, by their mothers. Young children love songs and therefore, parents should
sing to their children and encourage them to sing too.
Telling stories: Children should be told stories often. The stories for young children
should be short, precise and interesting as they love listening to them and asking
questions. Even those who are still in the womb can listen to stories.
Reading pictures/picture talk: The adult/parent should collect different pictures

according to themes, and help children to talk about them individually or in groups.
Play: The teacher/adult should organize variety of play materials for children and grade
them according to children’s interest. There should be enough play materials, free and
safe environment/space and time for children to play and rest.
Puzzles: Provide children with jig-saws, dominoes to fit. This helps enables children to
grow mentally upright.
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Construction: Adult should provide children with building blocks of different colors,
sizes, length, and shape for children to use in a number of play activities. You can do
this together with them. To children, blocks, shakers can be hanging up on their beds
so that when they wake up, they straight away start playing with them. For children who
are learning to walk, ankle bells can be tied on their legs or shoes that make noise to
fasten their growth.
It is also important for you the caregiver to understand that children learn what
they live, because:
 If a child lives with criticism, he learns to condemn.

 If a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight.
 If a child lives with ridicule, he learns to be shy.
 If a child lives with shame, he learns to feel guilty.
 If a child lives with tolerance, he learns to be patient.
 If a child lives with encouragement, he learns confidence.
 If a child lives with praise, he learns to appreciate.
 If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice.
 If a child lives with security, he learns to have faith.
 If a child lives with approval, he learns to like himself.
 If a child lives with acceptance and friendship, he learns to find love in the
world.
2.12 GROWTH PROMOTION AND MONITORING (GPM)
Children’s growth and development has to be monitored in order to ensure that they are
following the expected pattern. If we notice that it is not going as expected, then
immediate action should be taken to address it. This monitoring is done through an
activity called child growth promotion and monitoring (GPM). Growth promotion and
monitoring is the process of regulatory measuring the weight and health condition of the
child using different measures and instruments to find out how the child is growing.
Therefore, growth promotion and monitoring is a means of keeping track of a child’s
health. This is usually done because children in the 2-3 years of life are very delicate
and vulnerable to different childhood illnesses that greatly retard their growth and
development. It is also at this stage that a child needs great attention, care and feeding
to be able to adequately meet the demands of growing which if missed will never be
achieved in life again.
Growth promotion and monitoring for children less than3 years is supposed to be done
monthly. This is because children in this category grow rapidly and it is easy to notice
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any slowdown in growth and take action quickly. Children in the age range of 3-6 years
are monitored on a quarterly basis because they grow less rapidly.
During growth promotion and monitoring, the following activities among others may be
done: weighing of children, measuring heights of children, de-worming, giving of vitamin
A supplements, check ups for malaria, malnutrition and general health conditions.
Growth promotion and monitoring is not an activity for mothers only. All persons who
have a stake in the life of children are supposed to attend so as to be able to take
appropriate decisions in case something is discovered from the child. The stakeholders
may include: Children, parents, caregivers, community, local leaders, and growth
promotion health workers.
In the absence of growth promotion health workers, caregivers can also carry out a
small growth promotion exercise for the children under their care. They can later report
their findings to either parents or health care workers to take appropriate action. If you
as a caregiver need to perform growth monitoring, you may need the following
materials:
Materials required
 Weighing pants
 Weighing scale (hanging/flat)
 Child health care copies
 A rope for hanging the weighing scale
 Children for weighing
 Identify a place where to put a rope and hung the weighing scale
 CCF child development guide copies to guide you on what to do
 Metre ruler
Responsibilities of a growth promoter

 Understanding the community
 Mobilizing the community
 Conducting monthly GPM sessions
 Home visits and follow up on agreements with the caregivers during GPM
sessions
 Conducting monthly meetings with the community to discuss the health issues of
the children in the community
 Link the community with health workers to provide health services
 Referrals- what activities are carried out during GPM
 Informing local leaders
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 Identifying the venue
 mobilizing the community
 Preparing materials and equipment required during GPM
 Weighing and recording the child’s particulars
 Filling child’s health cards
 Counseling the caregivers and referrals
Steps of filling the health cards

 Fill in the blanks on the front of the card (Name, child’s number, date of birth)
 Write the child’s month of birth in the box at the bottom of growth chart
 Write the preceding month in the child’s second year in boxes for the second
year
 Repeat this step for the third year
Note:
Filling of boxes should be done only for bracket year of the child (eg 1 year period)
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UNIT THREE
CHILD CARE AND PARENTING PRACTICES

This unit introduces you to concepts of child care and child care practices that are being
done in Uganda. This unit has the following objectives:
 Meaning of Childcare
 Child care programmes and activities
 Breast feeding
 Supplementary feeding
 Toilet training
 Sanitation
 Care for sick children
 Parenting
 Fostering and adoption
 Child safety and protection
3.1 MEANING OF CHILDCARE
It is very important that all children receive tender care from any person who intends to
take care of them during their early childhood stages. This is because all children are
driven by the natural laws to seek developmental activities. Once children miss that
tender care which is supposed to help them achieve their full potential for positive
development, then their process of development will be hindered. We should start
noticing children and care for them as Jeffrey and Pattie Jean Brown noted from
children:
“…the world goes on and no one sees me. No one takes care to notice me. I do drugs, I
loot houses and no one cares. I have no love for the world or for myself. I have lost my
way to the world, somebody help me before it’s too late. Somebody, love me for who I
am as an outcome...”
Childcare refers to all the support necessary for every child to realize his/her rights to
survival, protection and to care that will ensure optional development from birth to age
eight. Childcare is what parents, Teachers/ caregivers or any adult is able to provide for
a purpose of development. This may take the forms healthy and safe environment,
support and affectionate interaction, appropriate nurturing, modeling, stimulation,
protection, and time which are all components of respect for the child rights.
Care refers to actions of behaviors that promote child growth and development. Caring
for children ensures that the children’s needs are satisfied. These actions and behaviors
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may include; breastfeeding, supplementary feeding, affection and love, interaction and
stimulation, providing protection and security, safety, safe environment for play
exploration and discovery.
In summary, child care is about meeting the child’s multiple needs by taking into
account; Health, Nutrition and psychosocial stimulation, while at the same time
strengthening the environment in which children live. In addition to addressing the
specific needs of children includes; working with parents skills strengthen parenting
skills. We should also work with siblings and other family members to recognize and
address the specific development needs of young children.
Significance of child rearing and childcare practices

 To help an individual to grow into a useful and full member of the society
 To ensure a firm foundation of a life long process for the individual’s desirable
change in behavior.
 Discipline begins to be developed
 The child also begins to develop the experiences, attitudes, skills and values
based on the child rearing practices.
 This is the time the child is shown love, security and intensive care
 This is the time the child begins to identify with people around him/her
 It lays foundation for one to be a full-bodied person.
The role of the home, school and community in child rearing

Home:
 It provides control and management of the physical and social environment for
the child.
 It formulates the beliefs, morals, values and skills when shaping the individual
child.
 It provides for the physical, moral, social and economic development of the child.
 It prepares the child for school life a head of him/her.
School:
 Teachers should also teach values, skills, attitudes, behavior and knowledge that
form the norm of the society.
 The school should be a place where children find what they have learnt matching
with what is found in the homes. The school should model snd improve what the
home has instituted in the child.
 The school should work hand in hand with the home in training children in
discipline to direct their energies towards more acceptable ends.
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Society/community:
 Each society has norms according to what hteir young are reared. Boys and girls
are trained for different roles in traditional societies.
 Morals are highly helped by societies: the child copes with daily activities of the
society by observing and imitating elders.
 Child rearing practices reflect the values of the societies and these vary
according to different sub-cultures.
Implications of the knowledge of child rearing to the teachers/caregivers
The teachers should be able to:

 Cater for individual differences
 Select positive aspects to pass on and discourage the negative ones
 Teach cooperative living and learning
 Strike a balance between traditional and modern technology
 Become aware of the values that have shaped them
 Continue nurturing, training and bringing up children
 Give appropriate guidance and counseling
 Meet the children’s needs individually and culturally in appropriate ways.
Positive child rearing practices
i) Modeling
This is so important. Behave the way you want your children to behave. They
learn by watching your example! Let them see you being compassionate and
kind. Speak to them respectfully. Each interaction with your child is teaching
them something. If you want them to learn not to interrupt you in
conservation, model by not interrupting them when they speak as well. if you
want them to use manners, use yours. When you yell at your kids they will
learn yell at people when they speak. Adversely, when you speak gently , you
teach your children to speak gently too.
ii) Play
Play is vital to childhood. Children learn openly through play, and probably
this is when they learn best. Their brains are engaged, receptive and
absorbing everything! This is wonderful opportunity to not only connect with
your child, but to teach valuable lesons. Here are some ideas to teach
through play:
 Puppet show. I
 Role play
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iii) Story time
There are a lot of children’s books that teach morals and manners, but you
can make up your own stories here too! When you tell them stories say a
bible story, the way how you handle various situation would have a blast to
children and will often be remembered.
Negative child rearing practices

 Indiscipline among children in a home or families may lead to many learning
problems for children especially if a home has no guiding rules and regulations.
Some children will not be able to keep the compound clean, practice good
personal hygiene and keep proper sanitation.
 Over protection by parents, where children have no freedom and have less
independence, can prevent children from taking responsibilities for their lives.
 Too much parental love(pampering), may result into indiscipline and deviant
behaviours.
 Some parents do not involve or show no interest at all in their children’s
educational welfare and thus lead to dropouts from school.
Factors affecting modern child rearing practices

 Influence of the socio-economic factors
 Political stability/ instability
 Child abuse and spouse abuse
 Nutrition (feeding) and obesity
ACTIVITY:
1. Discuss the child rearing practices that are practiced in your community
2. Explain the difference between the traditional and modern child rearing practices
3. Select two types of families in your community, observe their rearing and care
practices and write a report.
 Overprotection over families

 Sing parent families
 Death of parents
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3.2 CHILD CARE PROGRAMMES AND ACTIVITIES
Child care programmes and activities include: Feeding; breastfeeding, weaning

practice, supplementary feeding, care for children recovering from childhood disease.
Feeding children
Feeding refers to giving a child food for survival. It can also mean supply a child with
nutritious food. Children need to be fed on the best foods for growing. These includes all
those foods that are rich in nutrients like proteins, carbohydrates, vitamin’s, minerals,
sugars, water and fats. Giving children a balanced diet ensures their proper growth and
development, since young children of 0-8 years are at a rapid stage of growth and
development. Feed children on nutritious foods such as liver, the heart and kidney,
proteins green’s peas, soya beans, cabbage, brown bread, brown rice, fish, chicken,
Irish, milk, banana’s etc.
The foods that are rich in the above nutrients have to be prepared while ensuring
cleanliness and proper hygiene. The food should not be over cooked to avoid
destroying all the food nutrients. After cooking, the food should be covered in clean
utensils and kept in a clean safe place.
Children should be served food on clean plates, cups or any utensils. They should also
be served in an interesting and appetizing way. Young children should be given their
food each separately and not mixed together. The food should also be served in small
amounts. Children should be fed at relatively close intervals. It is appropriate that they
be fed five meals in a day.
How adults can help children during feeding

Children should be guided to follow good eating habits and table manners. Caregivers
can help children by training them to:
 Train children to wash hands before and after every meal.
 Give toddlers foods they can hold and eat using their fingers such as raw carrots
and watch for chocking.
 Give children opportunity to use spoons and cups as soon as they are ready.
 Hold and sit close to the younger ones (0-3years) as they eat.
 Talk to the children about the foods their eating.
 Serve food on bright and attractive colors of plates and other utensils.
 Avoid serving too much food but rather encourage the child to come for more
food if he/she wishes.
 Discourage eating sweets between meals.
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Involve children in set the table and clean up after meals.
Create a happy and relaxed atmosphere during meals.
Do not rash the children while eating, as it may interfere with their digestive
system.
 Closely supervise younger children and those with low weight while eating.
Reasons why some children may not want to eat
Sometimes a child may have no interest in eating. If you try to force him/her, she may
cry or vomit. There are many reasons for such behaviour. Some of them may include:
 When a child is teething,
 While sick or developing an infection,
 When a child is emotionally upset, for example if he/she is missing the mother or
a play material
 Need for independence, which is very strong between children at the age of one
and a half to three years.
 When a child is distracted
Note:
 Do not overcook the children’s food.
 Serve food immediately after cooking.
 Children with sickle cells are not recommended to foods with iron.
 Encourage children to drink plenty of water and eat roughage for proper
digestion to avoid constipations.
 Encourage children to eat fruits and vegetables.
3.3 BREAST FEEDING
Breast feeding refers to feeding the baby on its mother breast milk. Breast feeding
is the best option for infants. It is encouraged to start from childbirth.
Advantages of breast feeding;

 Breast milk is nutritious
 Breast milk is rich in colostrums(colostrums mean’s the first milk from the mother
breast shortly after birth)
 Breast feeding creates bonding and love between the mother and the child
 The breast milk is readily available,
 It is clean and at room temperature ready to be taken.
 It is Cheap
 It act as an antibiotic for the child
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 It gives immunity to the child
 It is a means of family planning.
We have to encourage all breast feeding mothers to continue breast feeding their
children exclusively for the first 6 months and continue while giving the child other
foods up the age of two years. The more the child at infant age breast feeds, the
more breast milk the mother will produce. There are however, some conditions that
may not allow the mother to continue breast feeding as required. Some of these
reasons may include:
 Age of the mother
 Death of a mother
 Domestic violence
 Health state of a mother
 Stressful and fatigued mothers may lack milk.
 HIV &AIDS infected mother may infect their babies
 Nervousness, shameful, negative cultural norms.
 Inverted nipples , swollen nipples & cracked nipples
3.4 SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING
These are additional foods introduced to a child usually at six months. Commons
Supplementary foods given to children include: Mashed foods, porridge mixed with
milk, eggs, groundnuts, beans, fish, and sardines, animal proteins, green’s. We give
children supplementary foods when we have started the process of weaning.
Weaning
Weaning mean’s introducing a child to other foods besides its mother’s breast milk.
Weaning is a gradual process that should not be rushed. As the child grows older,
and becomes comfortable with the weaning foods, the mother can now completely
stop the child from breast feeding. It is important for mothers to wean their children
at the right time because:
 Breast milk will not be enough to meet the feeding needs of the child
 The mother has to be freed so as to be able to continue with her normal life
routines like work or business activity
 Sometimes the mother can be sick and not afford to infect the child through
breast milk.
 Weaning also helps the mother to recover and gain her former health condition
before pregnancy.
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3.5 TOILET TRAINING
Toilet training does not only mean training the child how to use the toilet/latrines, but
also taking care of him/her, keeping the urinals and toilets clean and teaching the
child how to use the potty.
Toilet training should begin early in a child’s life when the child is very young before
three months of age. The mother or caregiver helps the child to sit in an upright
position whenever it wants to urinate or defecate so that it does not get used to
doing it while sleeping. At the sleeping time you should help the child get used to
releasing his/ her bowels before getting to bed. You should also wake him up in the
middle of the night and in the morning to use the potty. This will help him/ her to get
used to those times and begin to wake up to go to the wash room while grown.
When the children go to school, they are introduced to a new and strange
environment that may promote or regress the toilet training they had learnt at home.
As a teacher/ caregiver you should not only provide conducive toilet training
environment for indoor but also for outdoor activities.
There are different opinions about when we should start training children on how to
use the potty. Most people agree that it is best to wait until the baby is ready for toilet
training and it happens most easily at the age of one and a half years to two years.
However the babies are ready when;
 They can sit properly by themselves on a potty
 Their muscles are able to control their urine and bowel movements
 They want to please adults and copy from bigger children
 They are able to tell or show when they need to use the potty.
Potty training happens in steps. Some of the steps take place earlier than we can
realize. As children take steps on the path to learn toileting, we should always be
there when the child call’s for attention to empty it bowels. It is also important that we
do the following:
 Help the toddler become aware of what they are doing and the vocabulary to
use.
 Let children watch others using potties or toilet and understand what is
happening
 Put the child on a potty for less than ten minutes. If you make him stay longer,
he/she will lose interest in using it.
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Note:
Toilet training takes time and needs patience, so you should never show disgust if the
child does not use the potty as expected and wets the nappy. He/ she is not naughty but
too young and with more practice, will learn to use it later.
Children can use potties if there are not enough toilets/ latrines in the school and these
should be emptied often and cleaned regularly. It is important to get parents’
cooperation, discuss with them when planning to train their children on how to use the
potty. Ensure that you use the same words and methods with the parents to train the
child on toileting.
We encourage children to wipe themselves by placing toilet rolls, paper, leaves or
whatever is used at home next to the toilet within children’s reach. To prevent infection,
we need to advise children to use different pieces of paper for the front and back. Train
the children also to flush toilet in case it is new to some children.
Important points to remember
 All toilets should be at a height children can reach. If they are high, steps should
be built to help children reach the toilet or latrine.
 If there pit latrines, ensure that the opening is small enough so that children do
not fall down the hole.
 Children need to be able to open and close the door
 Keep the latrine / toilet floor clean, dry and disinfected.
 The latrines should be regularly swept, smoked to avoid flies and bad smell.
 There should be latrine/ toilet covers
 Always escort children to the toilets to ensure order and discipline
 Train children to wash their hands after using the latrine/ toilet.
 Demonstrate squatting to the children and how to use the toilet/ latrines
 Create songs, rhythms, poems and stories about proper use of toilets/latrines for
the children.
Note:
In all children centres, gender sensitivity should be observed in such a way that girls
have separate toilets/ latrines from boys.
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3.6 SANITATION
Sanitation in the care of the child is keeping the environment clean, this environment
includes the play learning area changing area, child area, child personal hygiene, and
the hygiene of the materials used for play. You have to make sure that the following is
done:
 Child’s beddings are dry
 Regularly wash the child’s beddings
 Always change the child’s dippers when made wet
 Check for nappy rash on the child and ensure you use the right powder to reduce
it.
 Bathe the child regularly
 In case the child has a wound or infection, make sure you use the right soaps to
clean them and keep the infected part dry.
 Keep the child’s play area always dry and clean to allow the child to play in it
freely without falling or sliding.
 Keep the child’s environment free from rubbish, feaces, animal droppings or
dangerous objects that a child may pick and eat.
3.7 CARE FOR SICK CHILDREN

Children require maximum care and support while sick, a child who is sick and not
hospitalized should stay at home under safe and secure environment. The child will
prefer the usually caregiver present around him/her. The parents/caregivers of the child
might require additional information and advice on how to care for the child. The
caregiver may need to observe the following:
 Get more information about the illness of the child and what to do in case of
attack from either the parent or health worker
 Get to understand how to administer the medication that you may be given by the
parent to give to the child at the required time.
 Do not mix medication of different children
 Always keep all medicines out of the reach of children
 In case of high fevers and temperature on a child, put a cold wet cloth on the fore
head of the child to reduce the temperature.
 Take note of children’s allergy to different foods and medication.
 Have parents’ telephone numbers or way of contacting them in case the
condition of the child worsens.
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 Always monitor the conditions of a sick child so as to be able to determine what
to do next in case of emergency.
 Encourage parents of sick children to take their children with them for better
medical attention.
 Try to reassure a sick child and give plenty of fluids to drink if it can manage to
avoid dehydration.
 If the infection is contagious, keep the child in a sick bay and keep other children
out of it to avoid infecting them.
3.8 PARENTING
Parenting is a very interesting but challenging venture. It is for us all as
responsible citizens but not a responsibility of biological parents only.
Caregivers/ teachers, we spend most of the time with the children 0-
8years.Therefore, it is important that we critically analyze the importance of
parenting and develop knowledge to enable us practice acceptable parenting/
nurturing of children.
In ECD centers and communities you will find different categories of people
playing the roles of child parenting. Therefore parenting is not done by one or
two parents alone but rather the entire family or all the foster parents involved.
Parenting involves showing a child love and warmth. Expressing love to
children is the foundation of good parenting. We teach our children love and
warmth, protection, bonding, feeding sick children, sleep and rest, play and
exercise.
How is love shown to the children;

We can show children love and warmth through;
 Listening and communicating to them effectively. The disadvantage of not
listening or communicating effectively is that the child will feel left out and not
loved enough by the parents or responsible care giver.
Parenting styles
Parenting is a large impact in a child's life and development. Most families have a blend
of two or more of these parenting types because the mother and father tend to differ
when it comes to parenting a child. A healthy development leads a child to succeed not
only in developing as a person but building a stronger bond to their parents.
Parenting style is a way a parent handles his/her child following a set strategy.
Parenting styles differ from family to family, and may even vary from day to day within
on the family. Parenting styles describe the way parents react and respond to their
children; and ways they shape their children.
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TYPES OF PARENTING STYLES:
These are namely authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved parents
a) AUTHORITATIVE:
It is a democratic style of parenting, parents are attentive, forgiving, teach their offspring
proper behavior, have a set of rules, and if child fails to follow their punishment, if
followed their reward/rein enforcement.
Authoritative parents:
• Are firm, loving and kind.
• They set boundaries and expect their children to abide by them.,
• They strike a good balance between expectations that are too high and
expectations that are too low.
• Allow children make choices that are age - appropriate, encouraging them to take
on more responsibility as they grow.
• Respond well to the needs of their children, but do not give in to every desire.
• Give their children reasons for certain rules guidelines, and allow natural
consequences to take place whenever feasible and no real harm will come to the child
due to those consequences.
b) AUTHORITARIAN:
Strict parenting style, involves high expectations from parents but have little
communication between child and parents. Parents don't provide logical reasoning for
rules and limits, and prone to harsh punishments.
Authoritarian parents:
• Parents are strict, unbending and flexible.
• Attempt to control every aspect of child's life, and do not allow the child to make
choices.
• Expect parent’s obedience without questioning. May use harsh discipline

methods with their children and may be insensitive to their children’s emotional
needs.
• They often do not explain the reasons behind the rules that they set.
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• And impose their own consequences whenever a rule is broken.
c) PERMISSIVE:
Parents take on the role of "friends" rather than parents, do not have any expectations
of child, they allow the child to make their own decisions.,
Permissive parents:
• they can cause adult children to remain immature and irresponsible
• They often don't step in to cause a change in the child’s actions as long as he will
not be physically harmed.
• They are kind and loving but may become frustrated when child's behavior is
defiant or unacceptable.
• They often set no rules and have no consequences.
• Might cause child to avoid even natural or logical consequences in order to save
him from perceived harm unhappiness or hurt feelings.
d) Uninvolved parenting:
This kind of parent has little concerns about the child very low levels of communication
cannot communicate and sometimes have low levels of responsibilities. In extreme
cases, these parents may reject or neglect the needs of their children.
Note:
The most ideal and balanced style that leads to the child being mature, independent,
and socially responsible is the authoritative style
1.9 FOSTERING AND ADOPTION
What is fostering?
It is known that family care is best for young children, particularly babies and toddlers
whose development can be impaired when they are cared for by a number of different
people, as is inevitably the case in a babies’ or children’s home. Foster care is family
based care for children whose own family is unable or unwilling to look after them. It
provides a safe, secure and nurturing family environment, and can be either short- term
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for a period of days or weeks or long-term for a period of months or years. It can lead to
adoption after three years for those children who do not have any contact with their birth
family. For others, it may allow children to keep in contact with their own families if the
plan is for them to return to their family. Foster careers work alongside a team of
professionals providing children with the highest standard of care. Caring for another
person’s child requires love and flexibility but it offers the opportunity to make a huge
difference to the lives of the children who need it. Fostering can be a very rewarding
experience.
Who is entitled to foster?
Almost any adult can apply to be a foster career, but as with any career, some people
will be more suited to it than others. You do not need any formal qualifications to
become a foster career. However, you do need skills and experience that will enable
you to meet the needs of the children you care for. Fostering services seek to recruit a
variety of foster careers to match the different needs of individual children. You can
apply to foster regardless of your marital status or residential status and your suitability
will be assessed.
There are certain offences that will prevent you becoming a foster career, so if you have
ever been convicted of a sexual offence or a violent act towards a child then you will not
be able to foster.
Adoption
Adoption means taking someone else’s child into your family when they cannot be
brought up by their birth parents. Completion of the adoption process means that you
will have full parental rights and the child will have full legal and inheritance rights within
the new family. Adoption also means that the previous or birth family lose all legal
connection to their child. Full legal adoption has a range of advantages:
 Your child has full legal rights within your family

 The child is safe and secure in your care
 The status of the child as your son/daughter is protected for the long term
Who are the children who need adopting?
Hundreds of children are abandoned in the toilets, car parks or hospitals of Kampala,
other towns and slums by desperate mothers who feel they have no choice other than
to abandon their child. Such abandoned children are normally picked and taken to the
care of different babies’ homes that try to provide high quality short term care for them.
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Abandoned children usually have different problems, for example, they can be sick,
malnourished or abandoned due to poverty. Others may be having long term medical
care needs, and some may have suffered physical and/or emotional abuse. Upon
receiving the abandoned babies, effort is made by babies’ homes to trace birth families
for all the children, but sometimes no family history can be established. If the parents or
family are trace, such children can be given back to close relatives or families to take
care of them. However, if the search process fails to trace the family of the child, then
such children are the ones who are offered for adoption by new families.
Who is entitled to adopt?
 Ugandan residents.
 Single people who are Ugandan residents may apply to adopt, as well as married
couples.
 Foreign nationals who have been in the country for 3 years or more are legally
considered as Ugandan residents.
 Foreign nationals who are not yet Ugandan residents but intend to be in Uganda
for more than 3 years are welcome to approach adoption organization regarding
adoption. However, adoption can only occur on completion of at least 3 years’
residence in Uganda and a satisfactory period fostering the child.
 At least one of the adoptive applicants must be 25 years or older, and the other
at least 21 years old.
 There is no upper age limit for people thinking of adopting.
 Adoptive parents need to be in good health and willing to undertake a medical
assessment to demonstrate this.
 Criminal records do not necessarily rule out the possibility of an individual
adopting a child, but offences will need to be assessed.
The adoption process
The adoption process is the process of formalizing the request to adopt a child into your
family. The first step is for the person seeking adoption to express interest in adoption.
This is done by contacting any adoption organization that will provide you with an
‘expression of interest’ form for you to complete if you decide to proceed. An adoption
social worker will then be allocated to work with you to answer any further questions you
may have and undertake an assessment of your situation. The areas covered in the
assessment are:
 your reasons for wanting to adopt and what you will offer a child as he/she grows
up
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 the views of your children, if you have any
 your own birth family, education and career history
 current household
 the safety and security of your living conditions
 your means of supporting your family financially
You will also need to provide:
 Three references
 A health assessment
 Local Council and Probation and Social Welfare Officers’ letters
The stages of the adoption process include:
 2-5 interviews with you and your husband/wife, separately and together, and any
children and other adults living in the household
 References and interviews with three referees
 a one day preparation course
 coffee mornings with other adopters – optional
 a second opinion visit from another adoption social worker
 presentation of your application to the body that authorizes adoption to make the
final decision about your application
Once these stages have been satisfactorily passed, you will be ready to receive your
baby into your family. This may be happen quickly or you may need to wait a few
weeks, or even months, for the right baby to be matched to your family. Because
adoption organizations are most often asked for young girl babies, you may have to wait
longer for such a child than if you choose a boy baby or a slightly older child.
Pre-adoptive fostering
Ugandan law requires that a child is fostered with a family for a period of three years
before that family can make an adoption application. During this time the child is under
the supervision of a probation officer and the organization which has arranged the
placement of the child. This period is called pre-adoptive fostering. It is possible for the
birth family to seek to reclaim the child during this period. For this reason it is important
that placements are made through organizations which go the extra mile to ensure that
the child being offered for adoption is really free for adoption. The organization must
carefully search and establish the child’s birth family, to discover whether there are any
available birth family members who can give the child a home. This process helps to
avoid situations where somebody will come to claim the child from you after you have
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adopted and integrated the child into your family. During the pre-adoptive fostering
stage, the responsibility for the child is shared between the local authority and the foster
family to ensure smooth transition.
Should children be told they have been adopted?
Yes, you should carefully explain to the child as soon the child is able to understand
what you are saying. Once your child is secure in your care, you should let them know
they have been adopted into your family. You may wish to talk through some of the
issues around their particular background if this is appropriate.
Tackling the issues can seem difficult but it is better that the child grows up regarding
adoption as an act of love than is told by someone else when it may come as a greater
shock. Your social worker can help and advise you on the best ways to talk to your child
about their origins and help them understand what adoption means.
Dos and don’ts of adoption
DO . . .
 Be honest with your social worker about your own and your family’s
circumstances for example your income status, health or violence present in your
family.
 Be patient with the process as it may take a little time for social workers to verify
who you are and establish if you can be trusted with the child. You may be
subjected to interviews, visits at your home or place of residence.
 Be available for the social worker; they work a full week and will not be able to fit
all your appointments in at weekends.
 Understand that your social worker will have to ask personal questions about
your background, financial circumstances and health – all information is held in
strictest confidence.
 Understand that the more flexible you are regarding the gender and age of your
child the more quickly you are likely to be able to get a child placed under your
care.
 Consider whether you could offer a home to a child with health or developmental
problems.
DON’T . . .
 Don’t be put off by the adoption assessment process described above; often
social workers are more willing to help you go through the process.
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 Don’t be put off by the process for obtaining the necessary documents from
officials.
 Don’t expect an instant addition to your family, but make an effort to work with
the social worker to make this happen as quickly as it can.
 Don’t hesitate to ask your social worker about anything that is of concern: they
are there to help and support you. They can also put you in touch with other
people who have successfully completed the process and have a new child in
their family.
3.10 CHILD SAFETY AND PROTECTION
It is important for parents for parents/ caregivers to ensure the safety of the child
as they love to explore and experiment. Children need protection from adults to
avoid accidents. To ensure that children receive adequate safety and protection,
caregivers need to;
 Keep poisonous substances and medicines out of reach from children.
 Train children on safe and proper use of household equipment like knives, forks,
hoes, and pangas,
 Keep dangerous objects away from children.
 Keep matchboxes, fires and cigarette lighters away from children
 Avoid poisons plants in the school compound.
 Encourage children to avoid dangerous places,
 Avoid dangerous people
 Keep plastic bags and balloons away from children
 Young children should have a separate compound from the older primary
children
 Learning centres should be secured with a fence to keep away from strangers
 The children’s play area should be clean and regularly checked
 Small or tiny objects should not be left to the children without supervision since
they may be harmful if the child swallows or inserts it in the nose.
 The teacher/ caregiver should supervise children while playing with any materials
containing paint.
Outdoor safety
Children should be supervised by a responsible watchful adult during outdoor
play. To do this, one can:
 Encourage cooperative play
 Discourage aggressiveness
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 Ensure climbing equipment is situated on suitable soft landing surface with space
around it.
 Lock external gates and ensure that children do not leave play area
unsupervised.
 Remove all potential hazards such as sharp objects, dangerous litter,
 Provide areas for alternative play for example wheeled toys.
Road safety
Children are always at risk on the roads. Caregivers should ensure children’s
safety in the following;
 Setting a good example when walking and crossing the road
 Discourage parents from allowing children below 8years to cross the roads
unsupervised.
 Teach children road safety sign
 Discourage children from playing in the roads or pavements as play areas
Note:
Safety and protection of children should be a joint venture with all stakeholders.
Always encourage community awareness on values of children and the need to protect
them at all times
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UNIT FOUR
CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION
The unit on Child Health and Nutrition provides you with learning experiences to enable
you understand the factors and conditions that influence the wellbeing of children in the
age bracket of 0-6 years. Under the component of nutrition, you will carry out practical
tasks on preparing the right food for children under different conditions. You will also get
skills to apply proper feeding practices and develop acceptable eating habits among
children.
The unit will be presented in two separate section 1) Child Health 2) Child Nutrition. It
will cover the following areas:
1. Meaning of health and Nutrition
2. Determinates of health
3. Common Childhood Diseases: Causes, signs, symptoms, prevention and their
management
4. Primary Health Care: essential elements: immunization, sanitation, food, hygiene
5. Role of Home and School in Promoting Child Health, safety and security
6. Ways of HIV/AIDS transmission and management among children
7. Nutritional Needs of Children aged 0-6 years:
8. Nutritional Deficiency conditions in children: Causes, signs and symptoms and
their management: Role of home and school in child nutrition
9. Child Care in Pre-School Institutions
i) Meaning of child health

Health refers to total wellness in terms of mental, social, emotional,
Child health refers to the extent to which individual children or groups of children are
able or enabled to (a) develop and realize their potential, (b) satisfy their needs, and (c)
develop the capacities that allow them to interact successfully with their biological,
physical, and social environments. Children's health includes the physical, mental,
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emotional, and social well-being of children from infancy through adolescence. But in
this unit you will concentrate on the health of children from 0-6 years after birth.
Dimensions of Wellness
There are several dimensions of wellness: physical; psychological/emotional; social;
intellectual; spiritual; occupational; and environmental. These are briefly discussed
further, below.
Note: Child health does not mean mere absence of disease but total wellbeing of the
individual child. Wellness is defined as a way of life planned to enable each child to
achieve, in each of the dimensions physical, mental, social, moral, spiritual), his or her
maximum potential that is realistically and reasonably practical for the child at any given
time in his or her lives. Now, you need to think about what happens in your everyday
life. How do you tell a child that is well? Many caregivers say that a child who is well is
happy, lively, enjoys playing with other children, has good appetite and sleeps soundly.
Think of other five things that show that a child is well.
Activity 1
List ten indicators of children who are unwell.
What could you do to improve their conditions?
ii: Determinants of Child Health

Determinants of health are the factors that promote or reduce wellbeing of children.
Children’s health is affected by the environment and people they live with.
Determinants of health can be physical, hereditary, psychological/emotional; social;
intellectual; spiritual; occupational; and environmental. We shall look at each category
starting with the social determinates.
Social determinants of health lie outside the child affected. Social determinants of health
are conditions in the environments in which people are born, live, learn, work, play,
worship, and age that affect a wide range of health, functioning, and quality of life.
Conditions (e.g., social, economic, and physical) in these various environments and
settings (e.g., school, church, workplace, and neighborhood) have been referred to as
“place.” In addition to the more material attributes of “place,” the patterns of social
participation and sense of security and well-being are also affected by where children
live.
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Determinants of health include safe and affordable housing, access to education, public
safety, availability of healthy foods, local emergency/health services, and safe
environments, that is, an environment free of life-threatening toxins. Toxins are
poisonous things within the environment. Other examples of social determinants
include:
 Education: low education levels of parents are linked with poor health, more
stress and lower self confidence, and these affect their children’s health.
 Resources to meet daily needs e.g., safe housing and local food markets
 Parental access to educational, economic, and job opportunities
 Access to health care services. Some children live far from health centers and
have to walk long distances to access health services.
 Community-based resources recreational and leisure-time activities or set part
play areas for children
 Transportation options available for children
 General Public safety and child safety
 Social norms and attitudes (e.g., discrimination, racism, and distrust of
government)
 Exposure to crime, violence, and social disorder (e.g. tear gas attacks, mobs,
strikes)
 Socioeconomic conditions (e.g., concentrated poverty and the stressful
conditions that accompany it) affect child’s socio-emotional wellbeing.
 Sanitation ( general hygiene or cleanliness of the home, school, workplace)
 Language/Literacy (ability to read or write). Literacy opens children to knowledge
about health e.g. medication guidelines and instructions.
 Heredity – genetic inheritance plays a part in determining immunity and lifespan.
There are some genetic diseases, that is diseases passed on to children e.g.
diabetes, HIV/AIDS
 Gender – girls and boys may suffer from different diseases according to their
body make up
 Mass media and new technologies (e.g., cell phones, the Internet, and social
media)
 Culture – the ways of life of a given group of people with similar beliefs. The type
of food that is acceptable or not acceptable. You will read more about culture and
food taboos under child nutrition.
Examples of physical determinants include:
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 Natural environment, such as green space (e.g., trees and grass) or weather
(e.g., climate change)
 Physical environment: safe water, clean air, health workplaces – markets, shops,
 Built environment, such as buildings, sidewalks, bike lanes, and roads
 Worksites, schools, and recreational settings
 Housing and community setting
 Exposure to toxic substances and other physical hazards
 Physical barriers, especially for people with disabilities
 Aesthetic elements (e.g., good lighting, trees, and benches)
Housing
The evidence of health impact focuses on:
 Improvement in housing
 The possibility of high rent costs, impacting negatively on health.
 Housing tenure, outdoor temperature, indoor air quality, dampness, housing
design, rent subsidies, relocation, home accident and fire prevention measures.
 Homelessness.
 improved mental health and general health
Activity 2
Take time to think about how each of the above factors affects the health of young
children. Here are a few sample questions which will guide your reflection.
1. In which ways do construction sites hurt children’s lives?

2. Mention the benefits of trees, grass and flowers to young children’s lives?
3. Separate the factors that promote and those that harm children’s health.
Note: Proper child health cannot be realized except if all factors studied above are
supportive.
Summary
We have looked the determinants of child health. We have learnt that they can be
social, physical or environmental. You have seen that there are many factors that can
harm or promote children’s health. The lesson we learn is that to ensure promote good
child health, you have to consider many things and work with several people. We shall
see how to deal with each factor under topic four on Primary Health Care (PHC). In the
next topic, you are going to read about common diseases and their management.
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Check the understanding you have so far by doing the following activity.
1. Take a walk and study the things that are dangerous to children’s health in
your
a) School
b) Home
c) Community
2. Plan and take simple actions to reduce the risks in the community and
environment
iii) Communicable diseases e.g. flue, cough, measles

 Identify sick children for isolation
 Advise parents to leave children at home or take to a health centre. (TB.
Measles, mumps)
 Advocate for school health policy
A health promoting school should have a sick bay

iv) Mental health
Did you know that children who have difficulty in areas of language acquisition,
cognitive development, and behavior control may be suffering from mental illness?
Mental health problems that may upset children include:
 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). According to the AAP, 4-12%
of school-aged children have ADHD. Poor impulse control and excessive
motor activity are indicators of AAP
 Learning disorders. Learning disabilities affect one in 10 school children.
 Depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder. Affective, or mood, disorders can
affect kids as well as adults.
 Eating disorders. Some children over eat or under eat.
 Bizarre (normally called strange thoughts and behaviors, impaired sense of
reality, may be diagnosed in childhood.
 Autism and pervasive developmental disorder. Severe developmental
disabilities that cause a child to become withdrawn and unresponsive.
 Mental retardation. Children under age 18 with an IQ of 70 or below and
impairments in adaptive functioning are considered mentally retarded.
Activity
Observe you biological or school children and note down the symptoms of
v) Emotional and social health

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Children take their first significant steps toward socialization and peer interaction when
they begin to engage in cooperative play at around age four. Their social development
will progress throughout childhood and adolescence as they develop friendships, start
to be influenced by their peers, and begin to show interest in the opposite sex.
Write any five behavioural indicators of emotional well being that you have observed
among children in the community. Do you what affects the emotional well being of
children? Below are some of the factors which can have a negative impact on the
emotional and social well-being of children including:
 Violence. Bullying can cause serious damage to a child's sense of self-

esteem and personal safety, as can experiences with school violence.
 Family problems. Divorce, death, and other life-changing events that change
the family dynamic can have a serious impact on a child. Even a positive
event such as the birth of a sibling or a move to a new city and school can put
emotional strain on a child.
 Stress. The pressure to perform well academically and in extracurricular
activities such as sports can be overwhelming to some children.
 Peer pressure. Although it can have a positive impact, peer pressure is often
a source of significant stress for children. This is particularly true in
adolescence when "fitting in" seems all-important.
vi) Causes and symptoms of childhood health problems

Childhood health problems may be present at birth or acquired through infection,
immune system deficiency, or another disease process. They may also be caused by
physical trauma like after a car accident or a playground fall) or a toxic substance (e.g.,
an allergen, drug, or poisonous chemical), or triggered by genetic or environmental
factors.
Physical and mental health problems in childhood can cause a wide spectrum of
symptoms. However, the following behaviors frequently signify a larger emotional,
social, or mental disturbance:
 signs of alcohol and drug use
 falling grades
 lack of interest in activities that were previously enjoyable to the child
 excessive anxiety
 persistent, prolonged depression
 withdrawal from friends and family
 violence
 temper tantrums or inappropriate displays of anger
 self-inflicted injury
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 bizarre (strange) behavior and/or speech
 suicide attempts
The causes of developmental disorders and delays and learning disabilities are not
always fully understood. Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) and autistic spectrum
disorder (more commonly known as autism) are characterized by unresponsiveness
and severe impairments in one or more of the following areas:
 Social interaction. Autistic children are often unaware of acceptable social

behavior and are withdrawn and socially isolated. They frequently do not like
physical contact.
 Communication and language. A child with autism or PDD may not speak or
may display limited or immature language skills.
 Behavior. Autistic or PDD children may have difficulty dealing with anger, can
be self-injurious, and may display obsessive behavior.
Topic 2: Common Childhood Diseases: Causes, signs, symptoms, prevention and their
Management
Topic 3: Common Childhood Accidents and their Management

Children love to play as you are aware. What accidents occur when children play?
Read about the busy life of playful Peter. After reading you will; do the tasks below.
Topic 4: Role of Home and School in Promoting Child Health, safety and security
Topic 5 : Primary Health Care

You need to understand the meaning of Primary Health Care (PHC). PHC is
essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable
methods and technology made universally, accessible to individuals and families in the
community by means of acceptable to them, through their full participation and at a cost
that community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development
in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination. It forms an integral part of both the
country’s health system, of which it is the central function and the main focus and of the
overall social and economic development of the community. After reading this
paragraph, you can identify the elements PHC. Share your answers with your peers.
Well done! Now you need to know the reason behind PHC.
 Achieve the goal of Health for All by the year 2000 through self-reliance.
 Health begins at home, in schools and in the workplace because it is there where
people live and work that health is made or broken.
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 It also means that people will use better approaches than they do now for
preventing diseases and alleviating unavoidable disease and disability and have
better ways of growing up, growing old and dying gracefully.
 It also means that there will be even distribution among the population of
whatever resources for health are available.
 It means that essential health services will be accessible to all individuals and
families in an acceptable and affordable way.
The case study below will help you to understand what you have just read in the bullets
above.
How will ensure availability, affordability, acceptability, participation, affordable services,

quality and equity
Answers
Principles and Strategies:
1. Accessibility, Availability, Affordability and Acceptability of Health Services
requires that health services delivered where the people are. What are some of
the strategies you will use?
 You may have to use of indigenous or local or resident volunteer
health worker and use of traditional (herbal medicine) along with
essential drugs.
2. Provision of quality, basic and essential health services
o Strategies:
 Attitudes, knowledge and skills developed are on promotive,
preventive, curative and rehabilitative health care.
 Regular monitoring and periodic evaluation of community health
workers performance by the community and health staff.
3. Community Participation
o Strategies:
 Awareness, building and consciousness raising on health and
health-related issues.
 Planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation done through
small group meetings (10-20 households cluster)
 Selection of community health workers by the community.
 Formation of health committees.
 Establishment of a community health organization at the parish or
municipal level.
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 Mass health campaigns and mobilization to combat health
problems or prevent disease outbreak
4. Self-reliance
o Strategies
 Community generates support (cash, labor) for health programs.
 Use of local resources (human, financial, material)
 Training of community in leadership and management skills.
 Starting income generating projects, cooperatives and small scale
industries.
It is important for us to look at Primary health care has the following elements
Primary health care shifts the emphasis of health care to the people themselves and
their needs, reinforcing and strengthening their own capacity to shape their lives.
Hospitals and primary health centres then become only one aspect of the system in
which health care is provided. As a philosophy, primary health care is based on the
overlap of mutuality, social justice and equality. As a strategy, primary health care
focuses on individual and community strengths (assets) and opportunities for change
(needs); maximizes the involvement of the community; includes all relevant sectors but
avoids duplication of services; and uses only health technologies that are accessible,
acceptable, affordable and appropriate. Primary health care needs to be delivered
close to the people; thus, should rely on maximum use of both lay and professional
health care practitioners and includes the following eight essential components:
1. Education for the identification and prevention / control of prevailing health challenges
2. Proper food supplies and nutrition; adequate supply of safe water and basic
sanitation
3. Maternal and child care, including family planning
4. Immunization against the major infectious diseases
5. Prevention and control of locally widespread diseases
6. Appropriate treatment of common diseases using appropriate technology
7. Promotion of mental, emotional and spiritual health
8. Provision of essential drugs (WHO & UNICEF, 1978).
The greatest difference between primary care and primary health care is that
Primary health care is fully participatory and as such involved the community in all
aspects of health and its subsequent action (Anderson & MacFarlane, 2000; Wass,
2000; WHO 1999).
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The ultimate goal of primary health care is better health for all. WHO has identified five
key elements to achieving that goal:
 Empowering communities to be in charge of thei children’s health
 reducing exclusion and social disparities in health (universal coverage reforms);
 organizing health services around people's needs and expectations (service
delivery reforms);
 integrating health into all sectors (public policy reforms);
 pursuing collaborative models of policy dialogue (leadership reforms); and
 increasing stakeholder participation.
 Preventing disease outbreak
 Health care (or healthcare) is the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of

disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in humans.
8 Essential Health Services in Primary Health Care

1. E – Education for Health
2. L – Locally endemic disease control
3. E – Expanded program for immunization
4. M – Maternal and Child Health including responsible parenthood
5. E – Essential drugs
6. N – Nutrition
7. T – Treatment of communicable and non-communicable diseases
8. S - Safe water and sanitation
Tertiary care is specialized consultative health care, usually for inpatients and on
referral from a primary or secondary health professional, in a facility that has personnel
and facilities for advanced medical investigation and treatment, such as a tertiary
referral hospital.[
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UNIT FIVE
HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN ECD

Introduction
Before Western formal teaching (education) was introduced in Uganda during the last
quarter of the 19th Century, each tribe in Uganda had its own education system and
mode of teaching. That education system had all the characteristics of an informal
education system. Each society had its unique features. So every education system
arose from the setting of the society. This form of education was referred to as
indigenous education.
What is meant by the term education?
Etymologically, Education is derived from two Latin words “Educare” which means to
support and nurture the growth of or learn and “Educere” meaning to draw out or to
cause to come out. It is not a one day thing to know or learn, to learn it takes time. That
means it is a process.
Education is the process of bringing desirable change into the behavior of human
beings. It is the “Process of imparting or acquiring knowledge or habits through
instruction or study”. The behavioral changes must be directed towards a desirable end.
They should be acceptable socially, culturally and economically and result in a change
in knowledge, skill, attitude and understanding. Education refers to the act of developing
knowledge, skills or character of a child.
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Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which knowledge, skills, and
habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through
teaching, training, research, or simply through auto didacticism (people teaching
themselves). Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on
the way one thinks, feels, or acts.
According to Armstrong (2012), education is a process by which one generation

purposefully transmits culture to the young, to the adults and to the old for their social,
cultural and economic benefits and for the whole society. Education is perceived as a
place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities.
The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential.
According to Omona (1994), education refers to the act of bringing up, rearing, guiding
or directing a child.
Types of education
Education can be classified into three types according to Ocit (1994) namely;
 Formal education
 Non formal education and
 Informal education
Formal Education
This refers to the hierarchically structured, Institutional activity, Chronologically graded
education system, running from pre-primary through the university and including
Uniform, Subject oriented, Full time, a variety of specialized programmes Leading to
certificates, diplomas, degrees (professional training). In the simplest form, formal
education is the western type of education
Non Formal Education

This refers to any organized educational activity outside the established formal system
whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity that is
intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives. It has the
following characteristics: Flexible, Learner oriented, Diversified in content and method,
Non-authoritarian and built on learner participation, it mobilizes local resources, and it
enriches human and environmental potential. E.g. Agricultural Extension.
Informal Education
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This refers to the truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes,
values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and
resources in his or her environment from the family and neighbors, from work and play,
from the market place, the library, the mass media, etc. Informal education can also be
called indigenous education
Definitions of indigenous education
Many indigenous education scholars’ have given different views about the meaning of
indigenous education:
According to Ssekamwa (1997), indigenous education…”was education given by adult

Africans to the young in the homesteads and everywhere economic, political and social
activities took place. Indigenous education had no regulated set syllabuses, had no
formal schools, had no regulated hours of attendance and exams and it had no special
teachers for imparting the basic knowledge and basic skills. Every adult person in
his/her senses was expected to teach the young people. In short indigenous education
was informal education.
Organization of indigenous education teaching
The teaching and learning of the basic knowledge and basic skills was arranged in
homesteads, around the fire place at night in the sleeping houses and any where
people carried out economic, political and social activities in the whole society.
Therefore, one would not see schools, classrooms and reading books in those places
as one would see today. In indigenous education, the homestead was the school and
everywhere human activities took place and the fireplaces were the classrooms.
Teachers of indigenous education
Teachers were mostly the parents and all the responsible grown up citizens in a society.
The parents however had the first duty to educate their children. But if those children
were away from the homestead, other adult members of the society were responsible
for teaching them if the children showed ignorance of some basic knowledge, basic
skills, desirable social behaviors and customs.
Methods of teaching
Two main methods were applied;
 Mini lecture method combined with instant practice and further mini lecture.
This involved straight telling the child the knowledge which he/she should
know. For example, a child was told the correct way of greeting people
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 Practical method. The second method of teaching concerned teaching
technical skills of doing things or making things.
The curriculum of indigenous education
A curriculum simply means a number of subjects which have got to be taught in a

course of study. For example the curriculum for primary schools includes subjects like;
English, Reading, Writing, Numeracy, Science and Social Studies. In indigenous
education, the curriculum consisted of the following subjects/items
 Environment, children were taught how to deal with their environment. The
purpose of this was that they should know how to get the best things out of it
 Cooperation, children were taught how to cooperate with their friends,

neighbors and the rest of the society members. This was necessary for
living in a friendly atmosphere with other people. A person who did not
cooperate with members of his society was looked at as a bad person. This
cooperation was taught through games, plays, idioms, proverbs and folk
stories such as the stories Wakayima Ne’wango (Mr. Hare Leopold)
 Belonging to a group
 Discipline
 Culture
 Skills
 Religion and medical knowledge
 Desirable behaviour or good manners
Importance of indigenous education
 Indigenous education catered for every member of a society. At least the

content imparted basic skills, basic knowledge and norms of that group were
taught to every member of a particular society.
 Norms or standards of a tribe were taught and taboos were set up to

strengthen those norms, these norms were the embodiments of the strength
of a tribe and its identity and pride.
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 Education was much based on what we call today production learning. This
means that people learned as they produced materials and services or they
produced materials and services as they learned.
 Environment management. Each education system gave knowledge and

skills to the members of the society to be able to exist in the environment of
each tribe. The duty of indigenous education was to give knowledge and
skills to every member of a society to survive in a particular society’s
environment.
Western Education in Uganda
The first semblance of formal teaching came to Uganda implicitly through the arrival of
Sheikh Ahmed Bin Ibrahim at the court of Kabaka Ssuuna II of Buganda at Banda near
Kampala in 1844. This led to the introduction of Koranic teachings. Koranic schools
were built at Mosques. In these Koranic schools, reading and writing using the Arabic
script were taught together with the basic principle of Islam by trained teachers. This
was the first introduction of formal teaching in Uganda (Ssekamwa, 1999). In 1877, and
1879 Protestant and Catholic missionaries arrived in Uganda respectively.
Since when the British CMS missionaries arrived in Uganda in 1877 and since when the
French White Father missionaries arrived in 1879, both groups were teaching under
their verandahs and everywhere in their parishes without dividing the students in
classes.
Consequently from 1898, the British protestant teachers and the British Mill Hill Roman
catholic teachers and the French Roman catholic teacher began to organize the
education system on the formal western basis as they knew it back in Europe. The
system which the missionaries established in 1898 had the following structure:
 Catechist schools
 Bush schools or sub grade schools from Primary One to Primary Two
 Elementary schools from Primary One to Primary Four
 Central schools from Primary One to Primary Six
 High schools from Junior One to Junior Two
 Technical schools
 Teacher training schools
Comparison between indigenous and western education in Uganda
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The indigenous education made sure that every citizen in a tribe was taught the basic
knowledge and basic technical practical skills. But western education has not so far
managed to give elementary education to every boy and girl. Children join primary but
fail to complete even with UPE.
Unlike the kind of education here today, indigenous education used to make/produce
job makers other than job seekers.
Since children were trained with a purpose to perform depending on the area or the
need, the age, sex, etc, they did not travel long distances looking for education like the
situation is today with western education.
Indigenous education did not require payment of big sums of money for one to be
taught like it is today with western education since the teachers were indigenous people
that loved to have development of their areas other than money.
Indigenous education did not require expensive infrastructure like western education
and this made it cheap and yet it catered for the learners’ immediate needs.
Indigenous education catered for all learners without discrimination with an intention of
producing a uniform society in terms of norms and values unlike western education
today where we have school dropouts and variations within societies.
Indigenous education aimed at enforcing discipline in regard to the societal expectations

unlike western education that is general.
Implications of indigenous education to a pre-school teacher
Indigenous Education having been hands-on, pre-school teachers should make sure
that they teach pre-school children through hands–on activities and minding the results
of those activities.
EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION
Early childhood education is the care and instruction of young children outside of the
home, over the last half century has become a downward extension of schooling. It is
now the first rung on the educational ladder. In many respects, however, this most
recent addition to the pedagogical hierarchy is quite different from its elementary and
secondary predecessors.
The Early Childhood Curriculum
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It is the most holistic and least differentiated at any level of education. It is also the most
solidly grounded in philosophy, in clearly articulated methodology, and in theory and
research. Those who contributed to the discipline of early childhood education came
from occupations and professions outside the academic domain. What they had in
common was an understanding of children. And that is what makes early childhood
education unique; it starts with the child and not with the subject matter.
Early Childhood Education Teaching Theories
The concept of educating young children within the family has been happening for
many, many years, but the evolution of early childhood education within an outside
setting has many different theories and facets. The studies conducted by Jean Piaget
along with the work he did with children, paved the way for educators to create different
styles of teaching to use within programs. Many of these theories of teaching are used
in preschools around the country. They include:
 The Montessori Method: Maria Montessori was the first woman in Italy to
receive a medical degree with areas of study in psychiatry, education and
anthropology. Her belief was that every child was born with potential and that
children should be allowed to be free to explore and play within their
environment. In the early 1900’s, Montessori visited the United States to share
her unique style of teaching. The main focus is to always be attentive to the child
and follow the child in the direction they chose to go when learning. The
Montessori Method is practiced within many preschools around the country.
 Reggio Emilia Approach: Begun in Italy after World War II in the city of Reggio
Emilia, this preschool teaching style is based on children’s symbolic language
and the context of project-oriented curriculum. With the Reggio Emilia approach,
community is a large part of the educational process and with opportunities for
educational experiences for teachers to maintain their abilities and to enhance
and dedicate themselves as educators to the development of the young child.
The environment of the educational setting is also considered to be an important
aspect of the child’s development and often considered as the “third teacher.”
Along with Piaget’s constructivist thought, the Reggio Emilia Approach, the
community as well as teachers believe the child to be interested in learning and
experimenting through inner motivation, promoting educated and productive
future adults.
 Play-Based Learning: The concept of play-based learning is exactly what it
sounds like, playing to learn. Many educators have helped pave the way to
understanding the wonders of allowing children to learn through their play. Bev
Bos, both an educator and writer, has been sharing her ideas and concepts
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through books and lectures for over 40 years. Her suggestions of teaching with a
hand’s off style encourages teachers to let children lead themselves through
problem solving and discovery with minimal intervention, and to learn through
play.
 Direct Instruction: Siegried Engelmann and Wesley Becker coined this teaching
concept in the 1960’s. The goal is for children to be directed through their
development with teachers leading activities directed toward specific learning.
Often drilling methods are used as well as rote learning. Other characteristics of
direct instruction are fast-paced learning activities, active involvement between
teachers and children, and positive reinforcement offered often and mistakes
corrected immediately.
Early childhood education is an important step in educating children and offering

stimulating opportunities for exploring and learning
THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
The philosophical foundations of Early Childhood Education were provided by John

Amos Comenius, John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Its curriculum and
methodology were created by the likes of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel,
Maria Montessori, and Rudolf Steiner. Most recently, it was scientifically grounded by
the research and theories of Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, and Erik Erikson. While there
are differences in the approaches of these progenitors of early childhood education,
they are overshadowed by one common principle: that early childhood curriculum and
practice must be adapted to the maturing needs, abilities, and interests of the child.
Contribution of the early advocates of early childhood development
The principle embodied in the Kindergarten Program was developed by Friedrich

Froebel (1782-1852) and the first early childhood program to be widely adopted in both
Europe and abroad. The kindergarten movement was propelled by the industrial
revolution and the introduction of women into the factory labor force. Later, Maria
Montessori’s (1870-1952) early childhood program was also widely adopted both in
Europe and abroad. But it was not until after World War II that early childhood education
came to be seen as an important first step on the educational ladder.
MARIA MONTESSORI
Maria Montessori was born in Italy in 1870. She was the first woman to graduate from
medical school in Italy. After her studies, she got interested in feeble minded children.
These children were unable to fit in schools or families and had no other kind of public
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support. It was through interaction with these children that she developed her
educational methods which became so successful that even children with special needs
began to pass examinations for normal children.
Maria contributed the following to ECD;
 Designed classrooms to suite children’s needs and level

 She designed children’s learning materials suitable for different ability levels.
She ensured that all the materials she gave to the children were graded and
arranged according to different levels of difficulty.
 Designed teaching procedures for children with special needs such that the
children taught her how to teach them.
 Montessori also created the ‘game of silence,’ somewhat like meditation,
where each child was able to start the day with a sense of peace and focus.
 She had tactile equipment that enhanced senses and the mind.
 Montessori felt that a teacher should never be an obstacle between the child
and the learning experience.
 She designed children sized furniture and materials used in classrooms.
 She believed that children can learn easily if sequential steps were used to
present activities.
 Montessori emphasized training of children in self help skills where each
child would learn how to take care of the self and live an independent life.
FRIEDRICH FROEBEL
Froebel was a German educator. In 1840 he created the word kindergarten which
means a garden for children. In the kindergarten, he designed educational
materials known as gifts.
Froebel contributed the following to ECD;
 He suggested that education should develop the good morals and spiritual
wellbeing of man.
 He encouraged the creation of educational environments that involved practical
work and the direct use of materials. This was to be done through allowing
children to engage with the world, which promoted understanding as it unfolds.
 He developed special materials called gifts that comprised of shaped wooden
bricks and balls.
 He emphasized the importance of play in teaching and that children should be
provided with toys.
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 He encouraged children to do manual work of the right level for children to help
them in their physical development.
 He trained the first batch of ECD teachers to handle children in his kindergarten.
This was done to emphasize that children have to be taught by trained teachers.
JOHANN PESTALOZZI (1746–1827)
He was born in 1746 in Zurich, Switzerland, Pestalozzi was the son of Johann Baptiste
Pestalozzi, a middle-class Protestant physician, and Susanna Hotz Pestalozzi.
Pestalozzi's grandfather, Andreas Pestalozzi, a minister in the rural village of Hongg,
inspired his evolving philanthropic mission to uplift the disadvantaged Swiss peasantry.
He is known as the Father of Modern Education. The modern era of education started
with him and his spirit and ideas led to the great educational reforms in Europe in the
nineteenth century.
Pestalozzi believed in the ability of every individual human being to learn and in the right
of every individual to education. He believed that it was the duty of society to put this
right into practice. His beliefs led to education becoming democratic; in Europe,
education became available for everyone.
Pestalozzi was particularly concerned about the condition of the poor. Some of them did
not go to school. If they did, the school education was often useless for their needs. He
wanted to provide them with an education which would make them independent and
able to improve their own lives.
Pestalozzi believed that education should develop the powers of ‘Head’, ‘Heart’ and
‘Hands’. He believed that this would help create individuals who are capable of knowing
what is right and what is wrong and of acting according to this knowledge. Thus the well
being of every individual could be improved and each individual could become a
responsible citizen. He believed that empowering and ennobling every individual in this
way was the only way to improve society and bring peace and security to the world. His
aim was for a complete theory of education that would lead to a practical way of
bringing happiness to humankind.
Pestalozzi saw teaching as a subject worth studying in its own right and he is therefore
known as the father of pedagogy (the method and practice of teaching, especially as an
academic subject or theoretical concept). He caused education to become a separate
branch of knowledge, alongside politics and other recognized areas of knowledge.
Contribution and influence of Pestalozzi’s approach to education

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Pestalozzi’s approach has had massive influence on education, for example, his
influence, as well as his relevance to education today, is clear in the importance now
put on:
 The interests and needs of the child

 A child-centered rather than teacher-centered approach to teaching
 Active rather than passive participation in the learning experience
 The freedom of the child based on his or her natural development balanced
with the self-discipline to function well as an individual and in society
 The child having direct experience of the world and the use of natural objects
in teaching
 The use of the senses in training pupils in observation and judgment
 Cooperation between the school and the home and between parents and
teachers
 The importance of an all-round education – an education of the head, the
heart and the hands, but which is led by the heart
 The use of systemized subjects of instruction, which are also carefully
graduated and illustrated
 Learning which is cross-curricular and includes a varied school life
 Education which puts emphasis on how things are taught as well as what is
taught
 Authority based on love, not fear
 Teacher training
Pestalozzi’s influence over the spirit, the methods and the theory of education has
continued into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries and most of his principles have
been assimilated into the modern system of education of many countries.
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JOHN DEWEY (1859 – 1952)
He was Born On October 20, 1859 in Burlington, Vermont. He was married twice and
had six children. In 1879 he graduated from the University of Vermont. After studying
philosophy independently, he entered the graduate program in philosophy at Johns
Hopkins University to receive his Ph.D. From 1884 to 1894 he had a faculty position at
the University of Michigan. In 1894 Dewey joined the University of Chicago where
emerged his Pragmatic Philosophy.
Contribution of John Dewey to Education
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer

whose thoughts have great influence in education and social reform. Dewey is best
known for his writings on education. But he also has written about many other topics,
including experience, logic, ethics, inquiry, democracy, nature, and art. John Dewey,
one of the greatest American modern thinker's, theorist and educator.
John Dewey's Philosophy of Education
Dewey defines education as the ' development of all those capacities in the individual
which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities". It is a
process that begins with the very birth of the child, and goes on throughout the whole
life. It is a process which has two sides- one psychological and the other sociological.
The main aims of education as advocated by Dewey are:-
 Social Efficiency: According to Dewey the development of social efficiency is

one of the aims of education. To him school is a social institution. The school
should be organized in such a way that the activities of the outer world are
reflected.
 Education is life: Dewey emphasizes that education is not a preparation for life,
it is life itself. The child lives in the present. The future is meaningless to him.
Hence it is absurd to expect him to do things for some future preparation.
 Education is experience: Dewey favored an education by, of and for,
experience. Every new experience is education. An old experience is replaced by
a new experience. The human race he gained experience in its struggle to meet
the needs of life. This ' struggle for existence ' is a continuous process.
 Education should combine theory & practice: The aim of education,
according to Dewey should be create a balance between theoretical and practical
activities. He has stressed equal importance to both action and thought. These
two should go hand in hand.
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Dewey on School Curriculum
• Dewey advocates that broader curricular programmes are needed and emphasis
should be placed in the total development of the person as being equally important as
the intellectual and the academic.
• The teacher is a guide and director he steers the boat, but the energy that people it
must come from those who are learning. The more a teacher is aware of the past
experience of students of their hopes, desires, chief interests the better will be.
• The teacher is engaged not simply in the training of individuals but in the formation of
the proper social life. In this way the teacher always is the prophet of the true God.
Dewey's Method of Teaching
Dewey's method of teaching is based on his pragmatic philosophy. He is of the opinion

that direct experience is the basis of all method. Knowledge takes place from concrete
and meaningful situations. Hence knowledge should come from spontaneous activities
of the children. Dewey's methods of teaching are based on the principles of learning by
doing activities in connection with the life of the child.
The project or problem method which Dewey advocated, the child's interests and
purposes are the most important things.
For his problem or project method, Dewey laid down the following five steps as
essential:
 The pupil should have a genuine situation of experiences.

 A genuine problem should arise from this situation and should stimulate the
thinking of the child.
 The child should obtain information or make observation needed to deal with the
problems.
 The suggested solution(s) should occur to him.
 He should have an opportunity to test his ideas by application.
Dewey's contribution to educational thought and practice

 Dewey's social theory of education coupled with the logic of experimental
method has been very influential in the development of modern education
practices.
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 The greatest change has been in the recognition of the worth of the expense of
the child. The child is no longer regarded as a passive subject meant for the
imposition of external information but is considered an active living being those
interests have to be stimulated by participation in socially significant experience.
 Dewey has been one of the significant leaders who have tried to introduce a
more human touch in the processes of education.
 He has been a powerful influence in interpreting the school as a commonly for
the realization of the significance of the immediate experiences and present
opportunities of the child if he is to be a contributor to the march of the social
process.
 His insistence on activities of diverse kinds in school is also another aspect of his
social theory of education.
 The pragmatic method of instrumentalist experimentation reacts against all kinds
of mysticism, transcendentalism and absolutism.
 The supreme contribution of Dewey to a philosophy of education is the theory of
scientific democratic humanism.
 Dewey is quite right in pleading for the wide use of the experimental method of
science in education.
BENEFITS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

It is important for us to focus more resources and attention towards ECD because of the
following reasons:
 Proper ECD lays a good foundation for physical, social, emotional, moral
spiritual, intellectual and aesthetic development of the child.
 Diseases that affect children before birth and up to the age of 8 years may retard
many aspects of their development in later years.
 Children in early childhood tend to be more prone to illnesses and accidents than
adults.
 We now know that a child’s environment and experiences begin in the uterus and
does not only affect brain development, but also physical and mental health,
learning, and behavior for a lifetime.
 Scientists have shown definitively that brain development is experience-based
and has long-lasting effects (Young & Mustard, 2009). These experiences are
best provided at ECD stage.
 ECD programs tap into critical and sensitive windows of opportunity and periods
of brain development.
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To be competitive in the world marketplace, now and in the future, nations must
develop, adopt, and support local, regional, and national policies that provide ECD
programs. Countries that have recognized the importance of investing in ECD to
improve the competence, health, and well-being of their populations include Cuba,
the Scandinavian countries, and several Asian countries (such as Japan, Singapore,
and South Korea). In Africa South Africa and Kenya has also invested in ECD. The
following are the benefits that have been found for different category of people:
Child
 Improved nutrition and health. ECD programs help to ensure that children receive
health care and nutrition that enhances children’s health.
 Higher intelligence. ECD programs encourage young children to explore the
environment. They also facilitate social interactions that promote children’s
mental development.
 Fewer dropouts. Children attending ECD programmes are less likely to drop out
of school than those not participating in these programs.
 Research show that attendance in ECD programs matches with increased
enrollment, children’s readiness for school and retention in primary and
secondary school, improved behavior, and better academic performance (Myers
1995).
Family
For families, ECD programs involving parents can;
 Improve parent child relationships,

 “Free up” older siblings from caregiving responsibilities to attend school,
 Enable mothers to participate in the paid workforce and increase the family’s
income.
 If girls are retained in school longer, it delays early pregnancy for young girls
 With children in school, mothers will be empowered thus improving family
situations and reduced instances of domestic violence.
Community
 Decreased gaps between the rich and poor, the privileged children and
underprivileged in society
 Children in ECD are taught to behave well and be creative as job makers. This
leads to reduced criminal behaviour while they are adults in their community
 ECD programmes empower parents to reduced morbidity and mortality among
children
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 ECD ensures fewer cases of malnutrition and stunting. Health programmes
promotes improved personal hygiene and health care in the community.
 With increased parental awareness of the importance of early childhood
development in influencing later life of a child, there will be fewer cases of child
abuse and neglect in the community
 ECD programmes free parents from some stressful parenting roles thus
improving physical and mental health of adults in the community.
Nation
 Early interventions in ECD leads to increased earnings as many more people will
be job creators
 ECD produces healthy citizens who have a longer life span for productivity that
benefits the nation.
 Funds that are usually used to cater for retraining or remedial activities will be
saved by nations that embrace comprehensive ECD programmes (Heckman
1999).
 Improving human development in the early years is the surest way out of poverty
because it has a very high economic rate of return. ECD is the first step in this
process, as reflected in the priorities that emerged from the Dakar EFA meetings
(UNESCO 2000).
 ECD is an employment sector which caters for a number of professionals
 ECD is an income generating sector that produces revenue for nations.
DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT IN UGANDA

In the traditional Ugandan society, education of the child was governed by family and
community traditions and by social structures. Each community had its own education
system to socialize children into its culture, values, and traditions. The child’s education
began at birth and continued through various stages and age groups, with a system of
education defined for every stage. Early education transmitted important aspects of
culture and values, such as sharing, social responsibility, belonging, mutual
dependence, mutual respect, continuity, obedience, respect for elders, cooperation, fear
of God, and ability to relate with other people (Dembele 1999; Kenyatta and Kariuki
1984; Kilbride and Kilbride 1990; Mwamwenda 1996).
Beginning in infancy, children were taught through lullabies, songs, and games, mainly
by their mothers, although other caregivers such as grandparents, aunts, and older
siblings assisted. Stories and legends were used to instill morals and to teach the
community’s history and traditions (Mbiti 1982). Fathers, elders, and neighbors
participated in the education and socialization of older children. Grandparents played a
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special role of teaching children sensitive topics (such as sexuality) and of passing on
morals, values, history, and traditions through stories, legends, and conversations.
In Uganda, Nursery education (ECD) was brought by the British colonialists. The
beginning of pre-primary education in Uganda can be traced back to the 1930s when it
was initiated by the Europeans Missionaries, Goans and Asians. The pre-schools were
private, established exclusively for the use of private communities.
By the 1950s, the learned Ugandans and the Goans (Indians) had learnt and copied
the new practices that the Europeans had introduced and set up their own pre-schools
to cater for their children. Among the first nursery schools was Nakasero nursery
established in 1948 and in the northern part of Uganda was St. Kizito Nursery school
established in 1978 by Bishop Cipriano Kihangire. The private individuals persisted in
their effort to provide pre-school education to the African children amidst challenges that
ranged from negative publicity by the white missionaries, poor working conditions and
lack of government support.
In 1973, the Government of Uganda became concerned and aware of the need for
quality education in pre-schools. It enacted a statute which conferred upon the National
Curriculum Development Center, mandate for designing and developing curriculum and
support materials for all levels of education including pre-school.
In 1980, the responsibility for pre-schools was shifted from the then Ministry of Culture
and Social Services to the Ministry of Education and Sports. The Ministry of Education
and Sports recognizes the ECD period as extending up to age eight. It recommends the
age of entry for pre-primary school to be three years.
In 1992, the Government White Paper on the Education Policy Review Commission
report was finalized and it observed lack of government control of the quality of
curriculum, teaching methods, facilities, age of entry, quality of teachers and the
preschool charges levied (EFA Assessment Report 2000).
The Report set out recommendations and the government has committed itself to
supporting a holistic model of Early Childhood learning as the foundation for basic
education and the right of every child. The goal is to improve existing institutions for;
day care centres for 0-1 year olds, kindergartens for 1-2 year olds, and nurseries for 3-5
year olds. A new early childhood learning national curriculum was produced for the first
time in many years. Coverage still remained very low, however (about 3 percent).
Obua-Otoa (1996) noted that the objectives of establishment of the Pre primary school
then among the colonialists were to assist the European working mothers who wanted
their children taken care of but did not want them to be left at home with the Ugandans
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and to prepare European children in basic skills that they would later use to fit in
European schools when they went back home.
The private sector continued providing ECD services with limited government support till
government declared her commitment to support ECD in the ECD policy (2008). The
ECD policy proposes that the initiation and implementation of ECD programmes in
Uganda shall remain the responsibility of the private sector. Government of Uganda
took upon itself the development and dissemination of policy guidelines, curriculum for
ECD centres and ECD teacher education. It also pledges to fund assessment and
qualification framework, advocacy, community mobilization, monitoring, evaluation and
research for quality assurance.
There are many teacher training institutions for Early Childhood Education for example;
Makerere University Child Study Centre, YMCA, YWCA, Sanyu Babies Home, DOT
(Entebbe), Montessori (Entebbe), Nile Vocational Institute (Jinja), Human Resource
Development (Hoima), ITEK, Nangabo, Madarasa and Makerere University external
degree programme in the school of education.
Other than ITEK and Makerere University, the rest are private initiatives. The number of
registered pre-primary schools is 770 with an enrolment of 63,563 children. There are
1,985 trained teachers and 387 untrained teachers in the area of Early Childhood and
Development. The training of ECD teachers is done at the Institute of Teachers
Education Kyambogo (ITEK), which provides a one year Nursery Certificate program,
with senior four certificates being the entry qualification (EFA Assessment Report 2000).
Now the MoES has change the duration of the programme to two academic years for
Certificate and Diploma too.
UGANDAN’S EDUCATION SYSTEMS
Education in Uganda was introduced by the missionaries as stated before. The

government of Uganda through the ministry of education and sports formulates broad
aims of education in order to achieve her goals and this has been debated on and
reviewed in the education review commission report (1989) and the government white
paper on education (1992).
In this commission report, pre-primary has been put as a basis of education but not
supported by the government. The government is concerned with training the teachers
for those pre-primary schools. Despite the effort of the government in training the
caregivers and teachers of nursery, there is no government aided Nursery teachers’
college. All are privately owned, the support that the government is in directing and
formulating the training frame work (by Kyambogo University, Makerere University
Centre for Child Study, National curriculum Development Centre and UNICEF).
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BROAD AIMS OF EDUCATION IN UGANDA
The government through its ministry of education and sports and different commissions
laid down the following aims to enables successful achievement of National policy on
education:
 To promote understanding and appreciation of the value of national unity,

patriotism and cultural heritage with due consideration of international relations
and beneficial inter-dependence.
 To inculcate moral, ethical and spiritual values in the individual and to develop
self-discipline, integrity, tolerance and human fellowship.
 To inculcate a sense of service, duty and leadership for participation in civic and
national affairs through group activities in educational institutions and the
community.
 To promote scientific, technical and cultural knowledge, skills and attitudes to

promote development.
 To eradicate illiteracy and to equip the individual with basic skills and knowledge
to exploit the environment for self-development as well as national development
for better health, nutrition and family life, and the capacity for continued learning
and
 To contribute to the building of an integrated, self-sustaining and independent

national economy.
OBJECTIVES OF PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION (ECD)
The objectives of ECD as outlined in the Uganda Government White Paper on

Education (1992) are:
7. To develop capabilities and healthy physical growth of the child through

play/health activities.
8. To help the child develop good social habits as an individual and as a
member of the society.
9. To develop moral values of the child
10. To enrich the child’s experiences by developing imagination, self-reliance and
thinking power
11. To help the child towards appreciating his/her national cultural background
and customs and developing a feeling of love and care for other people and
for Uganda and a sense of unity leading to a national stance.
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12. To develop language and communication skills in the mother tongue.
TYPES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME PROVISIONS IN

UGANDA
According to the ECD policy in Uganda the following are the ECD programmes
provisions:
Day care centres

These institutions will provide fully institutionalised care for half or a full day for children
bellow 3 years. They may or may not be for profit. They will provide an environment that
will not only offer care and protection but also infant stimulation based on positive adult
/child interaction
Home based ECD Centres

Home based ECD centres will operate in a home of an individual who volunteers his or
her home to be used as a centre. Such centres will provide full institutionalised care for
half day or full day. They will provide an environment that is safe and stimulating based
on positive adult /child interaction.
Community based ECD Centres

These centres will have a structure which will be permanent or temporary but safe. The
community will be involved in selecting the site for the centre and in the construction of
the centre. The centre may be in a church or mosque.
Nursery schools/ Kindergarten

These are schools providing pre-primary education to children between 3-6 years of
age. Such schools may be established and managed by an individual person, NGOs,
groups of people, community or religious body.
Lower Primary classes (P1-3)

Primary schools provide formal basic education or primary education to children of
school going age 6+ years. The official entry age to this cycle of education is 6 years as
spelt out in the government policy. Curriculum emphasis is on literacy, numeracy and
life skills as the priority.
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MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs) AND EDUCATION FOR ALL (EFA)
GOALS FOR ECD
The first of the EFA goals in the 2000 Dakar Framework for Action is “expanding and
improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most
vulnerable and disadvantaged children” (UNESCO, 2000, p. 8).
From these international commitments and declarations, Early Childhood programmes

all over the world now have to be implemented to promote an integrated approach to
Early Childhood Development.
THE EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT POLICY IN UGANDA
One of the ways of poverty eradication and reduction of inequality among people is
through the use of early childhood development programmes which put children on
equal footing prior to starting primary schooling, regardless of the different conditions in
life such as poverty, neglect and ignorance (Kisitu, 2009). This is because investment in
ECD is investment in human capital (Heckman & Masterov, 2004), which breeds overall
economic success for families, communities and the nation (Calman & Tarr-Whelan,
2005). ECD interventions offer a particularly important tool for reducing income and
social gaps between poor and non-poor populations that are becoming exceedingly
difficult to bridge (Vegas and Santibanez, 2010). Significant investment in Early
Childhood Development (ECD) yields extraordinary returns that far exceeds the returns
on most investments either private or public (Rolnick & Grunewald, 2003).
Effective implementation of efficient ECD programmes relies greatly on a

comprehensive ECD policy. The policy is meant to guide different service providers on
their roles, coordinate actors and guarantee government support for ECD. Other major
roles of an ECD policy include:
 To regulate the provision of services for infants and children

 To harmonize different sector-based ECD policies to operate in a coordinated
manner
 Provide guidance to stakeholders on their roles and responsibilities in ECD
service provision
 It is instrument for advocacy, for ensuring provision of quality services and for
harnessing resources and other support for young children.
 It is a legal instrument that all persons providing services for young children must
adhere to.
 It guides the Government in its commitment of resources to programmes for
young children.
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The Ugandan Education sector ECD policy was developed and launched in 2007. The
aim was to use the policy to address ECD provisions related challenges and ensure that
ECD pedagogical and socio psychological principles of child development are
professionally adhered to (MoES, 2007). The policy has the following specific
objectives:
1. Clarify the role of government in the provision of and support for ECD services
and indicate its commitment to the welfare of children
2. Consolidate and systematize existing programmes and activities related to ECD
for the maximum benefit of all children
3. Clarify the roles and responsibilities of different stakeholders in the provision of
children’s learning and wellbeing
4. Provide guidelines and standards for those wishing to develop quality ECD
programmes
5. Promote and strengthen the coordination mechanisms that foster partnership,
networking and linkages in the provision of ECD services
Implementation
The ECD policy in Uganda is being implemented via work plans, programmes and
guidelines that help to translate policy positions into actions. The department of Basic
Education, which is the ECD policy coordinating department, has worked with different
stakeholders to develop a number of work plans that it uses to implement the policy.
The ECD policy is also being implemented through direct support to encourage
communities to establish, manage and sustain ECD centres. The MoES is doing this in
partnership with UNICEF covering post conflict areas of north and western Uganda in
the Rwenzori area. The ministry has also encouraged different international and local
NGOs to directly support local ECD initiatives like ECD centre establishment and
parenting education like ones being done by Plan Uganda, Child Fund, Save the
Children and others.
The third approach is through use of different policy guidelines that are tailored towards
specific ECD programmes to help stakeholders implement what is expected of them.
Some of the policy guidelines developed include: Training manuals for ECD centre
establishment, Centre management committees, Basic Requirements and Minimum
Standards (BRMS), ECD caregiver training framework, and inspectors’ manual.
Impact of the ECD policy on ECD service provision in terms of access and quality
Access
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In terms of access, the ECD policy has achieved the following:
Increased number of ECD centres: According to the EMIS data of 2012, the number of
pre-primary schools has increased from 703 in 2007 to 7,368 in 2011 (MoES, 2012).
This increase means that more children of parents who can afford the fees charged
ought to be accessing these schools than before as they are in both urban and rural
areas. The number of day care centres has also increased since the launch of the
policy. Some of these centres have also sprung up in rural areas that were not possible
some time back. It should however, be noted that while the establishment of the centres
is welcome, some of them are starting to go overboard and introduce undesired practice
like establishment of boarding nursery schools.
The Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) for pre-school in Uganda in 2007 was 2.5 percent and
by 2011 it stood at 23 percent. Currently in urban areas, the NER is 53 percent,
compared to 20 percent in the rural area. The NER for females is 24 percent versus 23
percent for males (UBOS, 2012). Kampala City area leads with NER of 62 percent,
while West Nile and the northern region have the lowest NER of 5 and 6 percent
respectively (UBOS, 2012). The overall Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), that is the total
number of pre-school children expressed as a percentage of the official pre-school age
population (3-5) is 41. The highest GER is in urban areas with Kampala toping at 82
percent, while Karamoja has 7 percent (UBOS, 2012).
Acceptability of children with special needs: Due to the increase in the number of
trained caregivers in many centres, different ECD centres are now more open to
children with special needs. Such children are allowed to be in class with other children,
but also left to be on their own when they feel like because the caregivers understand
the children’s needs.
Catering for children with special needs: Introduction of the ECD policy has created
conducive environments in ECD centres that has been able to welcome children with
special needs. Such children who had been left out of school are now being encouraged
to attend school. In the schools, children with special needs are now able to benefit from
some form of care to promote their development. The care programmes also make the
special needs children feel part of their community.
Quality
In terms of quality, the ECD policy has had the following impact:
Increase in the number of quality ECD training institutions: The number of such ECD
caregiver training institutions is increasing by the day. For example in 2007, there were
only 53 training institutions. Currently according to MoES ECD training validation
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exercise conducted in 2011, the number of institutions has increased to 96 with more
institutions being established by the day (MoES, 2011). Although MoES has not yet
registered ECD caregiver training institutions, a number of them have been visited for
assessment and are in the process of being registered so as to recognize caregivers
from such institutions as being of quality. The institutions are mandated to use the
caregiver training framework developed for that purpose, and have a unified regional
assessment to maintain standards that took effect in 2012. This increase in the number
of training institutions has also influenced the number of quality caregivers who have
been trained to rise slowly but is in the right direction. For example, in 2007, there
number of trained caregivers was not known. But by 2012, according to the 2012 EMIS
data, 8,479 caregivers had been trained. This number however, can be an
underestimation since there is no proper record of caregivers being trained from
upcoming training institutions that are not recognized by MoES. The increase in the
number of trained caregivers also now make it possible for ECD centres being
established to have at least one or two qualified caregiver in it to provide some form of
quality.
Learning framework for ECD: Introduction of the learning framework for ECD, a kind of
curriculum used to support children in ECD of birth to 3 years, and another one for
children of 3-6years has brought some form of uniformity in the content children are
supposed to cover. Previously, ECD centres were operating with no trained caregiver,
while some used exercise books of children in other urban nursery schools as a
syllabus in their own schools. The framework is however, not being implemented in all
centres, although it is there for a start.
Interactive ECD classrooms: The design of classroom or learning spaces is changing

greatly from fixed rows to more interactive group sitting arrangement that encourage
communication among children and team work. More learning spaces or corners are
also being developed instead of the overly academic environments that they used to be.
The outdoor play areas have also been improved. More creativity is seen now in the use
of local environments in providing children’s play materials.
Diversity of ECD related services: Implementation of the ECD policy paved way for
different stakeholders to initiate different ECD related services. These services range
from Day care centres, Home or community based ECD centres, nursery/kindergartens
and lower primary schools. All of these services are privately established since there is
no government ECD centre in Uganda. Thus more services are more common in urban
areas where parents can afford the fees charged. Rural areas have fewer ECD centres,
with those available being of lower quality. The impact of this is that it is only children of
those parents who can afford fees charged can access ECD services, while children
from poor parents who need ECD services most are left out.
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General achievements of the ECD policy in Uganda
ECD policy since its launch in 2007 has had a number of achievements. Some of them
include:
a) Recognition of Pre-primary: The implementation of the ECD policy paved way for
recognition of pre-primary as the first level of education in Uganda in the
Education Act (2008). According to MoES (2008), the structure of education in
Uganda is now clearly spelt out in the Education Act, Section 10 (1) which
specifies that “there shall be four levels of education as follows: a) pre-primary
education;…..” Previously, this was not the case, as pre-primary was considered
under social welfare with little attention given to it.
b) Increased funding by government: The policy made it possible for ECD related
activities to be directly funded by government in 2011. Previously, Ministry of
Finance was not allocating any money for ECD activities directly, but done under
primary education. As of 2012, more activities are being planned for to be funded
to promote ECD related activities.
c) Stimulate need for a comprehensive ECD policy: The ECD policy has been able
to stimulate further thinking within the five sectors that work together to promote
ECD in Uganda. The current ECD policy being more tilted towards education has
now helped to start the process of a comprehensive ECD policy framework under
the guidance of the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development.
d) Improved coordination of ECD activities at national level: An ECD working group

has been established in the MoES, with the aim of coordinating different ECD
related activities across different departments, line ministries and NGOs. This
body is trying to filter and coordinate ECD activities to bring all member
departments on board, control duplication and work together as a strong team to
advocate for ECD.
e) Increased awareness on the importance of ECD: The process of disseminating

the ECD policy has made it possible to create more awareness in different
stakeholders on the importance if ECD to children, families and nation. ECD now
is more widely accepted in both rural and urban areas as an important stage that
children should not miss before they go to primary school.
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f) Increased investment in ECD activities: More NGOs are now coming up to invest
and support communities in establishment and management of ECD centres as a
result of the policy clarifying their roles in ECD. Different faiths, private persons
and institutions are now more active in ECD centre establishment, development
of instructional materials, training of caregivers and introduction of parenting
programmes.
g) Increased stakeholder participation: Many stakeholders in the provision of ECD

services have come on board and are now more willing to support different ECD
related activities. This is because the policy has made most of them more aware
of their roles and has been encouraged to play their part in ECD service
provision.
h) Uniformity in ECD provisions: Some kind of uniformity has now been established
in the way some ECD activities are being done. For example, through use of the
ECD learning framework, children are now prepared using the same curriculum.
Also, use of the caregiver training framework has brought uniformity to caregiver
training in different training institutions throughout the country backed by unified
regional caregiver assessment that is currently going on through their umbrella
organization of ECDTIA.
i) Inspection and monitoring of ECD institutions: Although there is less funds

allocated if any for ECD inspection, the coming into effect of the policy has raised
the awareness of district officials and the inspectorate on the urgent need to
inspect ECD institutions. Once in a while, it is now possible for an inspector to
inspect ECD centres as well when they go to inspect primary schools, especially
those centres that are within the vicinity of the primary school. The inspection
now makes centre proprietors to put in place the basic requirements needed for
quality ECD provision.
j) Attaching ECD centres to primary schools: Many ECD centres are now coming
up as wings in established primary schools. The centres act as a feeding nursery
for individual primary schools, thus reducing underage children in primary one
classes.
Challenges met in implementing the ECD Policy in Uganda
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National Level Challenges
 Poor data collection: Participating ECD institutions at district level and ECD
centres at the sub-county level are still detached from the mainstream education
services. Since most of them think they are ‘private’, little effort is made to keep
up to date ECD related records that can be sent to the national level. Without this
in place, we shall continue to have less accurate data on ECD in the country.
 Lack of competent personnel: ECD both at national and local levels suffer from
gross lack of competent personnel to manage different ECD programmes. Tutors
with ECD related training who can competently mentor caregivers in the colleges
are few, highly trained caregivers who can manage centres efficiently are few
and ECD trained district inspectors of schools are almost not available to
supervised ECD activities.
 Lack of adequate funding: Implementation of the ECD policy needs adequate

funding for different ECD activities. This funding is not easily available right from
the national to district level. Most ministry activities related to ECD have been
done with funding support from UNICEF. Government contribution towards this
area is still limited in terms of funding due to the numerous challenges it has in
other sectors as well.
 Lack of adequate structures for ECD service provision in the public sector makes
its implementation difficult. If a service is to be provided, it has to be implemented
through a stakeholder who is supervised by somebody from another sector who
may not have ECD as a priority.
 Role conflict: Role conflict in the implementation of the policy by different

stakeholders makes using the policy a challenge. For example, the roles of
Kyambogo University and other universities is similar to those of TIET in MoES.
Therefore, when it comes to implementation of different aspects, there is
confusion on who is to take lead and who has the mandate to enforce
implementation. This therefore makes some activities to remain unattended to,
yet they are critical for promotion of other sectors in ECD.
District Level Challenges
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a) Nature of Dissemination: whereas the ECD policy has been disseminated up to
district level, no attempts have been made by some districts to disseminate it
beyond the district level. Some sub-counties have never seen the policy due to
lack of dissemination funding.
b) Lack of adequate qualified ECD personnel: ECD is a relatively new area at the
district level. This means that there are a few people at the district that have
adequate qualification in it. This could partly explain why some districts have not
yet nominated ECD focal point persons. Therefore, any ECD related activities
that need expertise input from personnel at the district will rarely be implemented.
For example, use of the learning framework for ECD is supposed to be overseen
by ECD focal point persons at the district. Absence of such persons makes ECD
centres in such districts to operate without use of the learning framework
although they may be having it.
c) Nature of office of ECD focal point officer: there is no office establishment for the
ECD focal point officer at the district level. Any ECD related work is an added
responsibility to an Education Officer or Inspector of Schools. Such an officer
must first complete his/her tasks as prescribed by his/her appointment before
attempting to do the added responsibilities. If such a person is overwhelmed by
the rightful activities, then ECD related activities have to be shelved for some
time.
d) The nature of ECD service provision is that it is a for profit venture in many parts
of the country. The implication is that most rural communities that have limited
income have fewer ECD programmes due to issues of sustainability. Therefore,
the majority of poor children who need ECD services most are not accessing it.
e) Language barrier: Whereas the ECD policy is in English, most ECD stakeholders
in rural areas are not comfortable communicating in English. No attempt has
been made to translate the policy into local languages that the stakeholders
understand for effective implementation, since a policy is not supposed to be
translated. Those who receive the policy simply shelve it since it is in a language
they do not know. Effort should now be put on translating the guidelines for easy
understanding and use at the county level.
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f) Lack of enforcement mechanisms: At the village level, different stakeholders are
supposed to play their roles so as to fit together as pieces of a puzzle. If one
stakeholder does not act in time, then the whole process comes to a standstill.
For example parents must send children to the centre so that caregivers can
support them, and management will be able to support the caregivers. Currently,
there is no enforcement mechanism in place to ensure that all parties perform
their roles as expected in time to allow others operate.
g) Transfer of district personnel: Getting competent ECD staff to ensure

implementation of different ECD policies is a challenge. It is however, more
challenging for districts to keep the ECD staff they have worked hard to train
within the district. As staff keeps moving from one district to another, the line of
work they were meant to follow is broken and never taken up for some time.
h) Inadequate support supervision: Implementation of every programme requires

adequate support supervision. At the local level, DES and other supervising
institutions is not yet seen on the ground offering the support they are supposed
to give in order to ensure efficient policy implementation.
i) Attitude towards ECD: Although most people you find will generally be positive
about supporting ECD related activities, because it is the ‘most important’ stage
in a child’s development, on ground, the same persons will be the ones who will
shelve ECD activities aside for other “more important” things. This point to a
continued lack of supportive attitude to practical implementation of ECD activities
and policies. Many officials would only be attracted to implement ECD activities if
they have a feeling that there will be some allowance for them.
Areas in the ECD Policy that need Improvement
The ECD policy has contributed much to the development of ECD in Uganda. However,
in order to make it better, there is need to pay more attention in the following areas:
a) ECD or pre-primary education for this matter in Uganda is optional. The ECD
policy falls short of declaring pre-primary education as a must for all children to
ensure a firm foundation for all children before they enter primary one. The
implication of this is that some children have to stay at home and wait to join
primary on a weak foundation. If the government strongly believes that ECD is
the most important stage in the life of children that must be harnessed, then it
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must take overall responsibility over its provision and make it compulsory as in
the case of many developed countries.
b) The ECD policy in its design is expected to work and thrive based on the good
will of different stakeholders. Therefore, no appropriate enforcement mechanism
or sanctions have been identified to be applied in policy or its guidelines to
stakeholders, individuals or institutions that flout the guidelines. This means that
even if a good guideline is put in place, there is no mechanism to enforce use of
such guidelines. What you find therefore is the guideline in the shelves while the
stakeholders continue doing “what they feel is right.”
c) The ECD policy has not been able to identify funding targets, or sources of
funding for ECD related activities either at national or local level. This gap makes
ECD, a sector that is crucial for human and national a non-funded priority.
d) Most ECD related activities are supposed to be provided by local private service
providers in a decentralized system. For any input or expenditure from local
governments to be channeled to ECD related activities requires guidelines to be
provided for them through the local government structures. The local government
Act at present has no mention of ECD services to operationalize the ECD policy
at the district level. Unless the local government Act is reformed to include ECD
services in its structures, ECD will remain a family or NGO affair.
e) While the policy has identified some roles of stakeholders in ECD, no particular
mechanism of coordination of willing stakeholders to do their part has been put in
place. The implication of this is that at the local level many NGOs and private
individuals keep duplicating each other’s roles and function in an uncoordinated
way within the same area. It is therefore not uncommon to find two NGOs
running different parenting programmes in the same village to the same parents
but each organization operating independently.
f) Different ECD activities at the district level need to be coordinated. The education
office under education, the CDO under local government, and welfare office
under gender need some kind of coordination. At present, the ECD focal point
person at the district is begin to look like the coordinator, but there is not
coordination structure that can be followed and respected by all. Also the post of
ECD focal point person at the district is not an established post but an added
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responsibility to a District Inspector of Schools (DIS). This DIS must first
complete the assigned duties as established by his/her post before starting the
ECD assignment.
g) While the ECD policy identified ECD as provisions for children and their care
givers, it is only school service for children that have been identified for action.
Others like children’s parks, children’s homes, parenting and caregiver training is
not clearly defined. This needs to be done to guide NGOs that may need to have
intervention in such areas.
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UNIT SIX
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
Introduction
Comparative Education provides an overall view of education. In our daily life,

comparison is part and parcel of man’s life so the same is true for Comparative
Educative. Comparative Education studies the educational behavior and its causal
effects. It studies the factors which lead to certain educational behaviors in an attempt
to help in the improvement of educational systems. It attempts to make predictions of
what is most likely to happen under given circumstances as far as the education
process is concerned.
Comparative Education focuses on various components of an education system and

other inter-relatedness such as broad outlines, patterns, characteristics, direction and
aim of education in a country.
Education systems are dynamic. Comparative Education covers a wide range of topics
which introduce the students to its scope, definition, aims, values, methodology, issues
and factors affecting education systems. Today, Comparative Education operates within
a wide world. Consequently, education in Uganda is influenced by other education
systems within the international community. It enables students to draw valid
comparisons of other systems with their own education system.
To understand its operation better we can relate the various components of an

education system to the parts of a body. Each part of the body has a particular function
and in the operation of the body, all the different parts perform their various functions in
an inter-related way. However, due to human curiosity one can borrow or copy
appropriate ideas or practices selectively elsewhere which can lead to transformation of
human body so through comparison of what is good or bad one makes valid
generalizations. More so, comparative education can be described as some kind of
curiosity about other people’s educational practices with the intention of borrowing
appropriate ideas from the school systems which will lead to the transformation of
human society.
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In other words comparative education evaluates the advantages and disadvantages of
educational systems, with the purpose of solving common educational problems and
making valid generalization about them.
The aim of this course is to enable the students interpret education issues, evaluate the
systems and play an active role in planning and reforming the education system of their
own countries. However the course is part of the Foundations of Education courses like:
History of Education, sociology of Education, education Administration and Philosophy
of Education.
Comparative Education provides an overall view of Education. If provides knowledge of

an Education in which learning and teaching events are formally planned, organized,
organized, administered and supported.
Comparative Education therefore introduces the student to all the components of a

country’s education system, their various purposes and tasks, the way in which they
function and cooperate and the principles of such cooperation.
Definitions
Different scholars have given different definitions of comparative Education as follows:
 According to Sadler, comparative education tries to find out what is intangible

force which accounts for a successful system of Education, and accounts for its
efficiency.
 Kandel states that comparative Education seeks to analyze and compare the
forces that make for differences between nations system of education that it
deals with fundamental principles of education.
 Hansalso defined comparative educative as a process of discovering the
underlined principles which govern the development of all the national system of
education.
 On the other hand King defined Comparative Education as the comparative study
of one of the most complex forms of human behavior i.e. the educative process.
He adds that Comparative Education is a careful analysis of education systems,
Issues, and problems in two or more countries in order to analyze in the context
of historical social, economic, political, cultural, religious and other influential
factors.
 Mallinson also considers comparative education systematic examination of other
cultures and systems of educations in order to discover similarities and
differences and variant solutions which have been attempted and with what
results to problems that are often common to all nations.
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Education on the other hand is a process whereby some human beings direct and guide
the growth and the development of other human beings through skills, values and
attitudes for their personal and social benefits.
All these definitions therefore, emphasize the understanding of understanding of

comparing different education systems in the context of applying the knowledge to one’s
own system of education. These allow the students to draw valid comparisons between
education systems.
Aims of comparative education
Comparative Education deals with what is to be studied in education systems. It is

widely accepted in education in order to come up with solutions towards education
problems. The following aims of Comparative education are widely accepted:
 It leads to greater understanding of the process the education system.

 It promotes interest in and gives information about particular national systems of
education and explains why there are there.
 It facilitates the practical forms and plans the development of school systems.
 It promotes desirable international attitude among those who studied it.
 It is of value to those responsible for practical reform of the education i.e. policy
makers and planners.
Justification for the study of comparative education
 It makes you get knowledge of education of foreign countries i.e. the act of
comparing education systems.
 Identifying the strong and the week points or advantages and disadvantages of
different education systems, this encourages you to improve on your countries
education system.
 Educational theorists and experts of the different nations to work together in
comparing education systems that can lead them towards common
understanding of various education systems.
 Through comparative education one develops special interest in education and
questions its development in order to strengthen all the areas.
 It prevents over dependence on foreign education theories and practices in the
education system of your country.
 To help one to analyze and see not only the peculiarities of a country’s education
system, but also the facts which produce it i.e. people’s mentality, culture,
geographical conditions, social structure, economy and religious practices.
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 Helps to get the ability to think beyond the boundaries of your own country and to
study the achievements of other people through the study of their education
system.
 Helps to promote a cultural sensitivity and concern with the operation of
education in different cultures and societies.
 Through Comparative Education, any existing interest in educational problems
can be dealt with much more thoroughly by making use of national and
international aspects and restricting oneself to the educational ideas of one’s own
country.
 Comparing is a powerful means of seeing which educational problems, ideas and
tendencies are of a national and international character.
Therefore, Comparative Education should have its place in the curriculum of education
and the training of the teachers who are responsible for educating and raising young
generations in response for national and international systems of education.
Purpose of learning comparative education
The main purpose of the course is to introduce the student-teacher to the study of
comparative education so that at the end of the course he/she will be able to analyze
the following:
- A cultural sensitivity and concerned with the operation of the education

- Ability towards the theory and practices in the study of educational issues.
- The ability to increase and strengthen the understanding of education in your
country and provide possible solutions to the educational problems.
- An understanding of the common basic problem of the subject and attempts to
make different countries and international organizations to give and construct
ideas
- Ability to think beyond the boundaries of your country and develop the spirit of
world peaceful co-existence.
- Help to keep the best out of all because, each country should also aim at
independent, productive solutions of educational problems of their own countries.
- Hold educational theorists and experts of different countries work together
towards mutual understanding, respecting foreign characteristics and
strengthening the desire for world peace
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
Comparative education is dynamic discipline. The methods used in this study varied
and have kept on being refined right from the beginning of the study in the 19 century.
The approaches/methodology changed from a purely historical descriptive approach to
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interpretive, analytic and predictive approaches. The methodology used in the study of
comparative education are descriptive historical, cross cultural studies, case study,
sociological problem and quantitative.
 Descriptive approach
This approach involves a description of education systems, issues and education

problems. This description is based on systematic observation. This way, collecting and
classifying data was the way in which earlier comparative educationalists came up with
information about foreign education systems. Through descriptive studies the qualities
of foreign education have been evaluated and this has acted as a means of evaluating
one’s own education system. Through gathering valid and reliable data concerning
various education systems, descriptive approach provides a basis for comparison of
education systems. Therefore using this approach one needs to be conscious of the
need to collect data.
 Historical approach
This approach concerns the historical explanation and investigations of cultural

traditions, policies and education traditions. It aims at studying origins of education
policy and traditions which should enable one to discover the underlying principles that
control all national systems of education. This was done only using historical approach
of the education system. One advantage of historical approach is that it is analytical. It
seeks to analyze causes and reasons underlying the nation’s character of the nations
e.g. geographical, cultural and foreign influence are all seen as important influences on
the development of education historically.
In using this approach, the following should be taken into consideration:
 Have facts before making judgment or drawing conclusion

 Carefully examine caused factors in order to understand why
 The reasons for particular kind of national background to education policies as
they are
 Have prior knowledge about the conduct of education in our countries. This will
help to find out why events occurred when they did and why certain
characteristics occurred in the places they did.
 Case- study approach
This approach gives the in-depth knowledge of a situation. One country is chosen and
studied into details to give the information needed. It provides guidelines to policy
makers. It explains short comings and ways of handling various issues and aspects in
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education. It can provide background of various policies and systems in an education
system of a nation.It also gives holistic view of the situation. It might be a study of a
level of education, a socio-economic, political problem in a given country, or an
examination of specific issues in education such as the girl child education. Such
studies are chosen as a result of interest of a person dealing with an issue or on the
basis of concern. It is usually assumed that somebody carrying out such study has a
thorough knowledge of the education system of that country and its social background.
The importance of case studies is:
 To throw light on many similar situations that exist in society,

 To provide guidelines and background of various policies and systems in
education, to policy makers.
 To give a holistic view of the situation that can be used to improve educational
practices.
 Sociological approach
This approach is more of a social science approach which focuses on the dynamics of
an education system and its relationships with other aspects of society. The emphasis is
more placed on the possibilities of prediction for example it can involve an analysis of
the extent to which things outside the school may influence things inside the school or
how teaching staff or classes of students relate themselves to the system
Sociologists working within such tradition have contributed significantly to the

understanding of the way or reality and structure in the setting of schools. This method
involves identifying, collecting data and information from the foreign system of
education. This information and data are then analyzed taking into accounts social and
economic factors.
This approach creates awareness in researchers on educational issues. The

sociological approach therefore aims at establishing the dynamics of education systems
and their relationship with the aspect of the society.
This approach is important because:
 It creates awareness that educational innovation could have under the social
implications i.e. while analyzing social issues.
 It establishes the dynamics of an education system and its relationship with other
aspects of society.
 Problem approach
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This is yet another approach in the field of comparative education which has gained
importance over the last two decades or periods, through this approach the field of
education has enriched ideas of theorists and practitioners all over the world are
beginning to try out the problem approach.
Therefore the problem approach is an attempt to apply scientific methods of the study of
education system with its aims at formulation of theories that can be applied to
education issues in all societies and it can be useful instrument to the planners and
policy makers
 Quantitative approach
According to education research, this approach considers process and product. It

should also be looked at in context valuable i.e. Education and development. It should
show how variable can be measured. They have looked at quantitative research as
being over descriptive lacking neutrality offigures to give result to the conditions.
However, the critics of the quantitative approach have also pointed out that the research
cannot possibly take into account all variables some which are in any case measurable.
 Cross-cultural approach
Cross-cultural studies refer to similar studies made across many cultures and many
countries. Such studies do not give general description of national systems; instead
they pick out a stage of education for example primary, secondary, vocational, higher
education, teacher education and examine aspects of it in a number of countries. it can
also consider socio-economic problems which arise because of social class differences
exist such as the rich, middle or inferior either socially or economically.
Many studies have been carried out which interpret a fairly wide range of aspect of
education systems in various countries e.g. questionnaires are drawn in order to collect
comparative education data from national education authorities.
Critics of this study have argued that for cross cultural studies to be meaningful, the one
writing should have thorough familiarity with education system of that cultural area,
especially the knowledge of language and the culture of the area. In cross-cultural
approach education issues are not compared and treated as unique to particular nation
but to establish generalizations from studying relationships across culturally.
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Therefore cross cultural studies are of importance to policy maker who need them to
measure the base of their decisions. A country reforming its education system can
obtain guidelines from these studies
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE EDUCATION SYSTEMS
Each Education system is unique because of certain factors which influence its growth
and development. Usually these factors act in combination but their emphasis varies.
This variation in emphasis gives each education system its character and makes each
education system behave differently
A scholar called Nicholas Hans says there are many factors that influence education
systems throughout the world. He came up with a view that factors that influence
education system are mainly lacking internal unity. He says that because nations all
over the world are characterized by diversity in geography, language, political ideology,
religion and ethnicity without uniformity such situations lead to competition to the extent
that these things seek expression in the education system in theory and practice. For
instance the emphasize is that an ideal nation should have the following;
 Uniform geography
 One religion
 Uniform economy
 One race/ethnic group
 One political ideology
 One language etc.
The following are the factors which influence an education system;
Economic factors
The economy of the country is also related to the geography of the country. A country
with abundance of resources is able to provide its people with the education that they
need, the education with quality. On the other hand, poor countries are characterized by
inadequately equipped education systems. The quality of education is affected by
poverty. For instance, few school-going-age children have little access to education,
dropout rate is high, instructional materials are inadequate, teachers are under paid,
poor management, of schools due to inadequate funding etc.
Hence poverty has given way to some educational policies that undermine the existing
structures in an education system. The economic condition of a country leads to the
creation of social classes in the society and social classes on the other hand, create
inequality in education opportunities. The quality of education and its distribution are
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affected. In other words, the type of a country’s economy will equally affect the
distribution of education.
Race and Ethnicity
Race refers to the different sub-division of human beings with certain physical
characteristics e.g. skin colors, type of hair, color of the eyes, and type of nose etc. on
the hand ethnicity in our terms simply means tribe.
A country with diverse races and ethnic groups has a problem of equal distribution of
education. Language differences in race and ethnicity sometimes leads to linguistic
diverse. At policy level, the question related to what language to be used in an
education system has been resisted in many education systems. Language is an
important tool in the teaching and learning process it is used to communicate to the
learners and teachers.
Religious factor
The influences of religion in an education system manifest themselves in the content of

education and distribution of education institution. In fact, all religions always want
values to be incorporated in school curriculum.
Due to high level of competition, schools are found in one area and not in the other. For
instance there are many growing Religious Universities in Uganda in their areas of
location. Those religion institutions sometimes clash with government because they
want to have full control over the education system. This factor developed from the time
of the missionaries’ coming to Africa. Because of this factor, it is very hard to have
straight forward education system.
Ideology/ Political factor
The influence of ideology really means the influence of politics. Politics is so powerful in
every day to day life. Ideas like democracy; socialism, humanism etc. are political.
Politically, in the implementation of policies, following any of these ideologies will be
reflected in its decision making in education. In other words all educational decisions
are political decisions. For example if the government is democratic and things are done
in democratic way, even the education system will be democratic. Again, if a country is
stable, even its education system will be stable and there will be peace everywhere at
schools and at homes.
Natural factor
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In natural factor the following are responsible to influence education system: The
geography of the country greatly influences the policy, decisions on a number of issues
e.g. Age of children to go to school, type of physical infrastructure put in place, in
schools, the weather (rainy and dry seasons), the distance from and to schools etc.
The resources of a country can also be under natural factor. A country with abundant
resources gives the best to its citizens through education system.
BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN EAST AFRICA
Introduction
It is clear that the cause of African history was changed by the colonial era. Since 1884
when Africa was partitioned among the European powers, they had great influence in
the African continent. In East Africa, Uganda and Kenya were under British Colonial
authority while Tanzania was under German rule for a period of time which has left
great impact on these nations. The best analysis of the problems of Education in this
present time is in what the three countries experienced during the colonial period i.e.
what they experienced before and what happened during the colonial time and how the
period affected the tradition and the present in the context of the problems of education
in East Africa.
Overview of the problems of Education in East Africa
It’s reasonable to say that the Europeans gains carried in African colonies through war
and other forms of domination, African history was changed by the colonial era. Since
1884 when African was partitioned among the European powers, foreign influences
shaped the continent. Artificial boundaries, foreign governance and different religions
were introduced, new educational structures were introduced and economic
assumptions were imposed. Africa was thrown into complete confusion.
Africans experienced forceful taxation and starvation through destruction of crops. They
did not question their rights to exploit the labor and resources of Africa for their own
benefit. Africans became less than human. Their individual experiences, the problems,
attitudes and motives ignored.
Deculturation happened in a systematic effort to destroy important aspects of the

indigenous culture, arts, dances, religions, history, education, geography etc. and
replaces them with those of Europe. Africa had no choice but accommodate the
dominant culture. The colonized could not plan for their future, especially for their
education system. For example in Tanzania Arab culture was adopted were women
lacked formal education and were unskilled except in traditional work of keeping homes.
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The influence of the foreigners overwhelmed the traditional past. The insecurity due to
the loss of their tradition led them to embrace the new ways of doing things.
The insecurity caused by lack of control over one’s future was probably more severe for
women in position of political leadership and public health than any situation. Labor
migration by men took place with the case of economy leaving women in villages in
radical increase in work load. Eventually, they were forced to migrate to unknown areas
as such it was a necessity that the traditional life style could not be provided.
Impact of Colonial Education in East Africa
One of the major problems facing developing countries is the western style of doing
things which has shaped and influenced their educational systems and thinking about
issues such as economic growth, development and the best use of modern Technology.
The thinking is that what could work in Britain could be transferred to Africa especially
the education system, the curriculum, books, the style of teaching etc. because the
Europeans condemned indigenous cultures and language as “rude” and “barbarous”
lacking in technical capacity to teach.
The immediate and important effects of colonial involvement in many countries were to
destroy the existing indigenous education system which were linked with cultural norms
and had technical and vocational skills.
Formal education was introduced in East Africa for preparing the young to become fully
themselves, which can now be found throughout the world. i.e. the transfer of
knowledge through curriculum and textbooks reinforced by examinations. It is a
privilege which came with a price. The history and identity of the colonized were taken
away which they received through their formal education.
Colonial education was the main institution in the service of deculturation process in
East Africa. East Africans learned a European curriculum and language sealed the
division. There were two worlds, two life styles, two education systems, two opposing
politics, two skins and two languages were created. To change from one language to
another is to change life itself which is acculturation. Acculturation is the alienation from
the self. It is also called assimilation which means total and unconditional adoption of
the new cultural mode including habits, food, clothing, and intonation/accent etc. as we
experience today from young people.
The social environmental factors outside the life style and many new ideas were created
by the social environment for the colonized. These actions in turn produced new
conditions and new tension for instance hard work, growing of cash crops, western
education for children etc.
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Problems of Education in East Africa
As East Africans were colonized, people’s psychological environment was restructured

towards acculturation which has continued to the neo-colonial era because it was not
possible for them to return to the period before independence. Hence the psychological
outlook, many of the structures, the colonizers, the colonized and the relationships have
largely continued into the new colonial era. The aims of education at all levels have
persisted with little modification. Although the East African countries have Africanized
their curriculum, formal education is based on a western model and English language
has persisted with no change.
Problems of education in East Africa are shared frequently and voiced together in the:
 Irrelevance of education in East African context which has rendered the learners
incapable of standing on their own feet
 Poverty – inadequate textbook supplies, underpaid staff, lack of school fees, lack
of infrastructure, ill-resourced institutions etc.
 Social stratification-the societies are divided, tribalism, nepotism, corruption,
witchcraft
 Visible political instabilities-civil wars, leaders over stay in power, inequality
between the rich and the poor
 Inaccessibility of schools
 Lack of skills development to equip the learners to be able to take care of
themselves.
 Dependence on foreign aid– heavy debts, exploitation of resources, brain
drainage etc.
Therefore, colonialism is responsible for the current problems of education in East

Africa. The irrelevance of education which is voiced everywhere in the region is the
testimony for these problem.
There are some efforts made to reform the education system by the East African
countries. These persistent efforts to reform their education system are evidence of
attempt to respond to people’s needs, to receive relevant/useful and productive
education in their context.
A CASE STUDY: UGANDA
Persistent issues in the Education System of Uganda
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The quality of education in Uganda has for a long time been seriously affected by many
problems, some of which are intrinsic while others are extrinsic. The extrinsic problems
are those which are outside the education system but have direct bearing on the
running of education affairs smoothly. The intrinsic problems have direct and immediate
relationship with the day to day functioning of the education system.
Intrinsic problems
Teachers
It is a fact that the learner is the most significant person in the education system but the
position of the teacher cannot be under estimated because the teacher facilitates,
directs and guides the learning process. Yet teachers are poorly remunerated and live
in substandard houses, some do not have enough qualifications.
Lack of government recruitment of teachers, political influence, poor management of

school funds, lack of jobs security, lack of motivation, high demands of living, diseases,
competition for jobs, nepotism and discrimination
Consequently, their talents and needs are affected, which has led to ill-prepared
teachers who are not able to cope up with the task of teaching. This has also led
teachers to search for better employment opportunities in other sectors.
Learners
To the learners, the situation has led to poor performance, competition of classes, high
drop–out rate, and low interest in schooling, anxiety and tension and sometimes hatred
of the education by both learners and parents. This has direct effect on the quality of
teachers in the education system.
Instruction materials
Schools to teach well and effectively a teacher needs to have the necessary
instructional materials like text books, visual, audio and audio-visual, manila cards, hand
markers, chalk, suitable chalkboards, chemicals and equipment especially for practical
subjects. Lack of these materials affect the delivery of lessons and this has caused
problems of retention in the education system and even hatred for practical subjects.
Curriculum
From 1962, Uganda became independent and little has changed from the curriculum.
And yet the curriculum is very instrumental in determining the quality of education one
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gets. In Uganda where the drop out is high, persistence is low and retention is difficult
the curriculum should be as practical as possible. It should aim at equipping learners
with enough knowledge and practical skill to make them self-reliant. To facilitate this,
the curriculum should be reviewed from time to time to respond to the needs of the
people.
Management
It has been said that school management is weak in education system of Uganda. Most
head teachers have not undergone management training skills. This has led to
mismanagement of issues and poor implementation of educational tasks and programs
and these affect learners.
Facilities
One learns or teaches well in a motivating atmosphere. For an education system to

function properly, it needs the facilities like classrooms, laboratories, office, storage
facilities, playing grounds, staff accommodation and many others. Most of our learning
institutions have inadequate facilities. Due to enlargement of enrolment sometimes
learners are not provided with school facilities such as desks and even the classrooms,
this demotivates learning.
Supervision and Inspection
Quality controllers of education are found in the inspectorate division of the ministry of
education and sports. Inspectors of schools are specialists who are expected to monitor
and assist the teachers of their subjects. Unfortunately, the inspectorate division cannot
carry out its work effectively because of manpower, logistics such as transport,
materials and at times inspectorate capacity to, and make useful follow up. There
seems to be lack of clarity regarding their roles and lack of collaboration among the
school inspectors.
Pupil-teacher ratio
The number of learners in the class should be convenient for the teachers to handle
efficiently and competently in order to have quality education. Sometimes the number of
learners is overwhelming that the teacher fails to handle the learners and even does not
know them. For example rural schools tend to have less number while urban schools
are overcrowded. Teachers have no opportunity to relate to their individual learners and
this affects the level of education.
Assessment
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The UNEB assessment procedures do not tap most of the qualities of the learners. The
system emphasizes academics only and downplays practical aspects. There is a lot of
cram work by the learners that skills and true knowledge are not imparted. UNEB
assessment brings only tension to learners, teachers and parents because it affects all
the intrinsic problems seen above.
Community involvement
Another persisting issue is that the education system of Uganda is not well sensitized
and mobilized to fully involve the communities into educational matters. And yet the
community is very important in the functioning of the school. It provides children,
employers and the facilities to the school. If the community is well sensitized and
mobilized, it forms dynamic governance and committed organizations like PTA, Board of
governors and management committee; and defends the school property.
Imbalance between rural and urban schools
Urban schools enjoy better facilities, financial funds to recruit better teachers, direct
professional development of teachers. E.g. UNEB examiners. Better facilities are
acquired with better scholastic materials, high enrolment of learners. Hence
performance is better in urban schools than in rural areas.
Examination malpractice
Cheating of examinations has become very common in schools. Examination

malpractices in schools involve teachers, school administrators, students and other
stake holders.
There are many causes attached to that and these are: competition, fame, poor
teaching, and poor attitudes towards work, poor motivation, and poor staff
remuneration.
Vocationalization of education
The Government white papers of 1992 states that Uganda system of education was to
include vocational studies at all levels. It was to include productive skills like, wood
work, bricklaying, art and crafts etc. as suggested by Prof. Senteza Kajubi. But this has
failed because there are no trained teachers for that, school shy away from training
vocational and technical training, bad attitude of parents and students themselves
towards vocational studies and there are few vocational schools in the country.
Coaching in schools
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This practice is against government regulations. The causes of coaching in schools are;
competition, need to add on salary, failure to finish the syllabus in time, teachers want to
protect their jobs and pupils have to pass their exams. This has brought about inequality
in the teaching especially for poor students who cannot afford paying for the coaching
fees.
Strikes in schools
Strikes in schools have become very common and are normally caused by indiscipline
in schools, poor social structures; parents have no time for moral development of their
children, influence and teaching of mass media, weaknesses of school management.
Other indiscipline cases are defilement, overcrowding in schools, and poor performance
of schools.
Extrinsic Problems
The economic condition
When economic conditions are bad, parents cannot raise the funds for paying school
fees and other school requirements, parents are then forced to pool their children out of
school or send them to poorer schools. Economic conditions contribute a lot to the
development of education system in every sphere.
Politics
Political stability helps the country to have a government to work out meaningful
development plans for its people’s education. It facilitates the implementation of policies
concerning education as well. Most of educational activities are politically motivated and
that makes politics very important in an education system.
For the last two decades of Uganda’s history reflects political instability which has
affected education in the country E.g. Investors were scared because of lack of security.
Insecurity scares children, parents, teachers and other stakeholders. When instability
prevails learning hours are reduced and the quality of education is affected.
Religious issues
Religion by nature is supposed to facilitate education activities by teaching morals that

would reduce on indiscipline cases. Instead religion has brought in serious problems on
the system of education in Uganda i.e. differences in religious believes created
problems which impact education up to date. Among the community, religion has
encouraged unhealthy competition and rivalry. When religious denominations set up
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their schools, the children and parents are divided to go to the schools of their parent’s
denominations; uneven distribution of teachers, funds, teaching materials etc. are
brought about.
Culture and Population growth
In most African cultures the place of a woman is at home. Africans do not see the
reason to spend the money to educate their daughters especially in the past decades.
This has affected the education systems of Africa up-to-date. It has led to lack of
respect to women in their different positions held and unequal distribution of duties and
responsibilities.
At Independence Ugandan population was at 6,000,000 people but now it is at

35,000,000 people. While the population has gone up, the economy has not been
developing at the same rate. This situation has created problems in families because
they became bigger to be sustained. The families’ income may be too little to cater for
their needs. Regarding education, children became victims of the circumstance by
dropping out of the education system go to substandard schools. Today, the school
dropout is high compared to independence time.
Health and Nutrition
The health of the people has increasingly been affected due to poor and inadequate
nutrition. Children need good health and nutrition for personal growth and development.
Children with good health and balanced diet enjoy better learning and learn better than
sickly ones. Malnourished and under–nourished bodies do not have enough energy to
concentrate on studies.
DROP-OUT AND REPETITION IN SCHOOL IN UGANDA
Introduction
Drop-out is a way the child absconds going to school and finally leaves the school
environment completely while repetition is where a child remains in the same class
continuously until the child will get away from the school.
It has been observed that children find it difficult to continue to school up to the end. The
question is, why so. As teachers, we need to look into the causes of this problem. In
sub-Saharan Africa it is indicated that education wastage rate is high. Children drop out
of school before completing the cycle.
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Many children leave schools at different levels: at primary, secondary, and other
institutions of learning. This is because of; lack of school fees due the reason of losing
parents or guardian, Peer group influence, Influence of culture e.g. Girls are not
supposed to go to school but get married, poor recommendation in school because of
indiscipline, lack of parental care, no strict rules, corporal punishment, sexual
harassment from teachers, poor family background and some chronic diseases etc.
The root causes of school dropout and repetition are associated with the historical
development of education and persistent issues in the education system of Uganda.
School Conditions
When teachers are not enough in a school, children are left alone to do class work with
the hope to keep them occupied. Pupils are bound to lose patience and motivation for
schooling and finally drop out. Those who remain do not perform well and repeat the
class. This situation is mainly in rural areas
Indiscipline of pupils in schools leads to lack of hard work and poor performance. Then
punishment by school authorities leads children to drop out. What is needed to deal the
root causes of indiscipline?
Instructional materials are very vital in teaching-learning situation. Poorly taught pupils
get disinterested and leave school. If encouraged to stay, their performance remains
poor.
Unbalanced curriculum also forces pupils to drop out of school. If the curriculum is not
covered and examinations are set, the performance of the pupils is likely to be bad.
Sometimes low or high standards which a school sets lead to frustration of pupils.
The practice of coaching has seriously affected the curriculum especially in urban
areas. Teaching is not done during school time but instead it is done during coaching
time. This situation has led to drop out and repetition in the education system especially
for poor pupils.
Poor administration leads to total mismanagement of schools and institutions. This

creates a state of chaos/strike and repetition. Guidance and counseling is the solution to
this problem. This enhances the pupils’ capacity to stay in school.
Pregnancies in schools force girls to leave school or occasionally they are forced to
repeat from another school or drop out. Male students who mistakenly marry at an early
age drop out of school but when they realize that, they sometimes return to repeat with
the hope to succeed.
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High school expenses also force student to drop out from school. These may be inform
of high school fees, unnecessary demands for school requirements etc. some students
are forced out of school to raise the money and return finding themselves behind others.
This may force them loose interest and dropout of school.
Out of school conditions
Political instability in the recent past years in some part of the country has forced
children out of schools and in some cases schools were closed. Political instability is
unfriendly to any education system.
Poverty is normally the base which makes children to abandon school. It is a big
problem because children with poor background are always threatened by the
possibility of not continuing with their education. Poor families are forced to pull out their
children out of school.
World attractions, cultural practices and geographical conditions force children out of
school. For instance the was a time in Ugandan history of education, when children
were attracted to the practice of black market (“Magendo”), education did not matter at
all. In some cultures children are not allowed to go school but get married regardless of
their ages to bring wealth.
The family backgrounds also contribute to children’s school drop-out where education is
not taken as priority. Hence learners do not give any importance to education.
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Introduction
Provision of Technical and Vocational education has its roots in indigenous education
system in Africa which was uprooted by the importation of Western model of formal
education and training.
As a result of Western model of education, African Ministers of education met in Lagos

the Capital city of Nigeria in 1976. They adopted a major policy shift which suits African
education i.e. to provide a new form of education so as to establish close ties between
the school and the work, in order to break the prejudices between manual and
intellectual work.
Productive practical work should be introduced in schools offering Technical and

Vocational courses from primary schools to Tertiary institutions. From the outcome of
that meeting Uganda advocated for the incorporation of both practical and academic
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subjects in schools. In Ugandan system of education, it is observable that the provision
of this education has little efforts made, until of recent that the government of Uganda is
trying to uplift it in order to have a link between practical and academic subjects
because of the irrelevancy of our education system.
The following are major arguments towards the technical and Vocational education and
training;
 Transmit certain values and attitudes necessary to perform certain skills for work
in the modern society.
 Help to elevate mass employment especially among the youths.
 Provide specific skills for employment in a wide range of job categories.
 Improve job performance by up-grading or re-orienting the existing work skills.
 Help to prevent mass movement of school-leavers from rural to urban areas.
 Enable young people to acquire skills for self-employment
 Prepare citizens for Technical and Technological changes.
 Provide necessary ideas and skills to overcome academic education.
The need to accomplish or achieve all these has led to the introduction of vocational
and Technical subjects on the curriculum at primary, secondary and even up to Tertiary
level.
Current problems of Technical and Vocational education and training
 At socio-economic level, there is growing financial crisis partly brought by the

world economic decline but also because of lack of interest from people.
 Technical and Vocational education has not been able to address the problems
in many cases. It has actually promoted them because much of the training has
been oriented towards high technological industrial employment which requires
only a few highly skilled personnel rather than immediate job.
Criticism against Technical and Vocational education and training
In the criticism against Technical and Vocational education and training we realize the
following points:
 Education was based on academics and government has taken vocational

education to be less important.
 It is based on economic argument that the government advocates for vocational
education that most pupils and parents rejected in favor of academic schooling,
because academic education paves way to greater career opportunity of higher
financial rewards.
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 It was based on the absence of basic resources, poor teaching, unqualified
teachers, and lack of parental support and under researched.
 Vocational education is generally not related to other sector of education;
besides the labor market is not flexible because people regard it as secondary
after the academic education.
Psacharopoulos (1991), one of the most outspoken critics gives the following
reasons for the failure of vocational and Technical education:
 Most families and their children regard vocational and Technical education as
inferior to academic education.
 Because of rapid changes, it is difficult to prepare students for unpredictable
labor market
 Programs for re-skilling have not been put into these programs because of
the changes in technology
 Government rather parents have made the decision to expand vocational
education
 Teachers are inadequately or not trained at all.
 The costs are high because of the need to equip vocational classrooms and
Technical teacher education is very expensive.
 Planning has been very difficult because of inadequate data and being based
on western concepts of employment and not on local cultural dynamics.
 The government has been shut down by the arguments that were disturbing
for disregarding the indigenous local employment opportunities.
 The dependency culture in terms of overseas’ training, course evaluation and
assessment, use of expatriate staff and western equipment and machinery.
 The cost cannot justify the program.
NB: the argument behind these critics is that one can do manual work without having
been to a Technical and Vocational schools.
Reforms in Education System in Uganda
On July 29 1987, the minister of education under NRM government appointed a

National Education Policy. Review Commission [EPRC] under the chairmanship of
Professor William Senteza Kajubi to investigate into the policies governing education
system in Uganda.
The specific guidelines or terms of reference of the commission were as follow:
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1. To update the existing structure in education system from pre-primary, primary,
secondary to tertiary institutions and recommended strategies and changes for
improving the system so that it can;
 Impress modern secular and curriculum trends and development.
 Equip students with modern marketable skills in order to improve their
living, meet development needs of the economy and promote
employment opportunities for students.
 Produce socially responsible citizens.
2. To review and formulate where necessary the general aims and objectives of the
education system as a whole as well as the aims and objectives of education at
each level.
3. To advice on the most effective way of integrating academic with commercial and
objectives in school curriculum.
4. To recommend measures this could improve the management of school and
tertiary institutions so as to maximize cost effectiveness.
5. To re-assess the correct system of financing of schools and tertiary institutions
and recommend for reducing costs and improving efficiency in rendering
education services.
6. To advice on optimal locations of education institutions throughout the country.
7. To advice on how, if all schools and tertiary institutions can contribute towards
their own upkeep without affecting academic standards.
8. To review the role of qualifying examination and the current methods of
assessment and recommend the appropriate one.
9. To assess the role of private sector in education professional at all the levels.
10. To review the primary and secondary levels by the way of age grouping in
classes, having regarded the tender age at which pupils leave primary schools.
On January 30 1989, the commission submitted the report to the ministry of education.
The commission’s recommendations looked at all levels of education which included
pre-primary, primary, secondary schools, and tertiary institutions. Others included
technical, vocational, teacher training, planning and management of education,
examination system, adults and non-formal education and financing and support
education system.
The Government White Paper
The ministry of education submitted the report to the government [parliament]. The
government examined all the suggestions and recommendations on the report. The
government appointed the White Paper sub-committee to re-examine the report with the
purposes of identifying the recommendations which were acceptable for
implementation.
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The government over all policy on education is that Uganda must seek high quality of
education as possible as a basis of fundamental change and national development.
Hence no education system can be better than the quality of its teachers. Nor can a
country be better than the quality of its education.[Government of Uganda white paper
on education, 1992]. In other words education is the mirror image.
Democratization of Education
Basically education is human right and should be extended to all the citizens of the
country regardless of age, sex, race, religion, tribe etc. The government of Uganda has
embarked on Universalization of Primary Education (UPE) from 1996 and of recent on
Secondary Education (USE). It assures that this will lead to elimination of illiteracy,
poverty, ignorance, and depression. The target groups of people to attain this education
were:
 Young people who have never gone to school.

 School drop outs.
 Rural peasants
 The masses [human rights and civil servants]
 Working men and women who require to go back to continue with education
Universal Primary Education [UPE]
Back ground.
After the world war two [1945] the demand for education grew on the basis of the
following arguments:
 Education is a human right.

 That education, was a form of investment for economic growth [human economic
theory]
United Nations charter article 26 universal declaration of human rights states that,
everyone has a right to education. Primary education should be provided in accordance
with the ability of children to benefit from it rather than the ability of parents to pay for it.
“The right to learn should be accepted on fundamental human rights with universal
acceptance. The entire population should receive education without discrimination’’. All
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races, ethnic groups, the poor, the rich should have the opportunity to present
themselves to appropriate levels of educational institutes. Hence universal education
remains a declared objective in most countries.
In May 1961 the African Ministers of Education met in Addis-Abba and noted that
Education was a fundamental factor in social and economic development of their
nations. They therefore resolved that “…basic education should be expanded gradually
so that by 1980 UPE should be achieved all over Africa.
In March 1990 a World Conference was convened in Thailand to draw attention to the
importance of impact of basic education and also to forge commitment to provide basic
education for all. It’s importance to note that Uganda was part to the declaration and to
frame work of action.
In 1992 the Government White Paper on education made a lot of recommendations

about education in Uganda and among the many here are some quoted below:
 Universal Primary Education for children of age group 6-10 [primary 1-4] should
be achieved by the year 2000].
 By the year 2000 it should be ensured that children enter Primary School at the
right age of 6 years and above.
 Universal Primary Education for children of 6-13 years [primary 1-7] should be
achieved soon after 2000 but not later than 2010.
NB: in May 1996 his Excellency the president Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, then a
presidential candidate pledged UPE to four children per family. This pledge was
implemented in 1997 with four children per family but later covered all the school age
going children in primary schools.
TEACHER EDUCATION IN UGANDA
The idea of teacher education and training of teachers in East African region dodged
the thinking of colonialism with trained teachers required education system brought from
the West. But since independence efforts have been made to adjust teacher education
and training. This has included pre-service and in-service to education.
Teacher education and training
Government has always been concerned about the quality of each teacher from time to
time and it has put programs aimed at constantly keeping the teacher up-to-date. There
two types of teacher education in Uganda i.e. pre-service and in-service. There are
several types of institutions that have come out to uplift the standards of teachers in
Uganda. Such institutions are:
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1. Primary teachers’ Colleges (PTCs)
In 1960s, the lowest Grade of teachers was Grade I which was commonly called
Vernacular teachers. These teachers were recruited in vernacular teacher training
colleges after primary six. They spent two (2) years in the college and qualified to teach
from P.I-P.4 only. Then these teachers were phased out in 1970’s and they were
replaced by Grade II teachers who were in the TTCs for four years. Then after
graduating to Grade II to teach in primary schools a big number of Vernacular teachers
were admitted for in-service Program for up-grading course in order to become Grade III
teachers.
This program was mainly during holidays. Today, the lowest Grade of teachers is Grade
III. Grade II TTC’s were phased out in 1986. Since that, all PTC’s are producing Grade
III teachers. To train as a Grade III teacher, one should have an ordinary Level ‘O’ Level
certificate of Education at the same time these days, some ‘A’ Level also join PTCs to
become Grade III teachers.
2. National Teacher’s Colleges (NTC)
There were ten (10) NTC’s in Uganda these are National institutions located throughout
the country e.g. Unyama, Muni, Mubende, Kaliro, Masindi, Kabale, Ngetta, Nkozi,
Kakoba, and Nagongera. The NTCs admitted ‘A’ Level graduates with at least one
principle pass in one subject for the science Students and two (2) principle passes for
Arts students. They spent two residential years at NTCs and Graduated as Grade V
teachers. These Grade V teachers were to teach in the Lower Secondary Schools
classes. Others go to Uganda College of Commerce (UCC) or Uganda Technical
Institute (UTI) to teach general courses like English and economics. These categories of
Grade V teachers received Diploma in Education, called Diploma in Secondary
Education. The same course was also offered at the Institute of Teacher Education
Kyambogo (ITEK) in the area of basic Education and home Economics.
There is also an opportunity for Grade III teachers to up-grade themselves to Grade V.
the government allows them to join NTCs for Diploma in Education, Primary Program. It
is both pre-service and in-service then they qualify as Grade V teachers and they are
required to go back to teach in primary schools or as administrators.
3. Uganda Polytechnic Kyambogo (UPK)
There is a small special program in producing Grade V teachers of Technical subjects.

Students of varied academic backgrounds in Technical subjects are admitted into this
program. Graduates of these programs are deployed to secondary schools to teach
technical subjects and many go to Technical Institutes and a few join the Uganda
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Technical Colleges to teach subjects of their specialization. A few NTCs like Kaliro
started the training of teachers of technical subjects like wood-work and Technical
Drawing.
Institute of Teacher Education Kyambogo (ITEK)
In addition to pre-service Grade V Diploma in Education secondary in specialization of

subjects, ITEK now Kyambogo University school of education offers several in-service
courses for Grade III teachers.
- Diploma of Education in Primary Teacher Education (DTE) for Grade III teachers
who wish to teach in Primary Teacher’s Colleges.
- Diploma in Special Education (DES). These specialize in teaching children with
physical handicapped (deaf, blind) and mentally retarded.
Then there is Makerere University in-service Bachelor of Education Degree programs in

order to up-grade the teachers who have Diploma in education. At that time, a good
number of high Institutions also carried out the in-service programs for Degrees. This in-
service course is offered to Grade V teachers who are graduates of NTCs and other
Universities.
Universities
Makerere University is the only oldest University in Uganda in this area of teacher
education even that of the creation of new Universities, Makerere University supplies
over 80% of the total number of teachers at this level .i.e. Bachelor of Education (BED).
Makerere University offers both pre-service and in-service programs for those who want
to become teachers or improve their levels of teacher education. It is the largest in the
country with the overall enrolment of 1000 students. The Islamic University in Uganda
(IUIU) is second largest in the country produces over 100 teachers each year. Through
the undergraduate program, both Arts and Science graduate teachers are produced.
These are deployed to secondary schools, PTCs, NTCs, UCC etc.
Makerere also offers numerous and diverse in-service programs to teachers. There is
Bachelor of Education using External and Distance Education methods. There is also
post graduate Diploma in Education and other graduate programs for teachers in
Makerere University; these include Master of Education (MEd), Master of Arts (MA) in
Education Management and PhD. Degree programs.
There are other Universities offering teacher education like Islamic University in Uganda
(IUIU) (1990), Ndejje University (1992), Uganda Martyrs University (1993), Bugema
University (1994), etc.
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There are also numerous Non-Governmental Organizations that are involved in teacher
education and these are:
i. Northern Uganda Integrated teacher education Project.

ii. Mubende Integrated teacher education project
iii. Luweero District Teacher Education Project
iv. Adventist Development Relief Agencies etc.
All these NGOs have common characteristics it is to utilize distance education

techniques face-to-face holiday sessions and personal tutorship in handling untrained
teachers.
Problems in Teacher Education
Teachers are not contented with their work and there are many reasons for this
discontentment
 Poor conditions of service

 Inadequate instructional materials
 Bad working environments
 Low salaries which take long to be paid
 Little opportunities to access payroll
 Little opportunities to go for in-service program
 Over loaded and overcrowded in the classroom
 Insufficient competence acquired during the pre-service education
 Poor education policies
 Lack of much interest among the trainees to stay in teachers colleges
The consequences of all these is the decrease number of people in joining the teaching
services. Then untrained teachers have even invaded the teaching service especially in
primary schools
Uganda’s Primary Education Reform programs
In 1989 the Education Policy Review Commission (EPRC) reported their findings and
recommendation to the government. In order to operationalize the recommendations of
the EPRC, five years investment program was put in place. The investment program is
based upon the essence of the pre-investment study commission under Integrated
Development Agencies (IDA) to develop specific strategies and to estimate the cost of
implementing projects which imitated the implementation of White Paper Policy
recommendation.
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The investment study covered areas of financing of efficient services of establishment,
surveying schools, planning optimal environment levels, curriculum reform, local text
book printing and publication capacity, secondary education, examinations reforms
management of teacher education among others. Teacher Educate pre-investment
study involved development of education sector, planning model of project studies
enrollment, teachers, facilities, textbooks and other resources required each year up-to-
the-year 2000.
Identification of the Primary Education Reform Program
By 1989 through the Education Policy Review report, government had quickly put the
report through the White Paper. The Primary Education Reform Program with its roots
in the government long term education development objectives as started in investment
program which aims at;
- Increasing area and equity

- Enhancing quality, efficiency and relevance
- Building institutional capacity
- Reforming finance and financial management in the education sector.
The root of this is to by reforming the pattern of resource mobilization and allocation in
education sector and through appropriate institutional reform and strengthening mainly
Primary schools teaching and management was the focus.
This would be improved through the development of an integrated support system

linking Primary Teacher Colleges; field based up-grading and continuous in-service
training for school managers and instructional staff e.g. Head teachers, DEO’s,
Inspectorate staff and Teachers. The rehabilitation and reconstruction of Primary
Schools as well as related Teacher training facilities, the provision of learning resources
particularly textbooks, supplementary reading materials.
The other area of focus was strategic planning, policy analysis, and management and
implementation functions. The identified reform programs is expected to assist
government to instill the process of reform of reconstruction and development of the
education sector with improved capacity to plan, manage and finance the delivery of
primary education services.
The reform also expected to bring about the following:
- Increased access to learning opportunities by the provision of additional primary

schools, teacher training facilities and learning resources.
- Improved equity through targeting of resources and disadvantaged groups
- Improving internal efficiency leading to reduced repetitions and dropout rates
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- Reformed curriculum and examination systems and improved school
management.
All these would improve on the ministry’s capacity to plan and monitor system
performance. The Primary Education Reform is very practical because it is attempting to
tackle the problem of education from the grassroots.
Government Policy on the Reform
The current education policy is the education plays very important role in national
development with goals that focus on moral, intellectual, ideology, cultural, social and
economic domains. Education is accepted as central in liberating people from poverty,
dependence, diseases and ignorance.
Government knows that effective policy initiatives must deal directly with the major
problems and constraints of education system. The problems that government faces in
developing education system are:
i. Quality, efficiency, relevancy and constraints like (overloaded curriculum, out

dated assessment style, lack of instructional materials low funding and poor
management and accountability)
ii. Access and equity constraints (low enrollment, poor facilities,) especially for the
poor.
The policy is to improve:
 Teacher quality
 Learning materials, supervision and assessment
 Financing of primary education and management of resources
 Build management and technical capacity
 Identify problems and address the barriers
 Universal access to education and promotion of equity.
Primary Education Reform
The major policy intervention is to provide more and better education to pupils to satisfy
the recognized unfulfilled needs of the children. This is to be achieved through:
- Universalization and democratization of education

- Improving financing and management of resources
- Improving teacher quality, curriculum, learning materials, supervision and
assessment
- Management training
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- Building ten core Primary School Colleges
- Co-coordinating Centre facilities
- Outreach classrooms for the community
- Resource and community mobilization
- Cost sharing in provision of education
Strategies for implementation of the reform
The reform is adopted by the government to transform the education system in the
entire country and the strategies to be adopted are:
i. Focus on child learning needs with conducive learning environment, with well
trained teachers who can provide guidance and counseling in addition to class
work and proper training of head teacher to make them more functional.
ii. Quality education at all levels by providing suitable facilities for learning, staffing
with trained competent teachers and managers. The quality of education is highly
determined by the quality of teachers.
iii. The new system of training teachers which is more flexible suitable to needs and
conditions of the learners i.e. through in-service and distance education for both
trained and untrained teachers to enable them study and carry on their normal
work. Study materials to be prepared by a team of subject specialists, work
towards vocationalization of the school curriculum and strengthening the plan.
iv. Integrated approach. The reform is designed to operate in a simple efficient
integrated delivery system called Teacher Development and Management
System. The national co-coordinator provides the link between the Ministry of
Education and Sports with PTCs and the schools.
v. Firm policy foundation. There is need for firm policy to allow the strategies work
for the reforms, through the government under the Department of Ministry of
Education and Sports, Donor Agencies and NGOs, National curriculum
Development Centre, Uganda National Examination Board, Inspectorate Section,
Policy makers, Instructional Material Unit, District officials, Project
Implementation Unit and all the local schools.
Reasons for General Educational Reform in Uganda
The purpose of the reform is to solve educational problems and challenges that faced
the education system at that time of the commissions. Below are some of the reasons:
 Civil wars of 1970’s neglected education and even eroded its quality.
 Massive expansion of the education system without proper planning which was
to involve misallocation of resources, contributed to secondary school replacing,
primary schools [third world schools].
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 Imbalances between rural and urban schools performance in PLE, UCE, UACE
 Inadequate teacher recruitment and training all over the country
 Curriculum and its implementation did not cater for the needs of the society
 Unaffordable needs of education all over the country
 Parent-teacher association fee [PTA] to improve on education activities
 Boarding schools where mainly for the rich.
 University tuition being very highly
 Education system is dominated by examinations at all stages, moral values and
practical skills were neglected.
 Lack of reliable and up to date data which is harmful to planning and
administration of education.
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM OF TANZANIA
Background
In Tanganyika indigenous education was practiced where by children learnt from their
parents and the elders of the community. Girls learnt from their aunts and mothers skills
like cooking, weaving, children care etc. boys learnt from their fathers and uncles skills
like animal rearing, fishing, iron melting, wrestling and trade. These were done
practically at work. The teaching was around the fire place, through stories, songs,
dance etc. The indigenous education was centered on values and cultural norms of the
people of Tanganyika i.e. the Chagga, Yao, Yaha, Hehe, Sukuma, Masai etc.
After the scramble and partition of Africa, Germany colonized Tanganyika. In the 20
years of preceding the First World War, German introduced formal education in
Tanganyika. There were 60 primary schools which offered 3 years course in reading
writing and arithmetic. There were 9 secondary schools that offered 2 additional years
of vocational training, teacher training as well as some academic courses. Although
Kiswahili was the language of instruction, German was offered as a foreign language.
The missionaries were also encouraged to create schools for the indigenous population.
The Germany system of education did not educate girls because western education
begun along the Muslim coast where custom dictated that girls where not to be
educated. It emphasized submissiveness not enlightenment in women.
The German education system laid a firm foundation for Kiswahili as a national
language and secular education. By 1914 there were 99 German government
sponsored schools which educated 6,100 students and 1852 missionary’s schools
which educated 155,287 Tanzania students. The Germany education system
emphasizes practical education and health improvement.
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British took over Tanzania from Germany after the end of the First World War. Tanzania
was therefore under two colonial powers first Germany and later British. In 1920 British
tried to make some changes in the education system but were strongly opposed by the
missionaries.
From British colonial influence, Tanzania inherited a system of education of traditional

formal schools that was elite oriented and took a little account of the fundamental needs
of a developing society. This meant that education had some weaknesses which among
others included the following:
 Being too academic or bookish and individualistic for a chosen few

 Not providing employment opportunities to the rural people and producing white
collar workers with very limited education opportunities. [A school certificate was
one way ticket out of depressions of rural poverty].
 Lack of high skilled professionals which led to high dependency on foreign expert
teachers to implement the education system, where meant goals and objectives
of education for self-reliance and independence lacked]. Whereas education
should aim at creating right thinking and self-reliance and productive system.
After the independence in 1962, the government adopted some reforms in education. In
addition it was assisted by the World Bank in the formation of education policy for
Tanzania. The aims and objectives of Tanzania education system is education for self-
reliance and independence. This means that education aims at creating right thinking of
a self-reliant productive system. After the approved Presidential Commission on
education, therefore the formal president Julius Kambarage Nyerere opposed a system
that high quality schools were for rich children and hence all schools were nationalized.
There were two documents that came in place:
 Presidential Commission Report[recommendations]

 Booklet of Mwalimu Julius Kambarege Nyerere “Education for self-reliance-
1967”
These documents formed the corner stone of Tanzania education system and plans in
the implementation of the reforms.
Aims and Objectives

- To produce socialist literate Tanzanian citizens
- To produce strong cultural conservatives in Tanzania
- To produce strong nationalistic citizens in Tanzania
Structure of Education in Tanzania

 2 years in pre-primary
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 7 years in primary school
 4 years in junior secondary school called form 1-4
 2 years of senior secondary school [A’ level] form 5-6
 3 or more years of tertiary education.
This structure can be categorized into 3 levels namely;

 Basic
 Secondary
 Tertiary levels.
Administrative Structure
The administration of education in Tanzania is managed under two ministries;

Ministry of higher education, science and technology
Ministry of education and cultural heritage
These ministries and the department’s followings under them are responsible for the
administration of education in Tanzania. The main duties of these ministries and the
departments were to;
 Implementation of education policies.
 Supervise education system ie. to ensure that theory is intergraded into practice.
 Development of curriculum.
 Monitoring and supervision of educational Institutions
 Administering examinations through Tanzanian National Examination Board
(TNEB)
 Recruitment of personnel i.e. carrying out interviews, registering and deploying
teachers all over the country.
 Offering resources supporting education for self-reliance projects through forums,
workshops, skills development, income generating activities etc.
At the lower levels there are districts and regional officers whose duties among the
many include the following:
 Managing of the pre-primary and primary schools

 Posting of primary school teachers
 Establishment of primary schools
 Offering resource support for education for self-reliance in primary schools
 To measure the progress of curriculum implementation and evaluation of the
progress through examination of academic and productive work such as farm
work or technological workshops.
 The use of development funds to finance schools.
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Reforms since Independence
Tanzania got political independence in 1961. The major concern of the early years was
rooted in the creation of nationalist leadership. It is clear that the new leader in Tanzania
believed that lack of high level skills was the main obstacle to development goal.
Consequently, Tanzania assigned its highest education priority to human resource
development especially at the upper levels. Therefore, initial education policy in
independent Tanzania emphasized high level skills and more schools despite the fact
that few children were attending school. Education was no longer considered to be an
elite privilege but a fundamental right of citizens.
This meant that education was a basic right of all citizens. Education reform in Tanzania
may be called revolutionary because policy makers have attempted to reshape
completely the basis of the former school system in line with the fundamental socio-
economic changes proposed within the state. Education for self-reliance became the
heart of education reform in Tanzania. This was done through:
i. The elimination of the elite and white collar mentality by combining academic and
manual work in school activities and by involving learners at all levels in
community development projects so that they become productive citizens.
School children and University students had to participate in communal activities
ii. Political education is also taught and examined as a compulsory subject in all
schools
iii. The education system promoted in all the schools not only the performance in
written exams and continuous assessment but also in character assessment.
iv. The effort to provide education to all has been through, UPE and extension
programs of literacy and adult education all over the country.
v. The adoption of Kiswahili as a language of instruction and important in school
curriculum at all levels has been accompanied by the productive learning
materials in that language. However, it should be noted that the use of Kiswahili
as the medium of instruction in Primary schools has been undermined by the
continued use of English language in teaching at the Secondary and Tertiary
level of education. This has created problems of transition from one language to
another where pupils move to higher education ladder.
vi. Vocationalization of education in all secondary schools throughout the country.
Problems affecting the Education System of Tanzania
 Poor command of English language

 Private schools provide quality education than government schools yet they are
expensive and unaffordable.
 Schools are few yet the population is big
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 Teacher-pupils ratio is not balanced
 Poor government policies on education
 Teachers are underpaid
 Lack of scholastic materials like text books, visual aids furniture etc
 Lack of supervision by the government
 Poor administration of schools
 High school dropout rate
 Poor nutrition
 Lack of proper study environment
The current reforms in the Education System
- The country uses experts from Finland and the British Council to improve on their
teacher trainees in language and pedagogical skills.
- There is development of basic Education Master Plan in 1997 to guide
development in basic education provision.
- Less developed regions or districts have been given preferences in opening new
secondary schools and assistance to do so.
- Basic education has been made free and compulsory to all children under the
age of 15 years old.
- Involvement of donor communities has helped to improve the quality of education
in Tanzania.
- Education committees have been set and assigned the responsibility of
inspecting schools.
- The government has tried to improve on the salary of teachers, construction of
teachers’ quarters and their condition in general.
- National examinations are being done under the Tanzanian National Examination
Board (TNEB).
- Finally vocationalization is now implemented in all secondary schools throughout
the country and has begun to develop a push of it own.
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (USA)
The system of education in USA has been as a result of historical, political,

geographical and economic factors. The settlers in modern USA are mainly European
refugees running away from harsh rules at home, those looking for employment outside
their countries and the like. The USA as a nation was then created out of war situation,
searches of employment, adventure, hash weather, etc.
The early settlers settled in small communities of their countries of origin all over the
States. Their education system in the USA was community based. It lacked central
control and has led to the decentralization of the education system in the USA today.
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The conditions of life experienced by the early settlers were harsh which necessitated
practical approach to life. Their education system was more practical
Due to the historical beginning of the USA, the Constitution of the USA made
emphasized that men are created equal and entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of
happiness. USA believes in democracy and no absolute authority. Such outlook greatly
influences the curriculum followed in the education system today.
Aims and Objectives of Education in USA
Because of democracy and practical approach to all aspects of life, Americans are
interested in promoting individuals’ well being. They therefore provide individuals with
knowledge and skills necessary to promote their welfare and of the general public.
USA education aims at the following objectives;
 Create unity out of diversity

 Assists individual development
 Improve social conditions
 Improve national progress
Administration and Management of Education
The country is governed under federal system made of 52 States. Each State is
autonomous and its education system is decentralized. It is the responsibility of each
State to take care of its education system.
The top administration of education in each State is the department of Education which
operates through the state Board of education. The board is responsible for running
Pre-schools Elementary, High and Technical schools, Colleges, Teacher Education and
some times Higher Education. The Board is headed by Superintendent of Education
who is the chief. Administrative officer appointed by the board or the governor or elected
by the people.
His roles:
 Promote relevant education at all the levels.

 Curriculum development of all the levels
 Graduation requirement for the candidates
 Teacher certification
 Working conditions for teachers and other non-teaching staff
 School finance
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Each single state has many counties and districts and they in turn have their own local
school Boards elected by people. They are headed by district Superintendents of
Education and supported by the professional staff.
These local school Boards are autonomous they raise and control their own funds. To
run the school they follow the state guidelines e.g. vet teacher qualifications, set
standards for high school graduation, determine the curriculum and are responsible for
disciplinary measures in schools and they also organize transport of children to and
from the school.
Each state has a different Board for higher education and private colleges. Universities
and Junior Colleges are run by community or State Boards.
Administrative Structure of each State.
Federal Government (Department of education)
The State (52 States)
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State Board of Education
Superintendent of Education
District Boards of Education
A B C D E F G H I
District Superintendent of Education
A B C D E F G H I
Professional Staff.
The roles of the Federal Government are to advice and facilitate education. It has no
control over the local districts. It offers land for building schools and grants to poor
states. It also intervene in cases of violation of human rights.
Structure of Education in USA
i. Kindergarten [4-6 years old].
Attendance is voluntary to enable young ones to socialize
ii. Elementary schools
Elementary schools run by the community, it is part of the community. Community life is
reflected in the school curriculum. The structure differs from State to State. Some States
have eight and others have six i.e. 1-8 Grades followed by 4 Grades of Junior High
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School or 1-6 Grades followed by 3 Grades of Junior High School and 3 Grades of
Senior High Schools. Or 1-8 Grades followed by 4 years of High School
Elementary school is offered freely and it initiates children to all aspects of American
life. National anthem is taught and American flag is displayed in each classroom which
aims at teaching the little ones patriotism at an early age.
A variety of subjects are studied and practical and social perspectives are emphasized.
All are related to the child’s interest. Work books, kits. Radio and Television programs
help to stimulate children to learn. The education system emphasize child-centered than
teacher-centered curriculum. There are no examinations children are promoted
according to age groups. Corporal punishment and child labor are unheard off in
schools
iii. High school education [17-18 years old]
75 percent of children enter high school which is a comprehensive school. There is high
range of elective subjects to be chosen. There are 250 subjects under the following
categories
 Classical subjects
 Foreign language
 Scientific subjects
 mathematical subjects
 Technical subjects
 Commercial subjects
 Manual art
 House hold art
 Agriculture
 Fine art
 Music
The compulsory subjects are: English, Mathematics, History, Civics,
The practical subjects are: Wood and metal work, Hair dressing, Repair of tools or
machinery, Home economics, Shop construction, Marriage training.
The aim of this wide choice is abilities and interest of the children. The quality of high
school education varies a lot.
Higher Education, financing and examination system in USA
All post-secondary education is higher education. The country has 2,700 institutions
some of which are at University level, and about 10,000 small colleges. Children obtain
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degrees in many fields different from other countries. The standard of these higher
education differ greatly. The highest standards are of pioneer and private institutions.
Each state has a State University with free education for high school graduates with no
examination.
Since the standards differ greatly, the educational testing service College Entrance
Examination Board are responsible for testing of applicants to the University in Private
and Pioneer Universities.
The University Education lasts for 4 years, during that period there is no specialization.
Specializations are done in professional schools after the University Education.
NB The major criticisms about the American University Education is that it does not
emphasize on critical study like other countries. Instead they count attendance of
lectures. Therefore their graduates lack basic knowledge.
Evaluation Assessment and Progression
In most cases promotion is automatic with the age mates. it does not depend on formal
examination but on continuous assessment based on attendance and satisfactory
record of school achievement. In State Universities, high school graduation is sufficient
for entrance. Federal of State Examination Boards does not exist. It is important to note
that because of criticism, USA assessment policy may change in future.
The financing of Education in USA
Education is financed by individual States depending on the resources of the State has.
The balance is provided by the Federal funds for the Poor States.
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UNIT SEVEN
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
This course unit has been designed to sharpen the students’ skills in English
communication especially in spoken and written discourse. Hopefully, at the end of this
unit is expected that the student will be in position to master and develop interest in
effective communication skills and finds it rewarding when it comes to report writing and
presentation in public.
Course content:
1. Concepts of communication
 Meaning of communication
 Terms used in human communication
 Classification of communication
 Function of communication
 Barrier to communication
2. Basics for written communication
 Word classes
o Nouns
o Pronouns
o Verbs
o Adjectives and Adverbs
o Prepositions and conjunctions
 Paragraphs and paragraphing
 Stages of writing process
3. The Rhetoric Modes
 Meaning
 Types of essays
4. Oral presentation
 Introduction
 Audience analysis
 Preparing oral presentation
 Types of oral presentation
 Essential guidelines for oral presentations
 Delivering oral presentations
 Managing stage fright
5. The internet and communication
 Values of internet communication
 Disadvantages of internet communication
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1. CONCEPTS OF COMMUNICATION
1.1 Meaning of communication
Communication is the single most important human activity that defines what to be
human. Many scholars believe that it is the only human activity that differentiates human
beings from other creatures. Although creatures like animals and birds can also
communicate but their communication is rudimental (not sound) when compared to
human communication.
Etymologically, communication is derived from Latin word “comunicare” which means

“to make common or to share.” This means communication is a process of sharing
information (data, messages and instructions) among human beings.
Many scholars have given variety of definition of human communication, but there is no
single acceptable definition. When we look at the different definitions all come to share
this – human communication refers to the transmission of information, ideas, attitudes
or emotions from one person or group of people to another. It can also refer to a social
interaction through messages. This means communication is not an end or the means
to an end.
1.2 Terms used in human communication

i) Information refers to the exchange of knowledge.
ii) Idea refers to new concepts and thoughts that are shared
iii) Attitude or emotions refer to the feelings (positive or negative) about a situation
or a person that the individual expresses or shares.
iv) Transmission refers to the transfer of information, ideas or emotions from one
point to another or from one person to another.
v) Sender is some one who starts the communication process or the one conveying
the information or massage.
vi) Receiver refers to the person or group of people for whom the message is
intended. In a lay man term, a receiver is the audience that is targeted by
communicative intervention.
vii) Channel refers to the outlet or form through which the message is transmitted.
viii) Encoding and decoding: encoding refers to the translation of the message into
a language or codes that the sender thinks will effectively transmit the
message. Decoding refers to the ability of the audience/ receiver to interpret
and understand message that has been sent to him/her. In other words, this
refers to the principle of “double coincidence” i.e. the sender and the receiver
must so to speak, be on the same wavelength (the receiver should understand
exactly what the sender wants him/her to comprehend).
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1.3 Classification of communication
Communication can be best classified from three perspectives. These are contextual of
performance, its purpose and the people involved in the communication events. The
following are some of the major and minor classes of human communication:
1. Interpersonal level of communication

This is the type of communication that takes place between two or more people.
It usually face to face and the topic of discussion are drawn from the every day to
day experience. For example, communication among workmates or husband and
wife. It characterized by the following:
 It is always face to face therefore, there is less strain in communicating.
 Immediate feedback
 Utilizes verbal channel most of the time
 Written form communication is rarely employed.
2. Small group communication
This is a type communication that involves three to ten people in the
communication. It is characterized by the following:
 Limited number of participants
 All are regarded equal
 Employs two-way communication model
3. Large group communication
This is a type of communication that takes place among a large group (many)
people that is hard to quantify, on average more twenty people engaged in a
communicative event. It utilizes two-way communication model. For example,
communication in a church, political rallies, etc.
4. Mass communication
This is a type of communication that involves one source that communicates to a
large audience unlimited by space and time. It is characterized by the following:
 Takes place through impersonal channels like news papers, television,
radio and of late internet.
 Its audience is undefined and anonymous.
 Delivers information to many people unrestricted by distance and time.
 Has high level of socialization and important for scholarly pursuit.
In another perspective, communication can be classified according to the way

information moves within an organization or society. Here there three types of
communication:
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1. The up – down communication. This is where the information flows from the top
in the organization (from the chief executive officer of the company) down to the
lowest ranked members in the organization. This is to assign goals and duties to
the employees, give instructions and specifications, inform members about new
policies of the organization. This communication can be inform of memos, letters,
notices or bulletins.
2. The down- up communication. This is the type where the information flows from
the lower levels of the organization to the top management. This type of
communication allows the lower cadres of the organization to communicate to
their managers.
3. Lateral communication. This is the type of communication where information

flows laterally in an organization. This normally takes place amongst the peers in
the organization (people or officers of the same ranks). It favours coordination
among the different heads of section that may improve on productivity in the
organization. But it is disadvantageous in that it may promote conflicts if formal
channels are abused.
Human communication can also be classified according to how it is produced. From

this perspective, there are three types:
1. Oral communication. This is a type of communication that depends on the

manipulation of vocal organs to produce sounds that have meaning to the
intended audiences.
Advantages of oral communication
 It is rapid in the sense that the message is delivered instantaneously.ie.

When the speaker communicates, the audience listen, understand and
take in the message at the same time.
 In line with the above, it also saves time and cheaper in terms of cost of
delivering information unlike written e.g letters.
 There is immediate feedback – the audience responds to the message

there and then.
 It is easy to make corrections and adjust the structure and content of the
message that makes the message more effective since the feedback is
immediate.
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 Distortions associated with transmission and environment in the
communication process are eliminated.
2. Written communication. This type of communication relies on the graphical

symbols and signs in the transmission of messages. Written communication
takes many forms such as handwritten, typewritten and currently through internet
communication.
Advantages of written communication
 The messages are tangible. The receiver gets the message physically in
his/her hands as evidence that communication has taken place.
 Durable. This is because the message can be stored and retrieved for use
later.
 It allows communication of complex issues like legal provisions.
 It also allows careful consideration of and correction and arrangement of

the message.
However, written communication consumes time in drafting and sending to

the recipient, meaning that there is no immediacy in message feedback.
3. Non-verbal communication. This is a type of communication where no word is

used in the communication process. Instead, communication takes place through
the use of paralinguistic features like gestures, facial expression, silence, etc.
1.4 Functions of communication
As pointed out earlier, human communication is the most important socio-human activity
that distinguishes human being from other creatures; it plays important functions in
society. These functions could accrue to individuals or to a group or the entire human
society. The following are some of the functions that communication plays in a society:
 Education. The most important function of communication is education. It

educates because through it people come to learn about new things that can
possibly improve their lives for the better.
 Enables people to search for and receive information. This could be facts, data or
figures.
 It is used in giving and receiving instruction on how to use the information.
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 It plays a persuasive function in society. Persuasion is a symbolic transaction,
which uses reason and emotion appeals in an attempt to alter behavior. For
example, some TV programmes can change or influence someone’s attitudes
towards the object of the communicative event.
 It is useful to an organization because it is used to control the behavior of

members in an organization.
 Communication fosters social interaction. Whether in a group or individually

people are social animals and live for interaction. That is why it is believed that
without communication human life and existence would lose its meaning.
 It provides entertainment meaning that it is used as an event, performance or

activity designed to give pleasure or relaxation to an audience.
 It facilitates the decision making process in an organization especially in its

management. Because the person taking decision needs information and data
about all the alternatives to identify and evaluate the best option to take.
1.5 Barrier to communication
Communication is useful when the link between the sender and the receiver is
maintained. If for one reason or another link is broken, communication cannot take
place, so to avoid this, it is important to identify such obstacles and find ways of
minimizing their effects or reduce their effects as much as possible. The following are
some of the common barriers to communication:
 Filtering. This refers to the tendency of the sender to communicate what he/she
feels the receiver or audience want to hear especially when the relationship
between the sender and receiver is of a subordinate. This tends to make real
message not to be delivered.
 Information over load. This is a situation where the speaker or writer gives to
much information assuming that it is the best without gauging the audience ability
to internalize the information given.
 The channel that one chooses to transmit the message can also turn to be a
barrier to communication.
 Communication link can be broken by emotions. The state of emotions of both

the sender and receiver determines the effectiveness of the message.
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 Language barrier. This refers to the choice of words to use in a speech or a
written text. Sometimes the sender may use “big” or “complex” words or terms
that the receiver or audience do not understand. This causes a bottle neck in
communication.
 Physiological conditions of the sender. For example, the physical appearance of

the sender may be a barrier to communication. Even bad hand writing can be a
barrier.
 External factors like noise, environmental disturbances.
 Others include: the senders personality and character, receivers ability and
timing.
1.6 Important steps in acquiring good communication skills:
 Know what you want to say, to whom and why

 How will you say it?
 Listen
 Reach an understanding or agreement.
2. BASICS FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
2.1 Word Classes

In written communication, words ordinarily appear in sentences. In a sentence,
each word has a function which can describe.
A word is a particular part of speech – it can be a noun, pronoun, verb, adjective,
adverb, preposition or conjunction. In different sentences, the same word may
have different functions.
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, idea, or action. In writing if
the word means a particular person, place, or thing, it is capitalized. If it names
any of a group or class – it is not capitalized unless it is the first word in the
sentence.
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence for example,
The most common pronouns are the personal pronouns (he, she, him, her, you,
they, we, nobody, someone, something, somebody, I ) and the relative pronouns
(who, whoever, which, that). Most of these change form to indicate their function
in the sentence.
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A verb is action or doing words, words that make an assertion. A verb says that
someone, something does, is something or has something done to it.
The verb is the most complicated part of speech in English, changing form to
express a wide range of information. All verbs except be have five basic forms.
The first three are the verb’s principal parts.
 The plain form it is use when the subject is a plural noun or the pronoun I,
we, you, or they, the plain form indicate action that occurs in the present,
occurs habitually, or is generally true. For Example, a few artists live in
town today.
 The past-tense form indicates that the action of the verb occurred before
now. It usually adds –d or –ed to the plain form, although for some
irregular verbs it forms in other ways.
 The past participle is usually the same as the past-tense form, except in
most irregular verbs. It combines with forms of have or be (has climbed,
was created), or by itself it modifies nouns and pronouns (the sliced
apples)
 The present participle adds _ing to the verb’s plain form. It combines with
forms of be (is buying), modifies nouns and pronouns (the boiling water),
or functions as a noun (running exhausts me).
 The –s form ends in –s or –es. When the subject is a singular noun, a
pronoun such as everyone, or the personal pronoun he, she, or it, the –s
form indicate action that occurs in the present, occurs habitually, or
generally true.
Terms used to describe verbs
 Tense the time of the verb’s action – for instance, present (kick), past (kicked),
future (will kick)
 Mood the attitude of the verb’s speaker or writer- the difference, for example, in I
kick the ball, and I suggest that you kick the ball.
 Voice the distinction between the active, in which the subject performs the verb’s
action (I kick the ball) and the passive, in which the subject is acted upon ( the
ball is kicked by me)
 Person the verb form that reflects whether the subject is speaking (I/ we kick the
ball), spoken to (you kick the ball) or spoken about (she kicks the ball).
 Number the verb form that reflects whether the subject is singular (the girl kicks
the ball) or plural (girls kick the ball).
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Adjectives and Adverbs
An adjective is a word used to modify (Limit or describe) a noun or pronoun. For
example, a, an, and the, every, as any, and each. Adjective commonly come
before the noun they modify. Examples of adjectives used in comparison: big,
bigger, biggest; old, older, oldest. Those compared irregularly good, better, best,
little, less, least, but words of more than two syllables are compared with more or
most for example, beautiful.
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It

usually comes immediately before the word it modifies. For example, very
unhappy, unusually cordial, almost certainly, but when it modifies a verb, it may
appear almost any where in the sentence.
Example:
Slowly she walked home
She slowly walked home All means the same thing.
She walked home slowly
She walked slowly home
Most adverbs are formed by adding – ly to adjective. For example, calm, calmly,
expect with adverbs like almost, here, then, too.
Prepositions and conjunctions

A preposition is a word used with a noun or pronoun (ordinarily called the object
of the preposition) to form a phrase.
A conjunction is a word that connects two similar parts of a sentence or two
groups of words that might otherwise be independent sentences. For example,
coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and so. Then, the
correlating conjunctions are: either…or, neither….nor, both….and, not only…, but
also….(these are most common ones)
2.2 Paragraphs And Paragraphing

A paragraph is a group of sentences developing one topic or addressing a single
idea.
Paragraphing is away of organizing ideas in essay.
Written compositions are made up of units of thoughts called paragraphs. There

are two ways of paragraphing. ie. By indenting or beginning in a new line.
Good paragraphs are built around the following elements:
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 A topic sentence. This is a sentence that states the topic or main idea of a
paragraph. It is that sentence that sort of forecasts what is to come in the
rest of the paragraph.
 Supporting details. This is done by providing detailed explanations, giving
examples, and illustrations, citing statistics.
 A concluding line (summarizing sentence). This is a sentence which may
be used at the end of the paragraph if the paragraph is longer or if the
paragraph is written as a self contained unit. This sentence is essentially a
restatement of a topic of the paragraph.
However, things like punctuation, clear writing, coherence, unity, etc are also important
in creating a smoothly written paragraph.
Paragraph unity means that every sentence in the paragraph develops the idea stated
in the topic sentence.
Paragraph coherence means that the details are in such good order and the
relationships between the details are so clear that the resulting paragraph is easy to
understand. The following are the things that make a paragraph coherent:
 Chronological (time) order.
 Space order
 Order of importance
 Repetition of key words and phrases
 Transitional expressions
Below is the table of frequently used transitional expressions and their meanings:
Transitional expressions Meaning of the transition

And, also, in addition, moreover, Adding a point or piece of information
furthermore, first/second/third, finally
But, however, nevertheless, on the other Making an exception or contrasting point
hand, yet, still, on the contrary, in spite of,
nonetheless.
For example, for instance, as an Giving specific examples or illustrations
illustration, in particular, to illustrate
That is, in other words, in effect, put Clarifying a point
simply, stated briefly
Granted that, it may be true that, even Conceding a point to the opposite side
though, although
Place: above, beside, beyond, to the right,
below, around.
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Time: formerly, earlier, in the past, before,
at present, now today, these days, in the Indicating place, time or importance.
future, next, later on, later.
Importance: foremost, most Importantly,
especially, of less importance, of the least
importance.
Initially, at the outset, to begin with, first of Indicating the stages in an argument or
all, up to now, so far, second, thus far, process, or the items in a series.
next, after, finally, last.
As a result, consequently, accordingly, as Giving a result
a consequence, therefore, thus, hence,
then, for that reason
In summary, to sum up, to summarize, in Summing up or restating the main point.
summary, to conclude, in brief, in short, as
one can see, in conclusion.
2.3 Stages Of Writing Process
To succeed in any academic, business work, one must learn to write clearly and
correctly. You must begin by working to achieve mastery of spelling and understanding
of sentence structure, for without these, you can not prepare acceptable papers for any
of your class or business project proposals. You must learn to organize and develop
your ideas in logical order, in effective paragraphs, and in complete essays and reports.
There three stages that one must follow in the writing process especially in report,
thesis, dissertation, project proposal. They are as follows:
1. Planning stage. This stage sometimes is referred to as pre-writing stage. It

involve the following:
 Reading the assignment to consider the task carefully.
 Figuring out the topic, making it sizeable and researching it.
 Analyzing the purpose of the writing, the audience.
 Gathering and organizing materials for writing.
2. Drafting stage. This is the major step in the writing process. The purpose of this
step is to put the ideas in writing. It involve the following:
 Writing down ideas quickly and roughly
 Following the outline as you write
 Continuous editing of the work
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 Writing parts of the paper in wherever format you want.
 Begin with the sections that are easy to fill
 Keeping your readers in mind as you compose the work.
3. Revision/editing and proofreading stage. In this stage, you check your spelling
and grammar polish your style and make a final check to see that ideas are
presented effectively and completely. As you revise, read the document from the
readers’ point of view. This stage is for the following:
 Revising the document to make it clear, coherent and concise.
 Checking grammatical, mechanical and typographical errors.
3. THE RHETORIC MODES

3.1 Meaning of the Terms
Rhetoric mode refers to genres of essay writing. Essay is understood as a type of
writing in modern English. It derives it original meaning from the Latin word
“Exigere” which means “to examine, test, or literally to drive out.” Therefore,
essay is a type of writing that encourages the learner/student or writer to test or
examine their ideas concerning a particular topic.
The purpose of an essay is to encourage students (learners) to develop ideas

and concepts in their writing with the direction of little more than their own
thoughts. Hence, essays are by nature concise and require clarity in stray from
his/her purpose; the writing must be deliberate and interesting.
3.2 Types Of Rhetoric Modes (Essays)

There are basically four essay genres. They are discussed below:
1. Narrative essays: these are essays which are often anecdotal, experimental,
and personal – this allows the writers to express themselves in a creative and
quite often, moving ways. The following are some of the guidelines for writing
narrative essay:
 If written as a story, the essay should include all the parts of a story.
This means that you must include an introduction, plot, characters,
setting climax and conclusion.
 If written not as a story, focus mainly in providing an informative
narrative for the reader.
 The essay should have a purpose
 It should be written from a clear point of view
 Use clear and concise language throughout the essay
 Use the first person pronoun ‘I’
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 Always be organized
2. Descriptive essays: this is a genre of essay that asks the writer to describe
something – object, person, place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. this
genre encourages the writer’s ability to create a written account of a particular
experience. It also allows great deal of artistic freedom (the goal of which is to
paint an image that is vivid and moving in the mind of the reader). The
following are some of the guidelines for writing descriptive essays:
 Take time to brainstorm
 Use clear and concise language
 Choose vivid language (clear language or terms which does not look
nuance to the reader).
 Use your sense (explain how the thing smelled, felt, sounded, tasted
or looked, embellish the moment with senses)
 If you can describe emotions or feelings related to you topic, you will
connect with the reader at a deeper level.
 Leave the reader with a clear impression.
 Be organized (you must strive to present an organized and logical
description.)
3. Argumentative/Persuasive Essay: this is a genre of writing that requires the
learner/student or writer to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate
evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.
Sometimes argumentative essay may be confused with expository essay.
Yes the two genres are similar, but the argumentative differs from expository
in the amount of pre-writing and research involved. It involves lengthy,
detailed research and advanced composition. Generally argumentative
essays call for extensive research where the students is required to collects
data through interviews, surveys, observations or experiments.
Methods of argumentative essay

There are two approaches: i) the five paragraph essay-approach consists of:
 An introductory paragraph
 Three evidential body paragraphs that may include discussion of
opposing views
 A conclusion
ii) longer argumentative essays: here the author may discuss the context
surrounding the topic, sources of information, and their credibility, as well
as a number of different opinions on the issues before concluding the
essay.
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The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following:
 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the the
first paragraph of the essay.
 Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body and
conclusion.
 Body paragraphs that include evidential support.
 Evidential support can be factual, logical, statistical or anecdotal.
 A conclusion that does simply restate the thesis, but re addresses it in
light of the evidence provided.
 It must be complete, logical so, leaving no doubts as to its intent or
argument.
4. Expository essay: this is a genre of essay that requires the student/writer to
investigate an idea, evaluate evidence, expound on the idea, and set forth an
argument concerning that idea in a clear and concise manner. This can be
accomplished through comparison and contrast, definition, example, the
analysis of cause and effect, etc.
Note: This genre is commonly assigned as a tool for classroom evaluation

and is often found in various exam formats.
The structure of expository essay is the same with argumentative essay.
4. ORAL PRESENTATION
Presentation can either be academic or work/business presentation. It could be a

presentation stemming up from a study group to be delivered to the whole class. if it
is beyond the institution (school) level, the work place environment or requires you to
make presentations on different emerging issues you are to give attention to the
following: audience analysis, presentation, practice and your own credibility as a
speaker.
To prepare for these varied experience, you apply the same rhetoric principles that
you have in developing written documents, you need to consider your knowledge,
attitudes, and needs of your listeners. Once you complete that analysis you can use
the information you gathered to construct and deliver your presentation.
4.1 Audience Analysis

This refers to the process of determining the important characteristics of an
audience in order to choose the best style, format and information /argument
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when writing or speaking. In other words, understanding the identity, personality
and characteristics brought to a situation by the specific type of audience.
The more you know and understand about your audience and their needs, the
better you can prepare your speech to assure that you meet their needs. Use the
9 P’s as you prepare the speech:
Prior Proper Preparation
Prevents Poor Performance of the
Person Putting on the Presentation
Note: nothing will relax you more than to know you have properly prepare. Stage fright
and anxiety is felt by many speakers due to not knowing enough about the speaking
environment or the audience.
According to Lenny Laskowski, audience analysis can be defined by the acronym

AUDIENCE.
Analysis – who are they? How many will be there?
Understanding – what is their knowledge of the subject?
Demographics – what is their age, sex, educational backgrounds?
Interest – why are they there? Who asked them to be there?
Environment – where will I stand? Can they all see and hear me?
Needs – what are their needs? What are your needs as a speaker?
Customized – what specific needs do you need to address?
Expectations – what do they expect to learn or hear from you?
4.2 Preparing Oral Presentation
As you prepare focus the attention on questions concerning three aspects. ie.
Knowledge, attitudes and needs of both you the speaker and the audience.
 Knowledge: what you and your listeners know about the subject.
 Attitudes: how you and your listeners feel about the subject.
 Needs: why you need to communicate the information orally or your purpose
in doing so.
The above helps you to determine what exactly you want to accomplish in your
presentation. Further, help you to clarify your purpose, listeners’ attitudes and
expectations, and the type of oral presentation you wish to deliver.
4.3 Types of Oral Presentation
i) Impromptu presentation
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This is a presentation delivered at a moment’s notice, unprepared and
unrehearsed. Impromptu speeches are by nature unplanned and done without
notes and it give little thought to organization. We make impromptu presentations
daily. For example, when an open discussion erupts among students or
workmates or peers, impromptu presentation can be used. Impromptu
presentation is usually used when your listeners and you needs immediate
feedback.
ii) Extemporaneous presentation

Many people confuse extemporaneous and impromptu presentations, but they
are very different. An extemporaneous presentation is one that you plan carefully
in advance, prepare thoroughly, and then deliver in a spontaneous manner. This
method of presentation is usually used by best lecturers, motivational speakers,
trainers and chief executive officers who want to energize their employees with
an annual presentation. Sometimes this type of presentation is called outlined
talk.
As you prepare for extemporaneous presentation follow these three steps:
 In an outline list, write down all of your ideas in the order of their introduction.
 In a set of brief notes, write down not more than a dozen key words that will
act as reminders during your presentation.
 Practice to work out your general treatment foe each of your talk, decide how
to emphasize your main points, and develop transitions that are clear and
concise. In addition, use visual aids to guide both you and listeners.
iii) Scripted presentations

This is type of presentation which is delivered verbatim from a written copy of
what you will present. Its preparation is similar to extemporaneous speech
especially in planning and writing it. For scripted presentation you determine
every word, all graphics, and many gestures in advance, and when you present
your information, you read your script to listeners. An example of these
presentations is common with head state’s address, speeches delivered by
dignitaries like commissioners, bishops, etc.
iv) Power point presentations

This can also be looked at as scripted but it utilizes technology. When presenting
using power point, don not use complete sentences on your slides, because you
will invariably end up turning your back to the audience and reading the slides
verbatim. To avoid that follow these general rules:
 Two- three-word phrases foe each point, avoid long sentences.
 Generally put one topic per slide
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 Title each slide
 Make not more than 6 words line in a slide
 Use large font size to indicate important information (18 to 48 font)
 Bullets to highlight your text items.
4.4 Essential Guidelines for Oral Presentation

Whenever you need to prepare an oral presentation at school or work place, the
following four essential guidelines will help you be more effective and
comfortable:
 Make the presentation short by sticking to a few main points; and time
your presentation a bit short so that you can talk slowly.
 Make the organization obvious: acknowledge your introduction if you have
been introduced, but if not take a moment to make people know who you
are and in which capacity you are presenting. Continue to tell them what
you are going to tell them or talk about, during he delivery inform them,
persuade and teach them; and towards end summarize, conclude and
recommend.
 Make ideas simple and clear by doing the following: add mini previews
and summaries throughout the presentation to keep your audience on
track; use obvious and clear transitions; repeat your main points often; try
to show the audience how things look and finally use plain simple
language- avoid jargons.
 Summarize and be ready for questions. This is done by repeating your
main points in your conclusion; repeat each question asked for the benefit
of the audience, reword clumsy questions; and wait until after the speech
to give handouts to listeners.
Following the above will help you prepare and deliver more effective oral
presentations at school and in your work places or elsewhere.
4.5 Delivering Oral Presentations

When you deliver an oral presentation, you have to be like a stage performer,
with words to deliver and sometimes, visual aids to manage. When delivering
oral presentations, consider the following to avoid communication anxiety
(nervousness):
i) Set the stage and audience
 Get there early and get ready, try out all audiovisual equipment
 Remove disruptions if you can
 Cool off the audience by opening windows if you need to
 Choose a room that is somewhat small
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 Choose a room with the entrance at the rear
ii) Carry an insurance policy(for extemporaneous presentation)
 Put your notes on a card and number them clearly in case you drop
them
 List your main points
 Write on one side only
 Talk from visual aids and other materials
 Have a plan in mind if the power point for instance refuses to load.
iii) When visual aids are used maximize the benefit on the side of your
audience.
iv) Talk enthusiastically and slowly
 Keep in mind that you are talking to people, not reciting words.
 Use your voice to clarify your message
 Show enthusiasm and interest
 Keep good posture
 Maintain eye contact with your audience
 Place you hand at your sides except when highlighting something
on a visual aid or making gestures on your script.
4.6 Managing Stage Fright

The following are some of the strategies to manage stage fright before and
during presentation:
 Preparing well in advance. Thorough preparation and practice helps a lot
in preventing stage fright. When you know the topic very well and have
thought about the questions and interest of the listeners, you feel prepared
and competent. This gives you confidence before the audience.
 Stop thinking about yourself. Focus your attention on your audience
 Bear in mind that the audience is on your side and that they are not your
enemy
 Try to imagine you are talking to each person individually, not as a group.
 Ask rhetoric questions to reinforce the illusion that it’s a one- on – one
conversion.
 Have a glass of water to sip from just in case your month or brain dries up
 Take slower, deeper breaths. It will calm you down and help get more
oxygen to your brain.
 Smile; it’s a natural relaxant. And it will make a good impression on your
audience too.
 Limit your caffeine intake; you definitely do not want to appear overly
manic.
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 Visualize the end of the presentation and the round of applause you could
be getting
 Ask yourself what is the worst that could happen; after all, it is just a
presentation.
 Other considerations are: appearance and dressing, eye contact and body
movement and gestures and voice projection.
5. THE INTERNET AND WEB COMMUNICATION
You must have come across the term internet or the web in different places.
Peoples’ understanding of the internet may vary from place to place, but they also
have some things in common.
The Internet is a network that links millions of computers around the world. Not so
long ago, few people had heard of the Internet. Today, the Internet has
revolutionized how people use computers. Many people depend on it daily to
communicate with others and to get the information they need. The day you will start
using the internet, you will be amazed, and wonder how you lived without it. The
Internet also includes other services, such as e-mail, newsgroups, and file sharing.
You can send an e-mail message or participate in a newsgroup without using the
web.
The web on the other hand (World Wide Web) is a huge storehouse of information.
The web is the most popular part of the Internet, partly because it displays most
information in an attractive way. Headlines, text, and pictures can be combined on a
single webpage much like a page in a magazine along with sounds and animation. A
website is a collection of interconnected WebPages. The web contains millions of
websites and billions of WebPages.
Surfing the web means exploring it. You can find information on the web about
almost any topic imaginable. For example, you can read news stories and movie
reviews, check airline schedules, see street maps, get the weather forecast for your
city, or research a health condition. Most companies, government agencies,
museums, and libraries have websites with information about their products,
services, or collections. Reference sources, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias,
are also widely available.
5.1 Advantages of Internet and Web Communication

 Facilitates free flow of information.
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 There are limited or reduced state’s or government interferences because
of the nature and technology.
 It is convenient, because the information reach the audience in a timely
manner and at a minimal cost.
 Allows equal participation between the audience and sender.
5.2 Bottlenecks To Internet Communication

 access
 language barrier
 cost
 Validity and reliability of data accessed through the internet.
 The need for special expertise
 Demographic constraint- mainly used for interpersonal private
communication process.
5.3 Issues To Watch-Out For In Internet Communication

 Credibility and reliability of the source of information.
 Motives and purpose of the information posted online.
 Biasness
 Ethical nature – ethics is not followed because sometimes permission is
not sought for to visit the web site.
 Representation of the sources and audiences
 Security is questionable.
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UNIT EIGHT
COMPUTER APPLICATION
Learning Outcome
This unit is intended to enable caregiver to demonstrate an understanding in ICT in

different contexts and use them effectively to aid children’s learning in a wide range of
situations.
Competences
By the end of this Unit, the caregiver will be able to:
 Utilize different ICT to enhance self study and instruction of children in different
situations
 Apply the different ICT skills to constructively and appropriately manage
children’s learning
 Appropriately maintain different ICT equipment
COURSE OUTLINE
Topic I: Introduction to ICT

a) Meaning of ICT
b) Introduction to computers
c) Types of computers
Topic II: Parts of a Computer
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a) Uses of computer
b) Parts of a computer
c) The desk top
Topic III: Hardware and Software
a) Mouse
b) Keyboard
c) Monitor
d) Printer
e) Speakers
f) Modem
Topic IV: Turning on and off the computer
a) Turning on the computer

b) Turning off the computer
Topic V: Working with windows
a) Parts of a window
b) Working in windows
c) Working with files and folders
Topic VI: Exploring the Internet
a) Internet and the web

b) Using the internet
c) Setting and using e-mail account
d) Security while using the internet
Topic VII: Application of ICT in ECD institutions
a) Roles of ICT in ECD

b) ICT games for children
c) Security when using ICT with children
Topic I: Introduction to ICT

This topic has three sub-topics namely:
a) Meaning of ICT
a) Meaning of ICT
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ICT stands for “information and communication technologies”. This term is now widely
used in educational research, policy, and practice. It replaces the older term, “IT”, or
information technology, which was most often used in reference to computers and the
Internet. The term “ICT” encompasses much more than just computers. ICT can be
defined as “anything which allows us to get information, to communicate with each
other, or to have an effect on the environment using electronic or digital equipment”.
Major ICTs include computers, phones, and other communication gadgets.
Computers are among different devices referred to as ICT. Computers are machines
that perform tasks or calculations according to a set of instructions, or programs. It
comes from the word to ‘compute’ which means to work out. Thus, those machines that
we use to help us work out problems are computers. Compared to those early
machines, today's computers are thousands of times faster, and can fit on your desk, in
your lap, or even in your pocket. The different computers are also called types of
computers as we shall be looking at them in the following discussion.
Types of computers
There are different types of computers that range from supercomputers, very large
computers with thousands of linked microprocessors that perform extremely complex
calculations to tiny computers embedded in cars, TVs, stereo systems, calculators, and
appliances. You must have come across them in other different situations.
Desktop computers
Desktop computers are those computers you see on tables and desks in offices. They
are bigger and are made up of separate parts that are joined together by wires or cables
so as to work together. The main part of the computer is called the system unit, which is
usually a rectangular case that sits on or under a desk. Other parts that include the
monitor, mouse, and keyboard, connect to the system unit.
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Desktop computer
Laptop computers
Laptop computers are lightweight mobile computers with a thin screen. They are often
called notebook computers because of their small size. Laptops can operate on
batteries, so you can take them anywhere. Unlike desktops, laptops combine the CPU,
screen, and keyboard in a single case. The screen folds down onto the keyboard when
not in use.
Laptop computer
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After looking at the other two types of computers, one may think there are no other yet
there some other types that may not be common among us but are actually types of
computers. They include:
Handheld computers
Handheld computers, also called Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), are battery-
powered computers small enough to carry almost anywhere. Although not as powerful
as desktops or laptops, handhelds are useful for scheduling appointments, storing
addresses and phone numbers, and playing games. Some have more advanced
capabilities, such as making telephone calls or accessing the Internet. Instead of
keyboards, handhelds have touch screens that you use with your finger or a stylus (a
pen-shaped pointing tool).
Handheld computer
Tablet PCs
Tablet PCs are mobile PCs that combine features of laptops and handhelds. Like
laptops, they're powerful and have a built-in screen. Like handhelds, they allow you to
write notes or draw pictures on the screen, usually with a tablet pen instead of a stylus.
They can also convert your handwriting into typed text. Some Tablet PCs are
“convertibles” with a screen that rotates and unfolds to reveal a keyboard below.
Tablet PC
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TOPIC II: PARTS OF A COMPUTER
a) Uses of computer
b) Parts of a computer
c) The desk top
Uses of a Computers
In the workplace, many people use computers to keep records, analyze data, do
research, and manage projects. You can also use your computer to connect to the
Internet. With Internet access, you can communicate with people all over the world and
find a vast amount of information. At home, you can use computers to find information,
store pictures and music, track finances, play games, and communicate with others and
those are just a few of the possibilities. Useful for scheduling appointments, storing
addresses and phone numbers, and playing games. Some have more advanced
capabilities, such as making telephone calls or accessing the Internet. Some of the uses
are shown as follows:
Parts of a computer
If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part
called the "computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together.
These parts include hardware and software. An ordinary computer is as shown in the
diagram below. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single
notebook-sized package.
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Desktop computer system
Let's take a look at each of these parts.
System unit
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed
on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that
process information. The most important of these components is the central processing
unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another
component is Random Access Memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information
that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased
when the computer is turned off.
Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The
cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit.
Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or
device.
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System unit
Storage
Your computer has one or more disk drives devices that store information on a metal or
plastic disk. The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off.
Hard disk drive
Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk, a rigid platter or stack
of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive amounts of
information, they usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding
almost all of your programs and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the
system unit.
Hard disk drive
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CD and DVD drives
Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on
the front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD, and
many CD drives can also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk
drive, you can store copies of your files on blank CDs. You can also use a CD drive to
play music CDs on your computer.
CD
DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD
drive, you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record data onto
blank DVDs.
Tip
 If you have a recordable CD or DVD drive, periodically back up (copy) your

important files to CDs or DVDs. That way, if your hard disk ever fails, you won't
lose your data.
Floppy disk drive
Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes.
Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount of data. They
also retrieve information more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these
reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than they used to be, although some
computers still include them.
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Floppy disk
Why are floppy disks "floppy"? Even though the outside is made of hard plastic, that's
just the sleeve. The disk inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl material.
The desktop (overview)
The desktop is the main screen area that you see after you turn on your computer and
log on to Windows. Like the top of an actual desk, it serves as a surface for your work.
When you open programs or folders, they appear on the desktop. You can also put
things on the desktop, such as files and folders, and arrange them however you want.
The desktop is sometimes defined more broadly to include the taskbar and Windows
Sidebar. The taskbar sits at the bottom of your screen. It shows you which programs are
running and allows you to switch between them. It also contains the Start button ,
which you can use to access programs, folders, and computer settings. On the side of
the screen, Sidebar contains small programs called gadgets.
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The desktop, taskbar, and Sidebar
Working with desktop icons
Icons are small pictures that represent files, folders, programs, and other items. When
you first start Windows, you will see at least one icon on your desktop: Some examples
of desktop icons are shown below.
Examples of desktop icons
Double-clicking a desktop icon starts or opens the item it represents. For example,
double-clicking the Internet Explorer icon starts Internet Explorer.
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Adding and removing icons from the desktop
You can choose which icons appear on the desktop you can add or remove an icon at
any time. Some people like a clean, uncluttered desktop with few or no icons. Others
place dozens of icons on their desktop to give them quick access to frequently used
programs, files, and folders.
If you want easy access from the desktop to your favorite files or programs, create
shortcuts to them. A shortcut is an icon that represents a link to an item, rather than the
item itself. When you double-click a shortcut, the item opens. If you delete a shortcut,
only the shortcut is removed, not the original item. You can identify shortcuts by the
arrow on their icon.
A folder icon (left) and a shortcut icon (right)
To add a shortcut to the desktop
1. Locate the item that you want to create a shortcut for.

2. Right-click the item, click Send To, and then click Desktop (create shortcut). The
shortcut icon appears on your desktop.
To add or remove common desktop icons
Common desktop icons include Computer, your personal folder, Network, the Recycle
Bin, Internet Explorer, and Control Panel.
1. Right-click an empty area of the desktop, and then click Personalize.

2. In the left pane, click Change desktop icons.
3. Under Desktop icons, select the check box for each icon that you want to add to
the desktop, or clear the check box for each icon that you want to remove from
the desktop, and then click OK
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Moving icons around
Windows stacks icons in columns on the left side of the desktop. But you're not stuck
with that arrangement. You can move an icon by dragging it to a new place on the
desktop.
You can also have Windows automatically arrange your icons. Right-click an empty
area of the desktop, click View, and then click Auto Arrange. Windows stacks your icons
in the upper-left corner and locks them in place. To unlock the icons so that you can
move them again, click Auto Arrange again, clearing the check mark next to it.
Note
 By default, Windows spaces icons evenly on an invisible grid. To place icons

closer together or with more precision, turn off the grid. Right-click an empty area
of the desktop, click View, and then click Align to Grid to clear the check mark.
Repeat these steps to turn the grid back on.
Selecting multiple icons
To move or delete a bunch of icons at once, you must first select all of them. Click an
empty area of the desktop and drag the mouse. Surround the icons that you want to
select with the rectangle that appears. Then release the mouse button. Now you can
drag the icons as a group or delete them.
Select multiple desktop icons by dragging a rectangle around them
Hiding desktop icons
If you want to temporarily hide all of your desktop icons without actually removing them,
right-click an empty part of the desktop, click View, and then click Show Desktop Icons
to clear the check mark from that option. Now no icons are displayed on the desktop.
You can get them back by clicking Show Desktop Icons again.
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The Recycle Bin
When you delete a file or folder, it doesn't actually get deleted right away it goes to the
Recycle Bin. That's a good thing, because if you ever change your mind and decide you
need a deleted file, you can get it back.
The Recycle Bin when empty (left) and full (right)
If you are sure that you will not need the deleted items again, you can empty the
Recycle Bin. Doing that will permanently delete the items and reclaim any disk space
they were using.
Picking a desktop background
One of the easiest ways to personalize your computer is to change the desktop
background, also called the wallpaper. You can choose one of the backgrounds
provided with Windows, pick a favorite digital picture from your own collection, or use a
solid background color. You can also find pictures on the Internet designed to be used
as desktop backgrounds.
Sample desktop backgrounds provided with Windows
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Generally, computers work through an interaction of hardware and software. Hardware
refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch, including the case and
everything inside it. The most important piece of hardware is a tiny rectangular chip
inside your computer called the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor. It is
the "brain" of your computer—the part that translates instructions and performs
calculations. Hardware items such as your monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and other
items are often called hardware devices, or devices.
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Software on the other hand refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware
what to do. A word processing program that you can use to write letters on your
computer is a type of software. The Operating System (OS) is software that manages
your computer and the devices connected to it.
Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen.
Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual
mouse. It is small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that
resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.
Mouse
A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a
secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows
you to scroll smoothly through screens of information.
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same
direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it is positioned
on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click
(press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the
main way to interact with your computer.
Using your mouse
Just as you would use your hands to interact with objects in the physical world, you can
use your mouse to interact with items on your computer screen. You can move objects,
open them, change them, throw them away, and perform other actions, all by pointing
and clicking with your mouse.
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Basic parts
A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a
secondary button (usually the right button). The primary button is the one you will use
most often. Most mice also include a scroll wheel between the buttons to help you scroll
through documents and webpages more easily. On some mice, the scroll wheel can be
pressed to act as a third button. Advanced mice might have additional buttons that can
perform other functions.
Parts of a mouse
Holding and moving the mouse
Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a mouse
pad. Hold the mouse gently with your index finger resting on the primary button and
your thumb resting on the side. To move the mouse, slide it slowly in any direction. Do
not twist it keep the front of the mouse aimed away from you. As you move the mouse,
a pointer (see picture) on your screen moves in the same direction. If you run out of
room to move your mouse on your desk or mouse pad, just pick up the mouse and bring
it back closer to you.
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Hold the mouse lightly, keeping your wrist straight
Pointing, clicking, and dragging
Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse so the pointer appears to
be touching the item. When you point to something, a small box often appears that
describes the item. For example, when you point to the Recycle Bin on the desktop, a
box appears with this information: "Contains the files and folders that you have deleted."
Pointing to an object often reveals a descriptive message about it
The pointer can change depending on what you're pointing to. For example, when you
point to a link in your web browser, the pointer changes from an arrow to a hand with a
pointing finger .
Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of the mouse buttons. There
are four basic ways to use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking,
and dragging.
Clicking (single-clicking)
To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary
button (usually the left button).
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Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes
called single-clicking or left-clicking.
Double-clicking
To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. If
the two clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks
rather than as one double-click.
Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you
can start a program or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.
Tip
 If you have trouble double-clicking, you can adjust the double-click speed (the
amount of time acceptable between clicks). Follow these steps:
1. Open Mouse by clicking the Start button , clicking Control Panel, clicking
Hardware, and then clicking Mouse.
2. Click the Buttons tab, and then, under Double-click speed, move the slider
to increase or decrease the speed.
Right-clicking
To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the
secondary button (usually the right button).
Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For
example, when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, Windows displays a
menu allowing you to open it, empty it, delete it, or see its properties. If you're ever
unsure of what to do with something, right-click it.
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Right-clicking the Recycle Bin opens a menu of related commands
Dragging
You can move items around your screen by dragging them. To drag an object, point to
the object on the screen, press and hold the primary button, move the object to a new
location, and then release the primary button.
Dragging (sometimes called dragging and dropping) is most often used to move files
and folders to a different location and to move windows and icons around on your
screen.
Using the scroll wheel
If your mouse has a scroll wheel, you can use it to scroll through documents and web
pages. To scroll down, roll the wheel backward (toward you). To scroll up, roll the wheel
forward (away from you).
Customizing your mouse
You can change your mouse settings to suit your personal preferences. For example,
you can change how fast your mouse pointer moves around the screen, or change the
pointer's appearance. If you're left-handed, you can switch the primary button to be the
right button.
Tips for using your mouse safely
Holding and moving your mouse properly can help you avoid soreness or injury to your
wrists, hands, and arms, particularly if you use your computer for long periods of time.
Here are some tips to help you avoid problems:
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 Place your mouse at elbow level. Your upper arms should fall relaxed at your
sides.
 Don't squeeze or grip your mouse tightly. Hold it lightly.
 Move the mouse by pivoting your arm at your elbow. Avoid bending your wrist
up, down, or to the sides.
 Use a light touch when clicking a mouse button.
 Keep your fingers relaxed. Don't allow them to hover just above the buttons.
 When you don't need to use the mouse, don't hold it.
 Take short breaks from computer use every 15 to 20 minutes.
Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a
typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:
 The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending
on where they are used.
 The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to
enter numbers quickly.
 The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position
within a document or webpage.
Keyboard
You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can perform
with a mouse.
Using your keyboard
Whether you're writing a letter or entering numerical data, your keyboard is the main
way to enter information into your computer. But did you know you can also use your
keyboard to control your computer? Learning just a few simple keyboard commands
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(instructions to your computer) can help you work more efficiently. This article covers
the basics of keyboard operation and gets you started with keyboard commands.
How the keys are organized
The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:
 Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number,
punctuation, and symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
 Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to
perform certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL, ALT,
the Windows logo key , and ESC.
 Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are
labeled as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys
differs from program to program.
 Navigation keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or web
pages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP,
PAGE DOWN, DELETE, and INSERT.
 Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The
keys are grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding
machine.
The following illustration shows how these keys are arranged on a typical keyboard.
Your keyboard layout may differ.
How the keys are arranged on a keyboard
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Typing text
Whenever you need to type something in a program, e-mail message, or text box, you'll
see a blinking vertical line ( ). That's the cursor, also called the insertion point. It shows
where the text that you type will begin. You can move the cursor by clicking in the
desired location with the mouse, or by using the navigation keys (see the "Using
navigation keys" section of this article).
In addition to letters, numerals, punctuation marks, and symbols, the typing keys also
include SHIFT, CAPS LOCK, the TAB key, ENTER, the SPACEBAR, and
BACKSPACE.
Key name How to use it
Press SHIFT in combination with a letter to type an uppercase letter.

SHIFT Press SHIFT in combination with another key to type the symbol shown
on the upper part of that key.
Press CAPS LOCK once to type all letters as uppercase. Press CAPS
CAPS LOCK LOCK again to turn this function off. Your keyboard may have a light
indicating whether CAPS LOCK is on.
Press the TAB key to move the cursor several spaces forward. You can
TAB
also press the TAB key to move to the next text box on a form.
Press ENTER to move the cursor to the beginning of the next line. In a
ENTER
dialog box, press ENTER to select the highlighted button.
SPACEBAR Press the SPACEBAR to move the cursor one space forward.
Press BACKSPACE to delete the character before the cursor, or the
BACKSPACE
selected text.
Using keyboard shortcuts
Keyboard shortcuts are ways to perform actions by using your keyboard. They're called
shortcuts because they help you work faster. In fact, almost any action or command you
can perform with a mouse can be performed faster using one or more keys on your
keyboard.
In Help topics, a plus sign (+) between two or more keys indicates that those keys
should be pressed in combination. For example, CTRL+A means to press and hold
CTRL and then press A. CTRL+SHIFT+A means to press and hold CTRL and SHIFT
and then press A.
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Find program shortcuts
You can do things in most programs by using the keyboard. To see which commands
have keyboard shortcuts, open a menu. The shortcuts (if available) are shown next to
the menu items.
Keyboard shortcuts appear next to menu items
Choose menus, commands, and options
You can open menus and choose commands and other options using your keyboard.
When you press ALT in a program with menus, one letter in each of the menu names
becomes underlined. Press an underlined letter to open the corresponding menu. Press
the underlined letter in a menu item to choose that command.
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Press ALT+F to open the File menu, then press P to choose the Print command
This trick works in dialog boxes too. Whenever you see an underlined letter attached to
an option in a dialog box, it means you can press ALT plus that letter to choose that
option.
Useful shortcuts
The following table lists some of the most useful keyboard shortcuts.
Press this To do this
Windows logo key

Open the Start menu
ALT+TAB Switch between open programs or windows

ALT+F4 Close the active item, or exit the active program
CTRL+S Save the current file or document (works in most programs)
CTRL+C Copy the selected item
CTRL+X Cut the selected item
CTRL+V Paste the selected item
CTRL+Z Undo an action
CTRL+A Select all items in a document or window
F1 Display Help for a program or Windows
Windows logo key
+F1 Display Windows Help and Support
ESC Cancel the current task

Application key Open a menu of commands related to a selection in a program.
Equivalent to right-clicking the selection.
Using navigation keys
The navigation keys allow you to move the cursor, move around in documents and
webpages, and edit text. The following table lists some common functions of these
keys.
Press this To do this
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LEFT ARROW, RIGHT Move the cursor or selection one space or line in the
ARROW, UP ARROW, or direction of the arrow, or scroll a webpage in the
DOWN ARROW direction of the arrow
Move the cursor to the beginning of a line or move to the
HOME
top of a webpage
Move the cursor to the end of a line or move to the
END
bottom of a webpage
CTRL+HOME Move to the top of a document
CTRL+END Move to the bottom of a document
PAGE UP Move the cursor or page up one screen
PAGE DOWN Move the cursor or page down one screen
Delete the character after the cursor, or the selected
DELETE text; in Windows, delete the selected item and move it to
the Recycle Bin
Turn Insert mode off or on. When Insert mode is on, text
that you type is inserted at the cursor. When Insert
INSERT
mode is off, text that you type replaces existing
characters.
Using the numeric keypad
The numeric keypad arranges the numerals 0 though 9, the arithmetic operators +
(addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), and / (division), and the decimal point as
they would appear on a calculator or adding machine. These characters are duplicated
elsewhere on the keyboard, of course, but the keypad arrangement allows you to
rapidly enter numerical data or mathematical operations with one hand.
Numeric keypad
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To use the numeric keypad to enter numbers, press NUM LOCK. Most keyboards have
a light that indicates whether NUM LOCK is on or off. When NUM LOCK is off, the
numeric keypad functions as a second set of navigation keys (these functions are
printed on the keys next to the numerals or symbols).
You can use your numeric keypad to perform simple calculations with Calculator.
Three odd keys
So far, we've discussed almost every key you're likely to use. But for the truly
inquisitive, let's explore the three most mysterious keys on the keyboard: PRINT
SCREEN, SCROLL LOCK, and PAUSE/BREAK.
PRINT SCREEN (or PRT SCN)
A long time ago, this key actually did what it says it sent the current screen of text to
your printer. Nowadays, pressing PRINT SCREEN captures an image of your entire
screen (a "screen shot") and copies it to the Clipboard in your computer's memory.
From there you can paste it (CTRL+V) into Microsoft Paint or another program and, if
you want, print it from that program.
More obscure is SYS RQ, which shares the key with PRINT SCREEN on some
keyboards. Historically, SYS RQ was designed to be a "system request," but this
command is not enabled in Windows.
Tip
 Press ALT+PRINT SCREEN to capture an image of just the active window,

instead of the entire screen.
SCROLL LOCK (or SCR LK)
In most programs, pressing SCROLL LOCK has no effect. In a few programs, pressing
SCROLL LOCK changes the behavior of the arrow keys and the PAGE UP and PAGE
DOWN keys; pressing these keys causes the document to scroll without changing the
position of the cursor or selection. Your keyboard might have a light indicating whether
SCROLL LOCK is on.
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PAUSE/BREAK
This key is rarely used. In some older programs, pressing this key pauses the program
or, in combination with CTRL, stops it from running.
Other keys
Some modern keyboards come with "hot keys" or buttons that give you quick, one-press
access to programs, files, or commands. Other models have volume controls, scroll
wheels, zoom wheels, and other gadgets. For details about these features, check the
information that came with your keyboard or computer, or go to the manufacturer's
website.
Tips for using your keyboard safely
Using your keyboard properly can help avoid soreness or injury to your wrists, hands,
and arms, particularly if you use your computer for long periods of time. Here are some
tips to help you avoid problems:
 Place your keyboard at elbow level. Your upper arms should be relaxed at your
sides.
 Center your keyboard in front of you. If your keyboard has a numeric keypad, you
can use the spacebar as the centering point.
 Type with your hands and wrists floating above the keyboard, so that you can
use your whole arm to reach for distant keys instead of stretching your fingers.
 Avoid resting your palms or wrists on any type of surface while typing. If your
keyboard has a palm rest, use it only during breaks from typing.
 While typing, use a light touch and keep your wrists straight.
 When you're not typing, relax your arms and hands.
 Take short breaks from computer use every 15 to 20 minutes.
Monitor
A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the
monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a
computer screen can show still or moving pictures.
There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid
crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the
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advantage of being much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally
more affordable.
LCD monitor (left); CRT monitor (right)
Printer
A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use
your computer, but having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations,
announcements, and other materials. Many people also like being able to print their own
photos at home.
The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are
the most popular printers for the home. They can print in black and white or in full color
and can produce high-quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers
are faster and generally better able to handle heavy use.
Inkjet printer (left); laser printer (right)
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Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected
with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your
computer.
Computer speakers
Modem
To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem. A modem is a device that
sends and receives computer information over a telephone line or high-speed cable.
Modems are sometimes built into the system unit, but higher-speed modems are usually
separate components.
Cable modem
TOPIC IV: TURNING ON AND OFF THE COMPUTER

Let us discuss each of the sub- topics in details.
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If you want to use a computer, you must first switch it on so that it can start. Switching
on the computer is also called turning on. In order to switch on the computer, you can
use the following basic steps.
 Make sure the computer is placed firmly on the table where it cannot fall off.
 Fix the power cable on the socket in the wall or power backup device that is also
used to supply power to the computer. When it is firmly fixed, you can switch on
power from the socket.
 When power comes on, look for the power switch on the computer and turn it on.
If it was well connected, then the computer screen will light up and start
displaying.
 You have to wait for it to start for some time. If it is ready, you can now start
using it to do whatever you want.
 You can try this several times until you get it right.
When you have finished using the computer, you must turn it off properly. Turning off
the computer properly does not only to save energy, but also ensures that your data is
saved as the computer remains more secure. Best of all, your computer will start quickly
the next time you use it.
Use the Power button on the Start menu

To turn off your computer, click the Start button , and then click the Power button in
the lower right corner of the Start menu. The power button can be used to command the
computer to do other things. For example, the power button can be used to order the
computer to sleep, switch off, lock, restart, hibernate or switch to other users. The
Power button normally looks like this:
The Power button (sleep)
When you click this button, your computer goes to sleep. Windows automatically saves
your work, the display turns off, and any noise from the computer's fan stops. Usually, a
light on the outside of your computer case blinks or turns yellow to indicate that the
computer is sleeping. The whole process takes only a few seconds.
Because Windows saves your work, there's no need to close your programs and files
before putting your computer to sleep. The next time you turn on your computer (and
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enter your password, if required), the screen will look exactly as it did when you turned
off your computer.
To wake your computer, press the power button on your computer case. Because you
don't have to wait for Windows to start, your computer wakes within seconds and you
can resume work almost immediately.
Note
 While your computer is sleeping, it uses a very small amount of power to

maintain your work in its memory. If you're using a mobile PC, don't worry— the
battery won't be drained. After the computer has been sleeping for several hours,
or if the battery is running low, your work is saved to the hard disk, and then your
computer turns off completely, drawing no power.
Why your Power button might look different
The Start menu's Power button can change its appearance. Under some circumstances,
the button looks like this:
The Power button (shut down)
When you click the button in this form, your computer shuts down. Unlike putting your
computer to sleep, shutting down closes all open programs, along with Windows itself,
and then turns off your display and computer completely. Because shutting down
doesn't save your work, you must save your files before shutting down.
The Power button shuts down your computer under the following circumstances:
 The Sleep option is not available on your computer hardware.

 You or your computer administrator has set the Power button to always shut
down the computer. (The settings can be changed by following the instructions
below.)
There's one other form that the Power button can take. If you've set your computer to
receive updates automatically, and the updates are ready to be installed, the button
appears with a shield on it:
The Power button (install updates and shut down)
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When you click the button in this form, Windows installs the updates and then shuts
down your computer when installation is complete.
Note
 Starting your computer after it has been shut down takes longer than waking your
computer from sleep—typically 30 seconds or more, depending on the speed of
your computer.
When to shut down
Even though putting your computer to sleep is the fastest way to turn it off, and the best
option for resuming work quickly, there are certain times when you should shut down
instead:
 You are adding or upgrading the hardware inside your computer such as
installing memory, a disk drive, a sound card, or a video card. Shut down the
computer, and then disconnect it from its power source before proceeding with
the upgrade.
 You are adding a printer, monitor, external drive, or other hardware device that
does not connect to a universal serial bus (USB) or IEEE 1394 port on your
computer. Shut down the computer before connecting the device.
To shut down your computer, click the arrow next to the Lock button, and then choose
Shut Down.
Click the arrow next to the Lock button to access the Shut Down option
Note
 When adding hardware that uses a USB cable, you don't need to turn off the
computer first. Most newer devices use USB cables. A USB cable looks like this:
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USB cable
Whenever you open a program, file, or folder, it appears on your screen in a box or
frame called a window (that is where the Windows operating system gets its name).
Because windows are everywhere in Windows, it is important to understand how to
move them, change their size, or just make them go away.
TOPIC V: WORKING WITH WINDOWS
Although the contents of every window are different, all windows share some things in
common. For one thing, windows always appear on the desktop the main work area of
your screen. In addition, most windows have the same basic parts:
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Parts of a typical window
 Title bar. Displays the name of the document and program (or the folder name if
you're working in a folder).
 Minimize, Maximize, and Close buttons. These buttons hide the window, enlarge
it to fill the whole screen, and close it, respectively (more details on these
shortly).
 Menu bar. Contains items that you can click to make choices in a program.
 Scroll bar. Lets you scroll the contents of the window to see information that is
currently out of view.
 Borders and corners. You can drag these with your mouse pointer to change the
size of the window.
Other windows might have additional buttons, boxes, or bars. But they'll usually have
the basic parts, too.
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As you use windows, you will learn that it has different functions. You can do many
things with it. Some of the things are as explained below.
Moving a window
To move a window, point to its title bar with the mouse pointer . Then drag the window
to the location that you want. (Dragging means pointing to an item, holding down the
mouse button, moving the item with the pointer, and then releasing the mouse button.)
Changing the size of a window
 To make a window fill the entire screen, click its Maximize button or double-
click the window's title bar.
 To return a maximized window to its former size, click its Restore button (this
appears in place of the Maximize button). Or, double-click the window's title bar.
 To resize a window (make it smaller or bigger), point to any of the window's
borders or corners. When the mouse pointer changes to a two-headed arrow
(see picture below), drag the border or corner to shrink or enlarge the window.
Drag a window's border or corner to resize it
A window that is maximized cannot be resized. You must restore it to its previous
size first.
Note
 Although most windows can be maximized and resized, there are some windows
that are fixed in size, such as dialog boxes.
Hiding a window
Hiding a window is called minimizing it. If you want to get a window out of the way
temporarily without closing it, minimize it.
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To minimize a window, click its Minimize button . The window disappears from the
desktop and is visible only as a button on the taskbar, the long horizontal bar at the
bottom of your screen.
Taskbar button
To make a minimized window appear again on the desktop, click its taskbar button. The
window appears exactly as it did before you minimized it.
Closing a window
Closing a window removes it from the desktop and taskbar. If you're done with a
program or document and don't need to return to it right away, close it.
To close a window, click its Close button .
Note
 If you close a document without saving any changes you made, a message
appears that gives you the option to save your changes.
Switching between windows
If you open more than one program or document, your desktop can quickly become
cluttered with windows. Keeping track of which windows you have open isn't always
easy, because some windows might partially or completely cover others.
Using the taskbar. The taskbar provides a way to organize all of your windows. Each
window has a corresponding button on the taskbar. To switch to another window, just
click its taskbar button. The window appears in front of all other windows, becoming the
active window—the one you're currently working in.
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Clicking the Calculator taskbar button brings its window to the front
To easily identify a window, point to its taskbar button. A small picture called a
thumbnail appears that shows you a miniature version of the window. This preview is
especially useful if you can't identify a window by its title alone.
Point to a taskbar button to see a window preview
If the taskbar becomes too crowded with buttons, then the buttons for the same
program become grouped into a single button, as shown in the picture below. Click the
button to see a menu of the items in the group, then select an item to make it the active
window.
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Three Paint windows grouped into one taskbar button
Using ALT+TAB. You can switch to the previous window by pressing ALT+TAB, or cycle
through all open windows and the desktop by holding down ALT and repeatedly
pressing TAB. Release ALT to show the selected window.
Switching windows with

ALT+TAB
Using Windows Flip 3D. Windows Flip 3D arranges your windows in a three-
dimensional stack that you can quickly flip through. To use Flip 3D:
1. Hold down the Windows logo key and press TAB to open Flip 3D.
2. While holding down the Windows logo key, press TAB repeatedly or rotate the
mouse wheel to cycle through open windows. You can also press RIGHT
ARROW or DOWN ARROW to cycle forward one window, or press LEFT
ARROW or UP ARROW to cycle backward one window.
3. Release the Windows logo key to display the front most window in the stack. Or,
click any part of any window in the stack to display that window.
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Switching windows with Flip 3D
Note
 Flip 3D and taskbar window previews won't work unless your computer is running
Windows Aero, the premium visual experience of Windows Vista. Aero is not
available in Windows Vista Starter or Windows Vista Home Basic. Tip
 You can also open Flip 3D by clicking the Switch between windows button on
the taskbar. Then click a window in the stack to display that window, or click
outside the stack to close Flip 3D without switching windows.
Arranging windows automatically
Now that you know how to move and resize windows, you can arrange them however
you like on your desktop. You can also have Windows automatically arrange them in
one of three ways: cascading, vertically stacked, or side by
side.
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Arrange windows in a cascade (left), vertical stack (center), or side-by-side pattern
(right)
To choose one of these options, right-click an empty area of the taskbar, then click
Cascade Windows, Show Windows Stacked, or Show Windows Side by Side.
Dialog boxes
A dialog box is a special type of window that asks you a question, allows you to select
options to perform a task, or provides you with information. You'll often see dialog boxes
when a program or Windows needs a response from you to continue.
Dialog box
Unlike regular windows, most dialog boxes can't be maximized, minimized, or resized.
They can, however, be moved.
After learning where to go and what to click in windows, you now must start to use
different programmes to do your own work. When you do your own work, it will be called
a file. If you have many files, you can keep them together in one place called a folder.
This section will now help you to understand better how to deal with files and folders.
What are files and folders?
A file is very much like a typed document that you might find on someone's desk or in a
filing cabinet. It is an item that contains a collection of related information. On a
computer, examples of files include text documents, spreadsheets, digital pictures, and
even songs. Every picture you take with a digital camera, for example, is a separate file,
and a music CD might contain a dozen individual song files.
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Your computer represents files with icons. By looking at a file's icon, you can tell at a
glance what kind of file it is. Here are some common file icons:
You can tell what kind of file an icon represents by its appearance
A folder is little more than a container in which you can store files. If you put thousands
of paper files on someone's desk, it would be virtually impossible to find any particular
one when you needed it. That is why people often store paper files in folders inside a
filing cabinet. Arranging files into logical groups makes it easy to locate any particular
file.
Folders on your computer work exactly the same way. This is what a typical folder icon
looks like:
An empty folder (left); a folder containing files (right)
Not only do folders hold files, but they also can hold other folders. A folder within a
folder is usually called a subfolder. You can create any number of subfolders, and each
can hold any number of files and additional subfolders.
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How Windows organizes your files and folders
When it comes to getting organized, you do not need to start from scratch. Windows
comes with a handful of common folders that you can use as to begin organizing your
files. Here is a list of some of the most common folders that are already in the computer
where you can store your files and folders.
 Documents. Use this folder to store your word-processing files, spreadsheets,

presentations, and other business-oriented files.
 Pictures. Use this folder to store all of your digital pictures, whether you get them
from your camera, scanner, or in e-mail from other people.
 Music. Use this folder to store all of your digital music, such as songs that you
copy from an audio CD or download from the Internet.
 Videos. Use this folder to store your videos, such as clips from your digital
camera, camcorder, or video files that you download from the Internet.
 Downloads. Use this folder to store files and programs that you download from
the web.
There are many ways to find these folders. The easiest method is to open the personal
folder, which gathers all of your common folders in one place. The personal folder is not
actually called "personal". It is actually labeled with the name of the owner of the
computer or the user name that you used to log on to the computer. To open it, click the
Start button , and then click your user name at the top of the Start menu's right pane.
You can open common folders from the Start menu
You can also find the Documents, Pictures, and Music folders in the Start menu, just
below your personal folder.
Remember that you can create subfolders inside any of these folders to help you better
organize your files. In the Pictures folder, for example, you might create subfolders to
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organize pictures by date, by event, by the names of people in the pictures, or by any
other scheme that helps you work more efficiently.
Understanding the parts of a folder
When you open a folder on the desktop, a folder window appears. In addition to
showing the contents of the folder, a folder window has a variety of parts that are
designed to help you navigate around Windows or work with files and folders more
easily. Here is a typical folder and each of its parts:
The Documents folder
Folder part What it is useful for
Use the Address bar to navigate to a different folder without closing the
Address bar
current folder window.
Back and Use the Back and Forward buttons to navigate to other folders you have
Forward already opened without closing the current window. These buttons work
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Folder part What it is useful for
buttons in conjunction with the Address bar; after you use the Address bar to
change folders, for example, you can use the Back button to return to
the original folder.
Type a word or phrase in the Search box to look for a file or subfolder
The Search stored in the current folder. The search begins as soon as you begin
box typing, so as you type B, for example, all the files that start with the letter
B will appear in the folder's file list.
The toolbar allows you to perform common tasks, such as changing the
appearance of your files and folders, copying files to a CD, or starting a
Toolbar digital picture slide show. The toolbar's buttons change to show only the
commands that are useful. For example, if you click a picture file, the
toolbar shows different buttons than it would if you clicked a music file.
Like the Address bar, the Navigation pane lets you change the view to
other folders. The Favorite links section makes it easy to change to a
Navigation
common folder or start a search that you previously saved. If you often
pane
go to the same folder, you can drag that folder to the Navigation pane to
make it one of your own favorite links.
This is where the contents of the current folder are displayed. If you
File list typed in the Search box to find a file, only the files that match your
search will appear.
Column Use the column headings to change how the files in the file list are
headings organized. You can sort, group, or stack the files in the current view.
The Details pane shows the most common properties associated with
the selected file. File properties are information about a file, such as the
Details pane
author, the date you last changed the file, and any descriptive tags you
might have added to the file.
Use the Preview pane to see the contents of many kinds of files. If you
select an e-mail message, text file, or picture, for example, you can see
Preview pane its contents without opening it in a program. The Preview pane is not
displayed by default in most folders. To see it, click the Organize button
on the toolbar, click Layout, and then click Preview pane.
Viewing your files in a folder
When you open a folder and see your files, you might prefer larger (or smaller) icons, or
an arrangement that lets you see different kinds of information about each file. To make
these kinds of changes, use the Views button in the toolbar.
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Each time you click the Views button, the folder window changes the way it displays
your file and folder icons, alternating between large icons, a smaller icon view called
Tiles, and a view called Details that shows several columns of information about the file.
If you click the arrow next to the Views button, you have even more choices. Drag the
slider up or down to fine-tune the size of the file and folder icons. You can see the icons
change size as you move the slider.
The Views options
Finding your files
When you need to find a particular file, you'll often know that it's located somewhere in a
common folder like Documents or Pictures. Unfortunately, actually locating the file you
want might mean browsing through hundreds of files and subfolders not an easy task.
To save yourself time and effort, use the Search box to find your file.
The Search box
The Search box is located at the top of every folder. To find a file, open the folder that
contains the file you are looking for, click the Search box, and start typing. The Search
box filters the current view based on the text that you type. Files are displayed as
search results if your search term matches the file's name, tags, or other file properties.
Text documents are displayed if the search term occurs in any of the text inside the
document. Your search looks in the current folder as well as all subfolders.
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If you have no idea where to look for a file, you can expand your search to include the
entire computer, not just a single folder.
Copying and moving files and folders
Occasionally, you might want to change where files are stored on your computer. You
might want to move files to a different folder, for example, or copy them to removable
media (such as CDs or memory cards) to share with another person.
Most people copy and move files using a method called drag and drop. Start by opening
the folder that contains the file or folder you want to move. Then open the folder where
you want to move it to. Position the folder windows on the desktop so you can see the
contents of both of them.
Next, drag the file or folder from the first folder to the second folder. That's all there is to
it.
To copy or move a file,

drag it from one folder to another
When using the drag-and-drop method, you might notice that sometimes the file or
folder is copied, and at other times it is moved. Why is that? If you are dragging an item
between folders that are on the same hard drive, then the items are moved so two
copies of the same file or folder aren't created on the same hard drive. If you drag the
item to a folder that is on a different hard drive (such as a network location, for example)
or to removable media like a CD, the item will be copied. That way the file or folder isn't
removed from its original location.
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Creating and deleting files
The most common way to create new files is by using a program. For example, you can
create a text document in a word processing program or a movie file in a video editing
program.
Some programs create a file when you open them. When you open WordPad, for
example, it starts with a blank page. This represents an empty (and unsaved) file. Start
typing, and when you are ready to save your work, click File in the menu bar and then
click Save As. In the dialog box that appears, type a file name that will help you find the
file again in the future, and then click Save.
By default, most programs save files in common folders like Documents, Pictures, and
Music, which makes it easy to find the files again next time. When you no longer need a
file, you can remove it from your computer's hard disk to save space and keep your
computer from getting cluttered with unwanted files. To delete a file, open the folder that
contains the file and then select the file. Press DELETE and then, in the Delete File
dialog box, click Yes.
When you delete a file, it's temporarily stored in the Recycle Bin. Think of the Recycle
Bin as a safety folder that allows you to recover files or folders that you deleted
accidentally. Occasionally, you should empty the Recycle Bin to reclaim all of the hard
disk space being used by your unwanted files.
Opening an existing file
To open a file, double-click it. The file will open in the program that you used to create
or edit it. If it's a text file, for example, it will open in your word-processing program.
That's not always the case, though. Double-clicking a digital picture, for example, will
usually open a picture viewer. To actually edit the picture, you need to use a different
program. Right-click the file, click Open With, and then click the name of the program
that you want to use.
The WordPad window

To open WordPad, click the Start button , click All Programs, click Accessories, and
then click WordPad.
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WordPad window
There are four main parts of the WordPad window:
The toolbar: The toolbar contains buttons for basic commands, including saving and
printing. To find out what a button does, rest your mouse pointer on it. A box pops up
showing the function of the button.
The format bar: The format bar contains buttons that you can use to format the text in
your document. For example, you can choose the font, color, and alignment of your text.
The ruler: Use the ruler to check the layout and placement of text in your document.
The document area: This is where you type your document, make changes to the text,
and apply your formatting.
Typing text
When you're ready to get started, type in the document area of WordPad. A flashing
vertical line called the cursor indicates where the next text that you type will appear. To
move the cursor within text, click where you want the cursor to appear.
Unlike using a typewriter, when you type in WordPad you don't have to press ENTER to
start a new line. WordPad will take care of that for you by automatically starting a new
line when you reach the end of the one you're working on. When you want to start a
new paragraph, press ENTER.
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Selecting text
Whenever you want to do something to text in your document, such as copy it or format
it, you need to select it first. To select text, position the mouse pointer to the left of
where you want to begin your selection. With the pointer positioned, click and hold the
left mouse button while you drag the pointer over the text that you want to select. The
selected text will be highlighted. Once you've completed your selection, release the
mouse button.
Text selected in Notepad
Copying and moving text
If you have text in one part of your document that you want to appear in another part,
there are two ways to move the text around without having to retype it: You can copy
and paste it to another location, or you can move it to another location.
When you copy text, it is placed in the Clipboard. You can then paste it in a different
location. The original text is preserved.
When you move text to another location, the original text is not preserved. You might
find this method useful when you want to rearrange the sentences and paragraphs in
your document.
To copy text and paste it in another location
1. Select the text that you want to copy.

2. On the Edit menu, click Copy.
3. Move the cursor to the location where you want to insert the copied text.
4. On the Edit menu, click Paste.
Tip
 To quickly copy text that you've selected, press CTRL+C. To paste it, press
CTRL+V.
To move text to a different location
1. Select the text that you want to move.

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2. Point to the text that you've selected, and then click and hold the left mouse
button.
3. Drag the selected text to the place in your document that you want it to appear.
Inserting and deleting text
WordPad makes it easy to insert and delete text wherever you want. To insert text, click
where you want to insert the text and then just start typing. To delete text, select the text
that you want to delete, and then press DELETE.
Tip
 If you make a mistake while you're editing the text in your document, you can
always undo it. Press CTRL+Z to undo your last action.
Formatting your document
Formatting refers to the how the text in your document looks as well as how it is
arranged. WordPad lets you easily change the formatting in your document. For
example, you can choose from many different fonts and font sizes, and you can make
your text almost any color you want. You can also easily change how your document is
aligned.
To change the font, font style, or font size
1. Select the text whose formatting you want to change.

2. On the Format menu, click Font.
3. In the Font box, type or select the font you want to use.
4. In the Font Style box, type or select the font style you want.
5. In the Size box, type or select the size you want to use.
Tip
 You can also use the commands on the format bar to change the font, font size,
and font style.
To change the color
1. Select the text whose color you want to change.

2. On the Format menu, click Font.
3. Under Color, click the color that you want.
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Here's a picture of a document with some different fonts and colors applied:
Text formatting in WordPad
To change the alignment
You can align the text in your document (or a paragraph in your document) to either the
left margin, the center, or the right margin.
1. Select the paragraph whose alignment you want to change.

2. On the Format menu, click Paragraph.
3. In the Alignment box, click the alignment you want.
This picture shows how paragraphs look with different alignment:
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Text alignment in WordPad
Saving your document
It's a good idea to save your document periodically while you are working on it so that in
case your computer stops working for some reason, you won't lose any of your work.
Saving the document will also allow you to come back to it later if you want to work on it
again.
To save the document
 On the File menu, click Save.
If you haven't saved the document yet, you'll be asked to provide a name for the
document and location on your computer to save it to:
1. In the Save in box, click the location where you want to save the
document.
2. In the File name box, type a name for your document.
3. Click Save.
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Printing your document
On the File menu, click Print. In the Print dialog box, use the Page Range box and the
Number of copies box to specify which pages you want to print as well as how many
copies. When you're done, click Print
TOPIC VI: EXPLORING THE INTERNET
This topic has four sub-topics namely:

b) Using the internet
You must have come across the term internet or the web in different places. Peoples’
understanding of the internet may vary from place to place, but they also have some
things in common.
The Internet is a network that links millions of computers around the world. Not so long
ago, few people had heard of the Internet. Today, the Internet has revolutionized how
people use computers. Many people depend on it daily to communicate with others and
to get the information they need. The day you will start using the internet, you will be
amazed, and wonder how you lived without it. The Internet also includes other services,
such as e-mail, newsgroups, and file sharing. You can send an e-mail message or
participate in a newsgroup without using the web.
The web on the other hand (World Wide Web) is a huge storehouse of information.
The web is the most popular part of the Internet, partly because it displays most
information in an attractive way. Headlines, text, and pictures can be combined on a
single webpage much like a page in a magazine along with sounds and animation. A
website is a collection of interconnected WebPages. The web contains millions of
websites and billions of WebPages.
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Example of a webpage (Microsoft Game Studios)
The web is also used for shopping. You can look for and buy goods like books, music,
toys, clothing, electronics, and much more at the websites of major retailers. You can
also buy and sell used items through websites that use auction-style bidding. The web
is so popular that people often use the terms Internet and web to mean the same thing.
The web displays information in a colorful, visually appealing format. Headlines, text,
and pictures can be combined on a single webpage (or page) much like a page in a
magazine along with sounds and animation. A website (or site) is a collection of
interconnected WebPages. The web contains millions of websites and billions of
WebPages! WebPages are connected to each other with hyperlinks (usually just called
links), which can be text or images. When you click a link on a page, you are taken to a
different page. Going from page to page using links is sometimes called surfing the
web.
Surfing the web means exploring it. You can find information on the web about almost
any topic imaginable. For example, you can read news stories and movie reviews,
check airline schedules, see street maps, get the weather forecast for your city, or
research a health condition. Most companies, government agencies, museums, and
libraries have websites with information about their products, services, or collections.
Reference sources, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, are also widely available.
There are other ways we can use the internet. Take time to study some of them that
have been explained in the following sub-topic.
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b) Using the Internet
The internet can be used for doing many things in life. This is because the internet
contains a vast amount of information far more than even the world's largest libraries.
For example, you can read news stories and movie reviews, check airline schedules,
see street maps, get the weather forecast for your city, or research a health condition.
Reference sources, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, are widely available, as are
historical documents and classic literature.
Most companies, government agencies, nonprofit organizations, museums, and libraries

have websites with information about their products, services, or collections. Many
individuals publish websites with personal journals called blogs (short for web logs)
about their hobbies and interests.
Note
 Even though the web is great for research, not all information on the web is
reliable. Information on some websites might be inaccurate, out of date, or
incomplete. Before you trust information, make sure it comes from an
authoritative source, and check other sources to verify the information.
In terms of communication, the internet users and use what is called the e-mail to
communicate. E-mail (short for electronic mail) is a convenient way to communicate
with others. When you send an e-mail message, it arrives almost instantly in the
recipient's e-mail inbox. You can send e-mail to many people at the same time, and you
can save, print, and forward e-mail to others. You can send almost any type of file in an
e-mail message, including documents, pictures, and music files. E-mail is one of the
most popular uses of the Internet. You can send an e-mail message to anyone with an
e-mail address, and it will arrive almost instantly in the recipient's e-mail inbox even if he
or she lives halfway around the world. Instant messaging (IM) allows you to have a real-
time conversation with another person or a group of people. When you type and send
an instant message, the message is immediately visible to all participants. Unlike
e-mail, all participants have to be online (connected to the Internet) and in front of their
computers at the same time.
Newsgroups and web-based forums allow you to participate in text-based discussions

with a community of other people who are interested in the same topic. For example, if
you are having trouble using a program, you could post a question in a discussion group
for users of that program.
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You can also use the internet to share different information with your friends. You can
share photographs, music, video and other information. You can upload (copy) pictures
from your digital camera to a photo-sharing website. Invited friends and family members
can then visit the website to view your photo albums.
Peoples use the internet to buy and sell different products. The web is the world's
biggest shopping mall. You can browse and purchase products like books, music, toys,
clothing, electronics, and much more at the websites of major retailers (usually a credit
card is required). You can also buy and sell used items through websites that use
auction style bidding.
If you want to relax, you can play games in the internet. There are thousands of
computer games in different forms that can be played in the computer. You can play
games of every type on the web, often against other players no matter where they are in
the world. Many games are free, and you can download others for a fee. You can drive
a race car, battle frightening creatures in a dungeon, or control civilizations and
empires! Many games allow you to compete with other players around the world
through the Internet. Computer Windows also have a variety of card games, puzzle
games, and strategy games that you can play. You can also listen to Internet radio
stations, watch movie clips, and download or purchase music, videos, and even some
TV shows.
We can also use the internet for chatting. Chatting, also known as instant messaging is
like having a real-time conversation with another person or a group of people. When
you type and send an instant message, the message is immediately seen by all you
have sent the information. Unlike e-mail, all participants have to be online (connected to
the Internet) and in front of their computers at the same time.
If you have a digital camera, you can move your pictures from the camera to your
computer. Then you can print them, create slide shows, or share them with others by
e-mail or by posting them on a website. You can also listen to music on your computer,
either by importing (transferring to your computer) music from audio CDs or by
purchasing songs from a music website. Or, tune in to one of the thousands of radio
stations that broadcast over the Internet. If your computer comes with a DVD player,
you can watch movies.
Connecting to the Internet
To connect your computer to the Internet, you must first sign up with an Internet service
provider (ISP). An ISP provides access to the Internet, usually for a monthly fee. You
sign up for an account with an ISP just as you do for telephone service or utilities. To
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find an ISP in your area, try looking in your telephone directory under "Internet Service
Providers."
Different ISPs offer different connection types and speeds. There are two basic types of
connections: broadband and dial up connection.
A broadband connection is a high-speed Internet connection. With a broadband

connection, you are connected to the Internet at all times and can view WebPages and
download files very rapidly. Two common broadband technologies are Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable technology. These require a DSL or cable modem,
which is often provided by your ISP.
A dial-up connection uses a dial-up modem to connect your computer to the Internet
through a standard telephone line. Many computers come with a dial-up modem already
installed. In contrast to broadband, dial-up is slower and requires you to establish a new
connection each time you want to use the Internet. However, dial-up is less expensive
than broadband, and in some areas might be the only option for Internet access.
Once you have an ISP and a modem, you are ready to connect to the Internet. The
Connect to the Internet wizard will guide you through the steps.
 Open the Connect to the Internet wizard by clicking the Start button , clicking
Control Panel, clicking Network and Internet, clicking Network and Sharing
Center, clicking Set up a connection or network, and then clicking Connect to the
Internet.
Getting on the web
Once you have established an Internet connection, you can access the web using
Internet Explorer, a web browser included with Windows. You can also use any other
web browser installed on your computer.
To start Internet Explorer
 Open Internet Explorer by clicking the Start button , and then clicking Internet
Explorer.
When you start Internet Explorer, it opens whatever webpage is set as the home page.
By default, the home page is set to MSN.com, a Microsoft website with links to a variety
of information and services. (Your computer manufacturer might have set up a different
home page.) However, you can choose any page (or a blank page) as your home page.
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Tip
 To get back to your home page at any time, click the Home button in Internet
Explorer.
Entering a web address
Just as every residence has a unique street address, every webpage has its own web
address. That address is called the URL. For example, the URL for the Microsoft main
website is http://www.microsoft.com.
If you know the URL for a page, you can type it directly into Internet Explorer:
1. In the Address box, type the URL.

2. Click the Go button or press ENTER to go to the website.
Use the Address box to type

URLs
Tips
 You don't have to type http://. For example, you can type www.microsoft.com and
Internet Explorer will fill in the rest.
 To quickly enter a URL ending in ".com", type the part between "www." and
".com" and then press CTRL+ENTER.
Basic navigation
You can go to the internet and do many things. Going to the internet is called basic
navigation. We navigate the internet using links. Most WebPages have dozens or even
hundreds of links. To get from one page to another, click any link. However, figuring out
which things on a page are links isn't always easy. Links can be text, images, or a
combination of both. Text links often appear as colored and underlined, but link styles
vary among websites.
To test whether something is a link or not, point to it. If it's a link, two things happen:
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 The mouse pointer changes to a hand with a pointing finger.
 A URL appears in the status bar of your web browser. This shows the website
you'll go to if you click the link.
Pointing to a link changes the mouse pointer and displays the webpage's URL in the
status bar
If you want to keep looking at things in the internet, you might reach a situation where
you will be at the end of the page. This means that you must move on to the next page.
To do this, you must use the Back and Forward buttons. This button is shown as an
arrow and is found in the left hand corner of the screen. You can open the browser to
check for it. As you go from page to page, Internet Explorer keeps track of your trail. To
get back to the previous page, click the Back button. Click the Back button several times
to retrace your steps even further. After you've clicked the Back button, you can click
the Forward button to go forward in the trail.
Back button (left); Forward button (right)
Using the Recent Pages menu. If you want to get back to a page you've visited in your
current session, but want to avoid repeatedly clicking the Back or Forward buttons, use
the Recent Pages menu. Click the arrow next to the Forward button, and then select a
page from the list.
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The Recent Pages menu
Searching the web
With billions of WebPages out there, finding the information you need would be
impossible if you had to browse through each one. Fortunately, there's another way.
You can use a search engine to find the pages that are most relevant to words or
phrases that you specify.
Major web search engines include Google, Yahoo! Search, MSN Search, AOL Search,
and Ask.com. You can search the web directly from any search engine's site. Or, to
save the step of navigating to the search site first, you can use the Search box in
Internet Explorer, shown here:
Search box
Before you use the Search box for the first time, choose a default search provider the
search engine Internet Explorer uses each time you search. If you don't choose a
search provider, Bing is used. (Your computer manufacturer might have set up a
different default search provider.)
To search the web using the Search box
1. In the Search box, type a few words or a phrase about a topic that interests you
for example, "chocolate cake recipe." Be as specific as you can.
2. Press ENTER or click the Search button .
A page of search results appears. Click one of the results to go to that website. If
you don't see what you're looking for, click Next at the bottom of the page to see
more results, or try a new search.
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Note
 Be aware that some search results are paid advertisements. These are usually
labeled as "Sponsored Sites" or "Sponsored Links."
Saving favourite WebPages
When you discover a website that you would like to return to regularly, save it as a
favorite in Internet Explorer. That way, when you want to return to the website, you can
click it in your Favorites list, without having to remember or type its web address.
To save a webpage as a favorite in Internet Explorer 8
1. In Internet Explorer 8, go to the webpage you want to save as a favorite.

2. Click the Favorites button, and then click Add to Favorites.
3. In the Name box, type a name for the webpage, and then click Add.
To save a webpage as a favorite in Internet Explorer 7
1. In Internet Explorer 7, go to the webpage you want to save as a favorite.

2. Click the Add to Favorites button , and then click Add to Favorites.
3. In the Name box, type a name for the webpage, and then click Add.
To open a favorite in Internet Explorer 8
1. In Internet Explorer 8, click the Favorites button.

2. Click the Favorites tab if it's not already selected.
3. In the Favorites list, click the webpage that you want to open.
To open a favorite in Internet Explorer 7
1. In Internet Explorer 7, click the Favorites Center button .

2. Click the Favorites button if it's not already selected.
3. In the Favorites list, click the webpage that you want to open.
If you have a lot of favorites, you can organize them into folders.
Opening multiple webpages
At some point, you'll find yourself wanting to open a second (or third or fourth) webpage
without closing the first one. To meet this need, Internet Explorer lets you create a tab
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for each new page you want to open. You can use the tabs to switch quickly between
pages, and you can even view all of your pages at once.
To open a webpage on a new tab, click the New Tab button.
New Tab button
After you click the button, a blank page opens on a new tab.
A blank page on a new tab
Now you can open any webpage by typing a URL, using the search box, or choosing
from your Favorites list or History list. Once you have multiple pages open, click the
tabs to switch between pages.
To see all of your open web pages at once, click the Quick Tabs button . You'll see a
miniature version of each webpage. Click one to switch to that page.
Use Quick Tabs to see all of your open WebPages
To close a tab, click the Close button on the right side of the tab.
E-mail (short for Electronic-mail) is a fast and convenient way to communicate with
others. You can use e-mail to do many things.
 Send and receive text messages. You can send an e-mail message to any
person with an e-mail address. The message arrives in the recipient's e-mail
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inbox within seconds or minutes whether he or she is your next-door neighbor or
lives halfway around the world.
E-mail is two-way. You can receive messages from anyone who knows your
e-mail address, and then read and reply to those messages.
 Send and receive files. Besides text, you can send almost any type of file in an
e-mail message, including documents, pictures, and music. A file sent in an
e-mail message is called an attachment.
 Send messages to groups of people. You can send an e-mail message to many
people simultaneously. Recipients can reply to the whole group, allowing for
group discussions.
 Forward messages. When you receive an e-mail message, you can forward it to
others without retyping it.
One advantage of e-mail over the telephone or regular mail is its convenience: You can
send a message at any time of day or night. If the recipients aren't in front of their
computers and online (connected to the Internet) when you send the message, they'll
find it waiting for them the next time they check their e-mail. If they are online, you might
get a reply within minutes.
E-mail is also free. Unlike sending a regular letter, no stamp or fee is required, no
matter where the recipient lives. The only charges that apply are those that you pay for
an Internet connection.
Setting up and e-mail account
To use e-mail, you need three things:
 You need a modem that will help your computer to connect to the internet. To do
this, you must first sign up with an Internet service provider (ISP). An ISP
provides you with access to the Internet, usually for a monthly fee.
 After you have been connected to the internet, you will need to use a programme
that will help you to log to an e-mail programme. An e-mail program or web-
based service that you can use for this purpose is Windows Mail, an e-mail
program included in Windows. You can also use any other e-mail program, once
you install it on your computer.
There are also other e-mail programmes that are offered freely after you have
signed up for them. Such free web-based e-mail services include Gmail, MSN
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Hotmail, or Yahoo! Mail. These services allow you to check your e-mail with a
web browser from any computer connected to the Internet.
 After getting connected to the internet, and installing or logging into web-based e-
mail service, you must now set up your e-mail account or address. In signing up
for an e-mail account, you will be required to give some of your personal details
in the same you fill ordinary forms when you want to register for something. The
process is almost the same as registering SIM cards for our mobile phones. An
e-mail address consists of a user name (a nickname you choose, not necessarily
your real name), the @ sign, and the name of your ISP or web-based e-mail
provider for example, joswaldlyn@yahoo.com.
 You must also have in mind e-mail addresses of other people so that you can be
able to send mail to them. Remember, if you do not have anybody to send mail
to, then you cannot communicate with any person.
 Once you have an e-mail address and an Internet connection, you are ready to
send and receive e-mail.
Sometimes setting up and e-mail account can be challenging. But if pay more attention
to the direction in it, you see that it is very easy to do it. In order for you do it well, you
will need to be near a computer that has an internet service. After you have logged on
to the internet, you can start setting up the account by following these basic steps as
used in Windows mail.
1. Open Windows Mail by clicking the Start button , clicking All Programs, and
then clicking Windows Mail.
2. On the Tools menu, click Accounts.
3. Click Add, click E-mail Account, click Next, and then follow the instructions.
During setup, you will be asked to pick a display name, for example Mary. This is the
name that people you send mail to will see and recognize that it is you and not some
stranger when you send them an e-mail message. If you have reached this step, you
had done a great job.
Now that you can send an e-mail, try to send an email to yourself by writing your e-mail
address on the compose box. Type some message there and then click the send
button. Did it go? Oh yes, it must have gone. Check again, because now you have an e-
mail in your inbox. Somebody has sent you a message. Check to see who it is. Ok, you
have known the person, but do you know how to read the message the person has sent
you? We can check that by following directions in the next paragraphs.
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Reading e-mail messages
Windows Mail checks to see if you have received e-mail whenever you start the
program and every 30 minutes after that. E-mail you receive appears in your Inbox. The
Inbox is one of several folders that hold e-mail.
To see a list of e-mail you have received, click Inbox in the Folders list. Your e-mail
messages appear in the message list. The list shows who sent the mail, the subject,
and when it was received.
To read a message, click it in the message list. The contents of the message appear
below the message list in the Preview pane. To read the message in a separate
window, double-click it in the message list.
Click the Inbox to see your e-mail messages
To reply to a message, click the Reply button. To learn how to write and send a reply,
see "Creating and sending an e-mail message" in this article.
Creating and sending e-mail messages
To create a new e-mail message in Windows Mail, click the Create Mail button. A new
message window opens.
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Sample e-mail message
Here's how to fill out the message window in Windows Mail and most other e-mail
programs:
1. In the To box, type the e-mail address of at least one recipient. If you're sending
the message to multiple recipients, type a semicolon (;) between e-mail
addresses.
In the Cc box, you can type the e-mail addresses of any secondary recipients—
people who should know about the message but don't need to act on it. They'll
receive the same message as the people in the To box. If there are no secondary
recipients, leave this box blank.
2. In the Subject box, type a title for your message.

3. In the large blank area, type your message.
To attach a file to the message, click the Attach File to Message button on the
toolbar (located just below the menu bar). Locate the file, select it, and then click
Open. The file now appears in the Attach box in the message header.
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File attached to an e-mail message
You're done! To send the message, click the Send button. It zips through the Internet to
your recipients.
Note
 To change the style, font, size, or color of the text, select the text, and then click
one of the buttons on the formatting bar (located just above the message area).
When you start using the internet, you must know that there are also some risks
involved. Because internet and e-mails allow you to communicate to anyone, any
person can as well communicate to you good or bad information. Such information can
be used to trick you into giving other person or valuable information that can be used for
bad intention. For example, you can be deceived to give your full names, back account
and even pin number to your account. The person after getting such information can
then use it to withdraw all your money from your account. By the time you go to the
bank, you will have lost all your money to a stranger.
For example, if you want to communicate to people, you must follow some rules and
guidelines. A few of them are shown below:
 Be careful with humor and emotion. E-mail does not convey emotion well, so the
other person may not understand what you are saying and may be offended.
 Think before you send. Writing and sending an e-mail message is fast and easy
sometimes too easy. Make sure you have thought out your message first, and
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avoid writing when you are angry. Once you send the message, you cannot get it
back.
 Use a clear and concise subject line. Summarize the contents of the message in
a few words. People who receive a large amount of e-mail can use the subject to
prioritize the message.
 Keep messages short. Although an e-mail message can be of any length, e-mail
is designed for quick communication. Many people don't have the time or
patience to read more than a few paragraphs.
 Avoid using ALL CAPITAL LETTERS. Many people perceive sentences written in
all uppercase letters as "yelling" and find it annoying or offensive.
 Be careful with sensitive or confidential information. Any recipient can forward
your message to others either intentionally or accidentally so that all your secrets
will be known by other people.
Additionally, do not be in a hurry to send your e-mail. After you have finished writing,
read it to ensure that it does not have simple errors that can be avoided. You can use a
spelling error checker which found in the e-mail box.
Dealing with junk e-mail
Just as you might receive advertisements, or other messages you have not asked for,
you will also receive unwanted mails. These unwanted mails are called junk mails or
spam. Junk e-mail might include advertisements, con men who want to cheat you, sex
related pictures, or true offers. As you know, you can send messages cheaply through
mail. It is also very cheap for business people to send junk e-mail so that one person
can receive lots of such junk mails. You have to be careful with the kind of people you
communicate with. If you do not know the person, take care before you open the mail. If
you are suspicious, send the message to spam or delete it.
Windows Mail includes a junk e-mail filter that analyzes the content of messages sent to
you and moves suspicious messages to a special junk e-mail folder, where you can
view or delete them at any time. And if a junk e-mail message slips past the filter into
your Inbox, you can specify that any future messages from the sender be automatically
moved to the junk e-mail folder.
To help prevent junk e-mail:
 Use caution in giving out your e-mail address.

 Avoid publishing your real e-mail address in newsgroups, on websites, or in other
public areas of the Internet.
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 Before you give your e-mail address to a website, check the site's privacy
statement to be sure it does not permit the disclosure of your e-mail address to
other companies.
 Never reply to a junk e-mail message. The sender will know that your e-mail
address is valid and might sell it to other companies. You are then likely to
receive even more junk e-mail.
TOPIC VII: APPLICATION OF ICT IN ECD INSTITUTIONS
a) Roles of ICT in ECD

b) ICT games for children
a) Role of ICT in ECD
As ICT becomes a common tool for learning and communication in the global village,
children need to get exposed to its usage as early as possible in life.
Application of ICT in ECD instructions
There are at least three reasons why ICT matters in early childhood Development and
education. First, ICT already has an effect on the people and environments that
surround young children’s learning. Second, these technologies offer new opportunities
to strengthen many aspects of early childhood education practice. Third, there is
support and interest across the whole education sector for the development and
integration of ICT into education policy, curriculum, and practice. ICT can be used in
ECD in the following ways:
Roles for ICT Some examples

Children using ICT in their play or Children using computers to play games, listen to
learning (alone, with peers, or with stories, or draw pictures.
adults). Children using ICT equipment in games or role-
play activities.
Children and caregivers using ICT Using the Internet to locate information or
together to promote children’s resources, sparked by children’s interest in a
learning. particular topic or idea.
Children and caregivers using ICT Taking digital photos, videos, or audio recordings
together to document and reflect on of activities in the early childhood education
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children’s learning, or to share setting and reviewing these together, or sharing
children’s learning with parents, or them with parents.
other practitioners. Caregivers and children using ICT to build
portfolios of children’s work, to use for evaluating
progress in children’s learning and development.
Caregivers using ICT for planning, Caregivers’ developing individual learning plans
administration, and information for children, or using computer-based templates to
management. plan or document children’s learning (e.g. using
learning stories templates or inserting relevant
concepts into children’s learning records).
Creating databases to keep track of important
information about children and their families.
Teachers or teachers-in-training Teachers-in-training learning to use ICT in their
learning to use ICT, or learning initial teacher education courses.
through ICT. Distance-learning teachers-in-training using ICT to
learn to become early childhood teachers.
Teachers-in-training learning to use technology
with children in their practicum placements.
Teachers using ICT to document and reflect on
their practice, or using ICT as part of a
professional development programme.
Children and caregivers using ICT to Using video conferencing, online discussion
communicate or exchange ideas or communities, or email, to communicate with other
information with other practitioners, practitioners, parents, or researchers, or to share
parents, or researchers. news and information about what’s happening in
the early childhood education centre.
Children and caregivers using telephones, email,
or fax to keep in touch with parents who are not
able to come to the early childhood education
centre (e.g. parents who are at work during the
day).
Using telephones, email, or fax to keep in touch
with children and their families in distant or rural
communities (e.g. Correspondence School early
childhood education programme).
b) ICT Games for Children
Children learn to use different ICT if those tools are introduced to them as games. If you
notice that there is a game that children like playing, such games can be loaded into the
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computer and given to children to play. The games can be modified such that they have
other class work in it that a child must first do before he/she can be allowed to continue
with the game. For example, in a car racing game, a child can be given a word with
some missing letters. The role of the child is to find those missing letters and put them
in the right place. If he/she gets the right answer, the car can be released by the
computer to allow the children to drive till another spelling roadblock. So, the more the
child drives, the more words he/she will spell and therefore learn to spell more words.
Now, if you guide children well, they will be able to use ICT to perform different learning
activities. You should however, note that as children use computers, some of the may
be exposed to some risks. As we start exposing children to ICT, some parents,
teachers, and children’s advocates are also questioning how it will or may affect
children’s cognitive, emotional, social, and developmental needs.
Even you the teacher, as you use a computer you may have identified some risks that
can be involved when you use a computer.
Children in other parts of the world also experience different risks as they use
computers. Compare your answers the specific areas of concern often raised in relation
to children’s computer use:
 harmful physical effects of children’s prolonged computer use;
 negative impacts on children’s social development (for example, concerns that
computer use will encourage anti-social behaviour, including isolation or
aggressive behaviour);
 educational concerns that computer use can interfere with aspects of children’s
cognitive development;
 concerns about children’s exposure to unsuitable content, for example,
containing material of a sexual or violent nature, or containing inappropriate
gender, cultural, or social stereotypes; and
 Concerns that computer use may displace other important learning and play
activities.
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Glossary
Alphanumeric Having both letters of the alphabet

and ordinary numbers on it
Back up storing important information in another place such that if you lose what
you have, you can always go back to where you stored it earlier and get it.
Clicking Tapping the movable part of the mouse to make it communicate with the
computer
Commands labels in the computer window that when touched makes the computer to
do what is shown on the label
Compute work out a problem to get solution to it
Cursor an arrow, slash or pointer that moves on the screen of the computer when
you move the mouse
Data Work or information that is stored on a CD
Delete Throw away the work that you do not need either to the recycle bin or
completely away from the computer.
Desk top Computers that people place on their tables or desks while using them
Device Any equipment or tool that is connected to the computer in order for it to
work with the computer to produce something
Dialog box A small window that comes to your screen to ask, confirm or inform you of
something that is happening in the computer and would like to help it
decide what to do.
Document Any piece of work that a person using a computer will be working on at
anytime is called a document or a file.
Drive A space in the computer where the CD, DVD of floppy is placed for it to
work or be used by the computer
Emptying a bin Throwing away work or materials that had been put in the recycle bin
forever. Remember, if you empty the bin, whatever work that was there
will never be got again
Explorer One of the programmes that allows you to join (log on) to the internet
Files Work that a computer user does in the computer is stores as files
Flash A devise that is used to store information away from the computer
Floppy A device that is used by computer users to store small amounts of
information away from the computer for later use
Folder An envelope where the computer user can put together different related
work (files)
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Gadgets Programmes found on the computer screen that are copies of other
devices used elsewhere. It can be a clock, calendar, news feed
Grid How icons and work saved on the computer screen are arranged in lines
or columns. The lines are called grids.
Hard disc A part of the computer where it stores all its information
Hardware Those parts of the computer that you can touch, remove or change
physically for example the mouse, printer or keyboard are hardware
Icons Things or symbols that you seen on the computer screen that represent
different applications in the computer
ICT Information and Communication Technology
Internet A system that allows computers to communicate with each other
Junk Messages that are sent to your mail or computer for your attention without
your permission or request. They can be adverts, wrong messages, or just
thieves trying to deceive you to do something they can take advantage of
to cheat you
Keyboard Part of the computer that has letters and figures where the computer user
types or instructs the computer to do different work
Laptop computer used while place on the lap (thigh) of the user
Laser light that a computer uses to write or read information stored in CDs
Left click Tapping the left part of the mouse
Link A connection to another programme found somewhere else
Log on Join on to what other people are doing in a particular programme in a
computer
Menu A list of many items from which you can choose to use. It is like a menu
for food in a restaurant.
Modem A device that looks like a flash that helps to connect the computer to the
internet
Monitor The part of the computer where pictures or other work is displayed when
working.
Mouse A small hand held device that a computer user holds to move or point to
things shown in the computer
Mouse pad A card on which the mouse is placed on the table to keep it from wearing
as it is being used
Navigation Moving through or within a document in an open window
Network A connection in which two or more computers can be made to work
together while sharing common devices
Operating System A programme that manages the computer and all the software put in
it.
Page Part of a programme that has specific information on a given topic
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Password A letters or numbers you type in a computer to limit other people from
accessing that computer or other programmes in it. It works like a key for
locking you valuable work. Only those people who know the words used
can be able to open it. It is like a pin number in an ATM machine at the
bank.
Peripheral device Any device that is connected to the computer in one way or another
for the purpose of the two to work together
Personalize Change the organisation, set up and behavior of the computer to suite you
personal desire or preference.
Ports Special openings or holes found on a computer where other parts or
devices can be connected to the computer
Processor part of the computer that does the actual calculations done by the
computer
Programme Any system that is not physically touched by a user but it is the computer
that uses it to do work before the work is ready to be delivered out to the
computer user.
Random Access Memory (RAM) A system in a computer temporarily stores information
that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in
RAM is erased when the computer is turned off
Recycle bin A part or space in the computer where you can throw work you do not
need. It works like a rubbish bin in an office.
Resolution How clear the pictures displayed on the screen can be depending on how
you set it
Retrieve Get information that was stored in some place in a computer or other
devices
Right click tapping the right part of the mouse
Save To store work that you are doing so that when you come back later, you
still find it there for you to continue.
Screen Where pictures and other text are displayed on the monitor or computer
Screen saver The ability of the computer to turn
down power to look like it has switched off when it is not in use to allow it
to save power.
Scroll Rolling the button on the mouse so that you move what is on the screen or
open window forward or backwards.
Shortcut A symbol or icon that links you to a given programme found somewhere
else
Shut down Switch off computer
Software Those parts or programmes in the computer that do work or applications
but cannot be touched because they do not exist in the physical form for
example word, excel, antivirus, or music player in the computer
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Stylus A pen-shaped pointing tool used for writing or selecting items displayed on
a computer screen.
System unit The main part of the computer where all other parts are connected to.
Sometimes it is also called the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Tablet Small hand held computer that works like a laptop. It is small enough to fit
in a pocket
Task bar A part in an open computer window that has different commands you can
use to direct the computer on what to do
Touch screen A computer screen where you are able to use your fingers to point
at items (icons) and they behave as you want them to
Web A net work of computers
Window An open programme that is seen on the screen of the computer
World Wide Web (WWW) A network of computers that are linked to different parts of
the world
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UNIT NINE
CURRICULUM STUDIES (DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION)
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM

Etymologically, the word curriculum is from Latin term “currere” which means “ a race
course, a track followed by a racing horse”. When we look at education and curriculum
they are related concepts. As education deals with the process of imparting knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values; curriculum defines clearly the knowledge, skills, attitudes
and values to be imparted, how to impart them and how to determine the level of
acquisition. In other words, Curriculum acts as a guide to the process of education.
1.2 THE MEANING OF THE TERMS
I) EDUCATION
It is the process of acquiring desirable knowledge, skills and attitudes. Education

in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of
a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. It occurs through any
experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts.
In its narrow technical sense, education is the formal process by which society
deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, customs and values
from one generation to another e.g. instructions in schools.
The word “education” is derived from the Latin word Educare meaning to
‘nourish’ or to ‘raise’.
According to Oluoch (1982), education is the process of acquiring and

developing necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to make one a useful
member of the society.
– Education is a process – Since it is life long and continuous activity that never
ends.
– Developing – means that acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes do not
happen at once, but that the acquisition of more and more knowledge is
necessary to advance what one already has acquired in general, therefore,
education can be defined as the sum of all processes that enable the learner to
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acquire and develop relevant knowledge, skills, attitudes and values which will
make him or her a useful productive, creative and practical member of the
society.
Types of Education
Education can be divided into three types, namely;
i) Formal Education: Refers to education carried out in institutions, with

specific goals and a well stated curriculum, venues, well defined teachers
and learners.
– It is the process of training and developing people in knowledge, skills,

mind, and character in a structured and certified program.
ii) Informal Education: It is the unstructured education where learning takes

place through imitation, observation and participation.
– It is the life-long process by which every person acquires and
accumulates knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights etc from daily
experience and exposure to the environment at, home, school, at work
at pay.
– It is generally unorganized and often unsystematic.
iii) Non-formal Education: It is any organized systematic educational activity
carried on outside the framework of the formal system to provide selected
types of learning to particular sub-groups in the population adult as well as
children.
– It is organized
– has syllabus in place
– It is systematic
– already structured
– It happens outside the education system.
II) Curriculum
There are many meanings attached to the word curriculum by different scholars. It is
often loosely used to mean a list of subjects or topics or items of knowledge to be
covered, content or even methods used, to mention, but a few. All these are
ingredients and only parts of what we mean by the term curriculum.
Cole (2003), defines curriculum as a policy statement about education and the ways
of realizing the policy through a programme of action. Further, he defined curriculum
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as the sum of all activities, experiences and learning opportunities for which an
institution or a teacher takes responsibility.
Oluoch (2006) explains curriculum as all that is planned to enable the learner
acquire and develop desired knowledge, skills, and attitudes. While Saylor and
Alexander,(1974), Lavatelli, Moore and Theodore (1972), defined curriculum as a set
of learning activities and experiences for the children planned by the school to attain
the aims of education.
Bishop (1985) defines curriculum as “All the experiences a child undergoes under
the guidance of the school.” While J. S. Farrant (1971) viewed curriculum as “All
what is taught in a school including the time-tabled subjects and all those aspects of
its life that exercise influence in the life of the children.”
Looking at Saylor, Alexander, Farrant’s definition ,it means that curriculum is not
only the subjects appearing on the school time-table or syllabus, but it includes also
those other activities which are very useful to the pupils‟ mental, physical, social and
moral development.
It should, therefore, reflect the values, beliefs, knowledge, skills and attitudes
considered useful to society. For that matter, our Pre-primary and Primary Schools
should ensure that the curriculum they offer to school children is enriched and
balanced to produce children, who will grow up as useful members of their societies.
In general sense, curriculum is a programme, a course of action with learning

objectives, content activities, experiences, materials, resources, methodology and
means of evaluation used to attain the goals of education. it guides the process of
imparting in learners necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to make them
useful and productive members of the society.
The core curriculum tends to be given priority in many ways e.g. it is given more time
on the timetable and it is well facilitated in terms of books and other learning aids.
III) Curriculum Development

This is the process of creating curriculum materials for use by educators and
children that are a product of curriculum planning. In other words, curriculum
development involves the sum total of all processes which determines how
curriculum construction proceeds, from the conceptualization stage to evaluation
stage.
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IV) Curriculum Design
This is a deliberate process of devising, planning and selecting the elements,
techniques and procedures of the variables of subject pupils, teachers and
environment in order to facilitate teaching.
V) Syllabus
This is a plan with subject to be studied in a course by a particular group of people
(learners) within a given period of time. Sometimes it is referred to as a break down
of curriculum for its effective and efficient implementation
1.3 IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM

i) An effective curriculum provide teachers, students, administrators and
community stakeholders with a measurable plan and structure for delivering a
quality education.
ii) It identifies the learning outcomes, standard and core competencies that students
must demonstrate before advancing to the next level.
iii) Acts as a road map for teachers and learners to follow on the path to academic
success especially an evidenced based curriculum.
iv) It ensures that institutions teach relevant materials and monitors the progress of
learners from all types of background.
v) It informs teachers of what skills to be taught at each grade level.
vi) Helps the teacher to align the learning objectives of their own curriculum.
vii) Helps the teacher to know whether the learners have developed and built a solid
foundation to support learning in the next level.
viii)It helps learners by outlining for them a sequence of courses/subjects/learning
activities and tasks that must be successfully completed.
ix) It motivates the learners to study because the curriculum enables them to
understand why certain subjects/activities are taught or done.
x) It also reassures the learners that they are in the right track to reaching their
goals and honing desired skills.
xi) Curriculum enables learners to appreciate and embrace their responsibility and
become hard working and responsible citizens.
xii) It instills or enables character building that reinforces positive behavior.
1.4 TYPES OF CURRICULUM (DIMENSIONS)

(i) Hidden Curriculum
The term hidden curriculum refers to all that the children learn within the
school and outside school without consciously taking trouble to do so. The
learning is informal because it is not planned and it has no set timetable by
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the school authorities. Learners form new attitudes and acquire new ideas
and skills as they interact with peers, teachers and other people within their
environment.
Kerr (1968) refers to hidden Curriculum as “Those things which pupils learn at
school because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and
organized, but which themselves are not overtly included in planning or even
in the consciousness of those responsible for school arrangements.” For
example, pupils learn to be clean as a result of living in a clean school
surrounding. They learn obedience, punctuality and neatness as a result of
the school rules and regulations about keeping time, putting on school
uniform and obeying school rules. Teachers are sometimes surprised by what
their pupils learn either independently from the teachers themselves or
directly from their peer group and from the school as a whole.
(ii) Spiral Curriculum

Spiral Curriculum is the type of curriculum where important concepts and
ideas are continuously and repeatedly re-introduced as the learners climb
from one academic level/ladder to another. The topics become more and
more complex from one level to another, examples are: in mathematics,
pupils study about sets from Pre-Primary up to Primary Seven, but the
content will change according to the levels of the learners/classes. It is
important that a teacher does not cover contents, which are too difficult for the
learners at a given level because they will have to meet those ideas again in
future when they are ready for them.
(iii) Core Curriculum

This sometimes is referred to as curriculum in action (Cole, 2003). These
are subjects or themes (contents) that are regarded very essential in the
curriculum. They are essential because either they help in the understanding
of other subjects or they address a specific problem in the life of the child and
society. Examples of such core subjects in the Primary School include:
Mathematics, English, etc.
(iv) Observed curriculum

This is a type of curriculum that can be used in the teaching-learning process.
It differs from teaching methods and strategies employed by the teacher in
class.
(v) Non-formal (co-curricular) this includes out of class/school programmes or
activities undertaken by the learners. They are learning activities traditionally
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known as extra-curricular. This terminology is based on the way these
activities are organized in a less rigid manner than the formal learning
activities. For example, they are not carried out by students in the regular
class grouping, but students group themselves according to individual
interests, aptitude and age.
(vi) Actual and Official Curriculum Official curriculum is the national curriculum
developed for all schools. It shows the contents to be covered, the learning
aids and methods to be used. It also indicates the way time should be spent
and the medium of instruction. For example, in Uganda, it is assumed that
teachers are disciplined and competent enough to fully implement this type of
curriculum.
On the other hand, the actual curriculum is what really happens or exists in
the school irrespective of what the official curriculum suggests. In reality,
there is always a gap between the official and the actual curriculum mostly for
poor schools due to lack of facilities, competent and dedicated teachers.
1.5 THE ELEMENTS OF THE CURRICULUM

These are the main components of the curriculum: (a) Aims and objectives (b)
Content/subject matter (c) Methods (d) Evaluation
i) Curriculum Aims and Objectives

Aims are overall, general or broad-long-term outcomes we want to achieve from a
course of study. For example, in a Diploma course, we want you to teach Health
Science to your pupils in the Primary School and you want your pupils to develop good
health habits. On the other hand, the curriculum objectives are the outcomes we intend
to realize or achieve in a short time after learning specific contents. These objectives
are derived from the aims of the course. For examples, developing good health habits
can only be achieved after learning a variety of things which may include, among
others, the need for a balanced diet, the need for proper sanitation and immunization
against diseases. Aims and objectives are starting points in the curriculum development
process. They answer the question, “why” of the curriculum! There must be justifiable
and good reasons for initiating or revising a curriculum. The reasons for initiating
changes in education or curriculum are the aims and objectives of curriculum.
The aims and objectives of any course or curriculum of study are derived from the
following:
(i) The needs of the contemporary society in its aspirations and values.
(ii) The needs of the learners in their abilities, interests and the way they learn.
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(iii) The needs of the teacher/subject specialists, who want to make sure that heir
subjects are not poorly taught.
(iv) The major goals of the nation.
N.B: Good aims and objectives ease the selection of content, methods, learning aids
and evaluation.
ii) Curriculum Content

Content is the basic way by which learning activities are linked to each other i.e. to
goals and to the theoretical rationale. Tyler (1949) refers to content as the subject
matter component of a curriculum. It refers to a range of disciplines. It is a means by
which we seek to attain the goals of an educational system. A curriculum has to show
content or subject matter that will be used to achieve the aims and objectives
formulated. Likewise, it is important for you to note that all the knowledge, concepts,
ideas, skills, values and attitudes should be incorporated according to the objectives
designed for the course of study.
Selection of the Content

Knowledge doubles after a period of time. Some knowledge becomes out-dated and
therefore, irrelevant. In this case, curriculum developers have to make selection based
on the following criteria:
(i) Validity
This implies that there should be a close connection between content and the
intended objectives. In selecting curriculum content, one should consider the
authenticity and validity of content both in the present and future, especially in terms
of whether it promotes the intended outcomes or not.
(ii) Comprehensiveness
When selecting content, you should ask yourself the following question: Do the
contents and learning experiences provide for a wide range of educational
objectives?
(iii) Significance
This refers to the suitability of the content chosen to meeting certain needs and
ability levels of the learners.
(iv) Relevance
Relevance is the extent to which content meets the requirements of the prevailing
conditions. For example, is the knowledge acquired from the curriculum content up
to date? Is it applicable to the situation prevailing in the country and applicable to
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real life situation? Curriculum content should therefore be selected for relevance and
fitness to the emerging needs of students and the society it is intended to serve?
(v) Utility
The subject matter of curriculum should be selected in the light of its usefulness to
the learner in solving his/her problems now and in the future and its usefulness to
society.
(vi) Consistency with social realities

The selected curriculum content must help develop minds, which can cope with
change and stand the test of time. Ask yourself this question, “To what extent is the
content related to life outside the school?” Curriculum planners must therefore select
content and learning experiences which will inculcate good values and enhance our
way of life and modernize our indigenous institutions for their integration into the
framework of the new social order.
Characteristics of a good content

 Should not be over-crowed, over-loaded and over- ambitious
 Should be balanced properly against time and resources available
 Should also be balanced by covering all the domains
 Should be relevant to the learner and to the society
 Should be meaningful to learners
 Should be well sequenced- there should be logical relationship from different
types of contents
 Should be flexible- respond to the ever changing needs
iii) Curriculum experience/learning experience.

It answers- what instructional strategies – resources and activities will be employed.
Instructional strategies and methods are the core of the curriculum. These
instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the
content in order to produce an outcome. These would convert the written curriculum
to instruction. Mastery is the function of the teacher direction and student activity
with the teacher supervision.
iv) Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation is a process or cluster of processes that people perform in order to gather
data that will enable them to decide whether to accept, change, or eliminate
something. i.e. the curriculum in general or an educational text book in particular. In
evaluation, people are concerned with determining the relative values of whatever
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they are judging. They are obtaining information that they can use to make
statements of worth regarding the focus of evaluation. They are interested in
conducting evaluation to determine whether the expected or the planned for has
occurred or is occurring in relation to the intended. Evaluation focuses on
discovering whether the curriculum as designed, developed, and implanted is
producing or can produce the desired results. Evaluation serves to identify the
strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum before implementation and the
effectiveness of its delivery after implementation. The purpose of gathering such
data about strengths and weaknesses is to allow curriculum developers to revise,
compare, maintain, or discontinue their actions and programs.
Evaluation enables them to make decisions, to draw conclusions and to furnish data
that will support their decisions regarding curriculum matters.
Functions of Evaluation in Education
 To diagnose
 To revise curricular
 To compare
 To anticipate educational needs
 To determine if objectives have been achieved.
Approaches to curriculum evaluation
 Scientific & humanistic approach

 Intrinsic & pay-off evaluation
 Formative & summative evaluation
Formative and Summative Evaluation
Formative Evaluation: This is the evaluation which guides and promotes the
development of the programme. Formative evaluation encompasses those activities
undertaken to improve an existing program. It takes place at a number of specified
points during the curriculum development process. The process of formative evaluation
has flexibility for e.g. a teacher may opt to give an abrupt CAT covering a particular skill
he/she has taught to determine whether his/her objectives have been achieved. Oral
questions, discussions, observations are some example of formative evaluation.
Formative evaluation allows the teacher and others involved in the evaluation not only
to determine what intended effects are occurring, but also to record and examine the
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presence of unintended effects. It was the process of feedback and adjustments and
thus keeps the curriculum development process “open.”
Summative Evaluation: This type of evaluation obtains evidence of the “summed”

effects of various components or units in a particular curriculum. It aims at getting the
“total” picture of the quality of the produced curriculum. It is usually undertaken after the
project has been completely developed and after it has been implemented school wide.
It focuses on the effectiveness of the total curriculum or the total course within the
curriculum. Summative evaluation’s major purpose is to enable the involved parties to
draw conclusions about how well the curriculum or particular curriculum unit has
worked.
1.6 CONTEXT OF CURRICULUM

The context of curriculum means the situation in which curriculum is developed and
implemented. In other words, it refers to the factors that affect curriculum development
and implementation. There are three major factors that have great effect on curriculum
and curriculum also affects them - Political, social and economic factors.
i) Political factors: there are many ways politics and political leaders affect
curriculum development and implementation.
 It is political leaders who shape the national goals and ideologies
which eventually influences broad aims of education.
 Political leaders have control over national treasury and all major
decisions to do with national budget. The priority given to education by
political leaders influences the nature of its funding. it is the politicians
who solicit for foreign funds for big national educational programmes.
 It influences choices of leaders of educational institutions. for example,
commissioners, directors or principals and head teachers.
 Politicians at times influence the content of the curriculum for example,
inclusion and removal of subjects.
 Politicians influences political climate of the country. In a peaceful
country or region a lot can be achieved in the field of education.
NB: curriculum in turn affects political factors. For example, the type of curriculum
offered determines the leadership skills and patriotic feelings people develop-you
cannot be a good leader from a poor education system.
ii) Economic factors affects curriculum development and implementation at various

levels: at national level, the richer the country the more it can finance:
 Educational research and curriculum development
 Quality teacher training
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 School, colleges, and university education
 Teachers remuneration, hence boosting their morale
 Curriculum evaluation or reforms
 Infrastructure or social amenities
At district level, the richer districts finances educational programmes and
activities like examinations and festivals
At community level, when rich parents uplift the standards of their schools.
Family levels, homes contributes to the education of their children, they
provide the basics of life, food, shelter and clothing. 0756314604
iii) The social factors:

 The relationship that exists between the community and schools
promotes curriculum development and implementation. Other factors in
community are culture, the language and economic ways of surviving .
 Nature of the pupils, this includes age, sex, number, interests and
behavior.
 Nature of the teacher like pupils.
1.7 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Definition: Foundation of curriculum is defined as the values, traditions, factors and

forces which influence the kind, quantity and quality of the experience the school offers
its learners. There are four major foundations of curriculum:
i) Historical foundations
ii) Sociological foundations
iii) Philosophical foundations
iv) Psychological foundations
v) Professional foundations
1. Historical Foundations of Curriculum
These refer to those influences on the curriculum that are derived from developments in
the past. They form the basis for decision making and systematic growth of the
education system.
Relevant aspects in discerning the Historical Foundations of Curriculum
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 Early Christian Education
 The Renaissance
 The Reformation
 The scientific movement
 The progressive Education Movement
i) Early Christian Education
The values of early Christian education were a blend of Greek, Roman and Hebrew
ideals. The early Christian schools taught the liberal arts and also concerned
themselves with inducting new believers into church membership. The Curriculum of
the early Christian schools comprised the teaching of discipline, church doctrine, and
moral standards, Christian Theology, Science, Mathematics and Astronomy.
ii) The Renaissance
Following increased quest for knowledge and thirst for adventure ‘humanistic
schools’ were established. The curriculum of the ‘humanistic schools’ emphasized
the study of man as a prerequisite to understanding man’s role and contribution to
society. Humanistic schools received inspiration from traditions in the Roman
grammar schools. The curriculum in ‘humanistic schools’ included good manners,
morals, rhetoric composition, sports, games and dance. Due to increased degree of
enlightment during the renaissance period, there arose a need for people with
certain vocational skills related to international and national trade. As a result the
curriculum of the school started to have an increasing amount of vocational studies
in the form of book-keeping, business arithmetic, general correspondence and the
keeping of committee minutes and records. The height of the Renaissance saw the
development of the university in response to the need for a higher cadre of
professional people with special faculty specializations. H.G.Good (1960) states that
the university then developed faculties to cater for: studies in liberal arts, law,
medicine and theology
iii) The Scientific movement
The campaigns of Martin Luther, led to the publication of biblical and other materials
in the vernaculars so that every person should read for themselves and
independently interpret the bible. The humanistic curriculum was enriched with the
study of science, mathematics, history and gymnastics. Ignatius of Loyola developed
an expanded and advanced curriculum as a counter movement to the reformation in
Jesuit schools. The reformation contributed further to educational growth by inciting
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the church into greater activity in elementary, secondary and higher education
(Cubberley 1968)
iv) The Scientific Movement in Education
Educators and philosophers of the sixteenth century were concerned more with
observation regarding the working of the universes. This was led by Francis Bacon
among others. It led to the philosophy of realism which has three district phases,
with various implications of the curriculum. These are Humanistic Realism, Social
Realism and Sense Realism.
 Humanistic Realism Advocated student mastery of form and content of the old
literature as a basis for improving the present world. The humanistic realist
curriculum drew upon classical literature to cope with the problems and needs of
the 19th Century.
 Social Realism aimed at meeting the purposes of the contemporary world.
It was class conscious as a result it advocated an elicit education for the
aristocracy. It emphasized private tuition in the home, using paid tutors. It aimed
at producing a polished gentleman of high society.
 Sense Realism It was concerned with problems of the current real world and
emphasis on an instructional approach based on sense perception
v) The Progressive movement in Education
The advocates of the progressive movement were reacting against the shortcomings
in the traditional school system. The argued:
 The curriculum content of the traditional system included a great deal

of meaningless and needles content.
 The traditional curriculum did not give utility education. It mainly
emphasized academics
 The traditional methods of teaching introduced the child to subject
matter of no practical value
 The traditional curriculum was rigid and did not cater for the individual
needs of particular students.
The progressive education curriculum instead emphasized five approaches to the

teaching/learning process.
 Teacher- pupils planning of curricular activities
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 Flexible curriculum and individualized instruction
 Non-formal curriculum activities and physical training in areas such as games
and related hobbies.
 Learner centered methodology
 Selection of study material in line with expressed interests and concerns of the
learner.
All these allowed children maximum self direction and reduced teacher domination of
the teaching/learning process.
2. Sociological Foundations of Curriculum
The social foundations encompass the systematic study of groups and institutions in the
culture with reference to their contribution to the process and growth of the educational
system as well as the established practices in the school system. In the sociological
Foundations, the curriculum designer is actually dealing with cultural values, societal
needs and the learners’ backgrounds.
The institutions and forces which make up the culture and related analytical techniques
determine the curriculum or programme of education schools will follow. The curriculum
should be able to examine and clarify obstacles prevalent in society which make change
in positive direction difficult. In designing a curriculum based on social foundation the
following distinct levels should be considered:
 Purpose of the curriculum

 Pressure influencing the curriculum
 Characteristics of the students experiencing the curriculum
 Role and contribution of other social institutions such as the family and religious
institutions.
3. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum
Philosophical or value foundations constitute the values and beliefs that make up the
philosophies of life and of education and have a permeating influence on the other
foundations.
Statements of educational philosophy point to methodical efforts by philosophers to:
 Examine values in society

 Derive meanings from facts
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 Organize experiences in a manner useful to educational practitioners and the
pupils in the school system.
 Justify one or some educational beliefs over others.
 Develop new proposals of educational practice for translation into action.
In utilizing knowledge of philosophy in curriculum, the curriculum planner is seeking to

establish ideas and notions that will indicate a priority of values in selecting experiences
for the curriculum. The value or philosophical orientations which the educational system
is charged with promoting form an integral part of the culture of a nation. Philosophical
Schools include:
i) Traditional school represented by perennialism and Essentialism
ii) The progressive school represented by progressivists. The three schools have
advanced three theories of subject matter as shown below.
The perennialists which believe subject matter should be taught for its own sake. They
also believe that permanence of curriculum content and experiences is more important
than change Subject matter has a value which is inherent in the subject being taught It’s
also their belief that educational system should be stable and its purposes steady.
Perennialists Approaches to subject matter
i) Emphasis is laid on the classical subjects. These are subjects valuable in their
own right and any educated person was expected to have had exposure to
them.
ii) Emphasis is laid on the desire to make children literate and moral to enable them
earn a living as well as find a useful place in society.
Principles of perennialists
 Human nature remains the same

 Man’s highest attribute is rationality
 Students should be taught certain basic subjects
 To the essentialists subject matter should be taught for use. They maintain that
there are certain essentials that each student in school ought to know.
 The essentialists devote their time to:
 Re-examining curricula matters
 Distinguishing the essential and the non-essentials in school programmes
 Re-establishing the authority of the teacher in the classroom
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To the To the essentialists and perennialists agree on certain fundamental principles
such as:
i) Learning involves hard work often couple with unwilling application.

ii) The teacher’s role is to mediate between the adult world and the world of the
child.
iii) The heart of the educational process is the assimilation of prescribed subject
matter.
iv) The school should retain traditional methods of mental discipline.
The Progressivists believed that subject matter is a medium for teaching life processes
and skills. They take the pragmatist view that change, is the essence of reality.
Educators must be ready to modify methods and policies in light of new knowledge and
changes in the environment to progressivists, a good school is not a place of
compulsory instruction but a community of old and young engaged in learning by co-
operative experience.
Progressivists’ principles
 Education should be life itself not a preparation for living

 Learning should be directly related to the interests of the child
 Learning through problem solving should take precedence over the inculcating of
subject matter
 Teachers have to advise not direct pupils
 The school should encourage co-operation as opposed to competition
Philosophical positions
The three prominent philosophical positions that are closely related to perenialism and
progressivism are Idealism, Realism and Pragmatism.
Idealism
it is largely a traditionalist view which is a carryover from Plato’s writings Idealism uses
deductive reasoning in its quest for answers to current day problems. They believe in
the independence of truth from the individual or the society. There is over emphasis on
the intellectual aspects. Idealism stresses the role of education in the transmission of
the cultural heritage as handed through the ages from the past. Hence it is a preserving
function. It allows the concurrent study of liberal and vocational education, as a means
to living completely through understanding life.
Realism
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The realist believes in the existence of a real world, divorced from the imaginations of
the perceiver. To the realist, the real world is the physical world of the physical matter of
man and has a specific role to play in daily routine and actions. Here, the problems of
man in life are approached through the inductive method by which data is gathered to
form a basis for new principles and generalizations. Realism accepts God as the motive
cause of all existence.
Realism argues that education should induct learners into their culture and help them to
adjust to the natural order of things in order to live in harmony with the universe.
Teachers act as guides: making children aware of the true nature of real world.
Realists advocate a study of physical and social sciences which are instrumental to
explaining natural phenomena. Mathematics is also encouraged. Advocates of realism
include John Amos Comenius, John Locke and John Herbart.
Pragmatism
It is a progressivist position that sees reality as being in a state of flux or constant
change. Pragmatists employ the realist approach in gathering information and facts, and
idealist approach in generalizing about the facts gathered. Pragmatism seeks meaning
in the immediate situation According to pragmatists education
 Should enable the learner to experience situations in practice

 Is a means for recreating, controlling and redirecting, experience.
 Should help learners to solve their problems and is to be considered an integral
part of life. Systematic sequencing of learning experiences is emphasized by
pragmatists.
 Teachers should provide an atmosphere in which learners identify the problems
and seek solutions to them.
 Teachers should also arrange an environment that provides experience for
learners.
The curriculum should be organized on the basis of the learners’ interests and
the subject matter selected should help the learner to solve problems.
4. Psychological Foundations of Curriculum
These are insights gained from psychology which have a bearing on the learning
process. Psychologists believe that learning experiences have to be introduced to the
learner when such exposure is most effective and most beneficial to him.
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The following issues should be taken into account when dealing with learning
experiences in the curriculum.
 Capability of the learner

 Maturational level of the learner
 Students’ rate of learning as well as how they learn
Psychology as a discipline helps the curriculum designer and the teacher to reach
decisions in relation to:
i) Sequence – in the stages of development

ii) Organization – grouping of learning experiences for optimal effect.
iii) Methodology – dealing with the question of what methods and approaches are
likely to promote and guiding learning most effectively.
Psychology also contributes to:
 Formulation of appropriate educational goals

 Decisions regarding the scope of curriculum
Theoretical Branches of psychology
i) Behavioral Psychologists
They have contributed to decision making in curriculum through their findings

and theories regard.
ii) Connectionist Psychologists
The work of connectionists like E.L. Thorndike (1931) has established the
phenomenon of the relationship between environmental stimulus in a learning
situation and the response to such stimulus and that repeated connection of pairing
of the environmental stimulus and the response embeds skills so learnt in the
learner’s mind.
iv) Gestalt and Orgasmic Psychologists
Also called Field Theory psychologists They stress the understanding of the
relationship between the physical world and the world of experience.
They believe learning takes place more efficiently when the learner is given the
opportunity to view a complete learning situation from which he/she proceeds to
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make response choices as opposed to the piecemeal presentation of isolated
elements in the problem situation.
v) Mental Health Practioners
psycho analysts and other mental health practitioner have helped to explain many
issues regarding human behavior especially that which is related to stress condition
their findings ,educational authorities are now in a better position to deal with crisis
situations that come up now and then in a school setting and which have an effect
on the learners level of concentration at the tasks provided by the learning
environment.
An understanding of certain basic psychological principles will enhance the

effectiveness of planning design and development of the curriculum in a number of
ways.
a) The physical, health and physiological status of the learner in the

classroom have a bearing on the rate at which he will learn.
b) The learner’s nervous condition also has an effect on his mental readiness
c) Curriculum should be planned in accordance to different age groups
corresponding to different age- grade levels.
d) Different age groups have unique problems which require that curriculum
is planned according to such.
e) Like adults, learners have their own interests and aspirations and this
should determine curriculum structure.
f) Effects of rewards and punishments on the process of learning should be
considered.
1.8 CURRICULUM THEORIES AND MODELS
What is a model? It is a three dimensional representation of a person or thing or of a

proposed structure, typically on a small scale than the original.
Curriculum models are based on a body of theory about teaching and learning. They
are targeted to needs and characteristics of a particular group of learners. They outline
approaches, methods and procedures for implementation. Curriculum development
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theories and models provide concepts, issues, explanations, proportions and
frameworks that give curriculum development directions.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Curriculum development theory refers to a formal set of ideas that are intended to
explain the elements and processes of curriculum development. A curriculum
development model is a simple description of a curriculum development system using a
diagram. Curriculum development theories and models provide foundations for
curriculum development, implement and evaluation. They provide foundations for
curriculum implementation review and construction.
1. RALPH TYLER’S CURRICULUM THEORY AND MODEL
Ralph Tyler was an American scholar and educationist. In 1949, Tyler published his
book; Basic Principles of curriculum and instructions. Tyler identified four basic
questions that should be answered by curriculum developers.
i) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (OBJETIVES)
By purposes Tyler was referring to objectives. He indicated that curriculum planners

should identify general objectives by gathering data from three sources:
 Subject matter
 The learner
 Society
 Philosophy
 Psychology
After identifying these general objectives curriculum planners were to refine them by
filtering them through two screens – the philosophy of the school and the psychology of
learning. What results are instructional objectives?
ii) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?(CONTENT)
Learning experiences had to take into account both the previous experiences and
the perception that the learner brings to a situation.
iii) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? (METHODS)
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Tyler talked about the organization and sequencing of these experiences. He
suggested that the ordering of the experiences had to be systematic so as to
produce a maximum cumulative effect. A curriculum developer should look at the
activities that should be given to learners in term I, II, and III and organize them for
the realization of the set objectives.
iv) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
(EVALUATION)
The last question emphasizes the role of curriculum evaluation as an important

element, in the curriculum development process. A curriculum developer has to
consider the means, method and strategies that will be used to determine whether
the desired purposes/objectives are being achieved or have been achieved.
Diagrammatical illustration of Tyler’s Model
OBJECTIVES CONTENT METHODS EVALUATION

Sources
of
The most crucial step in this model is obviously the first, since all the others proceed
from and wait upon the statement of objectives.
Discussion of Tyler’s curriculum theory and model
i) He put more emphasis on the objectives to guide curriculum development.

According to him the sources of curriculum objectives are:
 A study of the learners needs in relation to the needs of the society.

 A study of contemporary issues and society’s life.
 Seeking suggestions of subject specialists through consultation because
they provide information on how the subject can contribute to curriculum
objectives.
 The philosophy and psychology of the school
ii) Ralph Tyler’s model provided the basis for other curriculum development models.
However it is considered simplistic as it ignored the complex process involved
in curriculum development. It does not offer the relationship between various
curriculum elements. It was found to deal shallowly with the issue of
curriculum evaluation which is an important aspect of curriculum
development.
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ACTIVITY
a) Outline four fundamental curriculum questions that Ralph Tyler’s curriculum theory
emphasized.
b) With the aid of a diagram, discuss Ralph Tyler’s curriculum development theory and
model
c) Discuss the application of Ralph Tyler’s model in secondary school curriculum
development.
2. HILDA TABA’S CURRICULUM THEORY AND MODEL (1962)
Hilda Taba was born in 1902; she was a curriculum theorist, Educator and reformer.
Hilda Taba believed that those who teach curriculum should participate in developing it.
She believes that teachers should develop curriculum and that curriculum should not be
handed down from higher authorities. She advocated what has been termed as the
“grass-root approach.” She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to
curriculum development starting with specific s and building to a general design –as
opposed to Ralph Tylers more traditional deductive approach starting from general to
specifics.
Hilda Taba noted seven major steps in the process of developing a curriculum
modifying from Tyler’s model.
i) Diagnosis of needs: The teacher starts the process by identifying the needs of
the students for whom the curriculum is to be planned.
ii) Formulation of objectives. Objectives formulation should encompass the
following areas:
 Concepts or ideas to be learned.

 Attitudes, sensitivities, and feelings to be developed.
 Ways of thinking to be reinforced, strengthened or initiated
 Habits and skills to be mastered.
iii) Selection of contents: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject
matter or content of the curriculum unit subject. Subject matter should be related
to the grade level of the student.
iv) Organization of contents: A teacher cannot just select content, but must organize
it in some type of sequences taking into consideration the maturity of the
learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. This should be from
known to unknown and simple to complex.
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v) Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to pupils or pupils
must engage in an interaction with the content. To select learning experiences,
Taba suggests that the teacher should ask a number of questions. For example;
 Is the experience appropriate for learning the main ideas?

 Does the experience promote “Active learning?”
 Is the experience appropriate to the students’ maturity level?
Taba also felt that learning experiences should reflect a variety of

experiences, including, “reading, writing, observing, doing research,
analyzing, discussing, tabulating, painting, constructing and dramatizing.
vi) Organization of learning experiences: Taba outlines a sequence for organizing

learning experiences:
 Introduction
 Development
 Generalization
 Application or summary
Introduction involves developing student interest and proving diagnostic evidence for
the teacher.
Development or study consists of learning activities that are designed to develop

various aspects of the subject and to provide needed factual material. These activities
include “reading, research, and analysis of data, committee work and study of various
kinds.
Generalization refers to student’s attempts to put ideas together. For example,

comparing and contrasting; and exploration of the reasons for similarities and
differences.
Application or summary is the stage at which the student applies generalization to a

larger framework.
vii) Evaluation and Means of Evaluation: Involves determining whether objectives

have been met, diagnosis of the curriculum plan, and assessment of any
changes in student behavior
Diagrammatical illustration of Taba’s Model
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Step 1:
Step 7:
Diagnosis of
Evaluation
needs
Step 2: Step 6:
Formulation Organization
of Objectives of learning
experiences
Step 3:
Step 5:
Selection of
Selection of
content
Learning
Step 4: Experiences
Organization
of Content
Activity:
1. Outline the seven steps that are necessary for the completion of curriculum
development according to Hilda Taba.
2. Discuss three differences between Hilda Taba’s and Ralph Tyler’s curriculum
models.
3. Using a diagram, identify four curriculum development elements in Hilda Taba’s
curriculum model.
3. KERR’S THEORY AND MODEL
Kerr developing from Tyler’s model, goes on to show how the objectives decided
can be reached by deliberate selection and organization of concepts and
principles from the various disciplines or subjects and our knowledge objectives.
He stated that our objectives will determine the learning experiences that will
take place.
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Evaluation of knowledge and school learning experiences, will determine to what
extent the original objectives have been achieved. The evaluation will always be
linked to the original objectives; and all the four elements are inter-related and
dependence on each other.
In Kerr’s model, there are three main sources of data for arriving at the objective:
 The pupils: their level of development, needs and interests must be

considered.
 Society: The social conditions and problems which the children are likely
to encounter.
 The disciplines: The nature of the subject matter and the types of learning
that can arise from a study of the subject matter.
Kerr’s model, illustrates how objectives are linked and inter-related to

knowledge school learning experiences and evaluation.
Diagrammatical illustration of Kerr’s Model
SOURCE
Pupils Discipline
Society
OBJECTIVES EVALUATION
Tests, assessments
Organization and selection of concepts
and interviews
and principles from disciplines
Knowledge School Learning

Experiences
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4. SYSTEMATIC CURRICULUM MODEL (NCDC)
The National curriculum Development Centre of Uganda has branded its

curriculum model as systematic model which follows Tyler’s theory closely but
has been developed into seven steps. They are as below:
i). Policy and strategy: The policies are derived from the people of Uganda and
the Government National goals, interdepartmental and ministry of Education;
NCDC and Examination policy and design( UNEB).
ii) Goals, Aims and Objectives: These are important in generating content.
iii). Situation Analysis (Need Assessment) i.e what kind of information is needed?
 About the system: Basic demographic and statistical information, For

example school numbers and distribution, enrollments, ages, class sizes,
staffing information, financial allocations with resources, time allocation,
equipment.
 About the learner: Social and cultural backgrounds, languages used,
spoken and understood, ages, etc
 About the teachers: Education and training, i.e length and types of
preparation, language i.e understanding and competency, knowledge,
skills, concepts, attitudes and values.
 About the communities : physical cultural and human resources available
within communities; the values and attitudes of the communities
iv). Curriculum trial and development: it includes curriculum design and

curriculum trials for example, small scale try out: it is the pilot trial in a few
selected schools; Large scale try out this is the trial country wide.
v). Curriculum Implementation: this involves:
 Distribution of materials For example, syllabuses, books, teaching

materials i.e charts, models and tools.
 Teacher training which involves Re-orientation, refresher and in-service
courses.
vi). Evaluation: This must take place throughout the programme, and not merely
at the end. Thus, it must include both formative and summative evaluations.
Evaluation outcomes affects the learners, teachers, curriculum developers and
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leads to modification of content and hence a revision of the entire curriculum
process.
vii) Follow-up: curriculum development is a continuous process. The following

are therefore required:
 Continued induction of teachers and other educational personnel. i.e the

pre-service and in-service
 Continued support from Head Teachers, Administrators and
inspectors/supervisors.
 Continued collection of information
 Continued review of objectives in relation to changing needs of individuals
and society.
 Continued modification of materials
 Continued evaluation
 Continued review of assessment procedures.
1.9 PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION
Curriculum organization of the curriculum content means the process of selecting

curriculum elements from the subject, the current social life and the students’
experience, then designing the selected elements appropriately so they can form the
curriculum structure and type.
Definition: Curriculum organization is the process to change the content into students
learning experiences intentionally, and make learning experiences sequential, integral,
successive after curriculum ideology has been determined, curriculum goal set,
curriculum goal been selected.
Pattern of curriculum is also referred to as curriculum design; which refers to the

arrangement of the elements of a curriculum into a substantive entity. Those
components or elements that are arranged in a curriculum designs are: Aims, goals and
objectives, Subject matter, Learning experience; and Evaluation approaches. These
components can be organized in numerous ways. However, all curriculum designs are
modifications and/ or integrations of three basic design types:
1. Subject centered designs

2. Learner centered designs
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3. Problem centered designs
1. Subject centered designs
This subject centered designs category comprises several examples, i.e.
 Subject design
 Discipline designs
 Broad fields designs
 Correlations designs
Subject centered designs are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum
designs. This is because knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts of
the curriculum.
i) Subject design
It is the oldest school design and the best known to both teachers and lay people,
because this is what has been employed over years in educating them. It is popular
because it corresponds to textbook treatment and how teachers are trained as
subject specialists.
iii) This design is based on a belief that what makes humans unique and distinctive
is there intellect; the searching for and the attainment of knowledge are the
natural fulfillment to that intellect. In the subject matter design, the curriculum
is organized according to how knowledge has been developed in the various
subject areas e.g. History, Geography, English, and Mathematics.
iv) Broad fields designs
The broad fields design, another variation of the subject centered design,
appeared as an effort to correct the fragmentation and compartmentalization
caused by the subject design. This design permits the melding of the two or
more related subjects into a single broad or fused field of study. It is what we
term today as integrated studies e.g. Integration of English literature. One
reason for its continued popularity is that it dissolves subject boundaries in
ways that makes the information more useful and meaningful to the pupils. It
allows the teacher to have more flexibility in choosing content. By integrating
separate subjects, it enables learners to see relationships among the various
subjects of the curriculum
v) Correlation design
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It is a design employed by those who do not wish to go as far as creating a broad
fields design, but who do realize that there are times when separate subjects require
some linkage in order to reduce fragmentation of curricular content. Correlation is an
attempt to eliminate the isolation and compartmentalization of subjects without
radically overhauling the subject curriculum. For example a Science teacher may
collaborate with the social studies teacher by having students write papers dealing
with the history of some particular scientific theory.
2. Learner centered designs
All curriculum developers are concerned with creating curricula that are valuable to
students, or where students are the center or focus of the program.
Weimer (2002) described five learner centered practice areas that need to change to
achieve learner – centered teaching;
 The function of the content

 The role of the instructor
 The responsibility for learning
 The process and purpose or assessment
 The balance of power.
The function of the content in learner-centered teaching include building a strong

knowledge foundation and to develop learning skills and learner self awareness.
The role of the instructor should focus on student learning. The roles are facilitative
rather than didactic.
The responsibility of learning shifts from the instructor to the students. The instructor
creates learning environments that motivate students to accept responsibility for
learning.
The processes and purposes of assessment shift from only assigning grades to include
constructive feedback and to assist with improvement. Learner-centered uses
assessment as part of the learning process.
5. Problem centered designs
Problem centered design focuses on the problems of living – on the perceived

realities of institutional and group life – both for the individual and for society in
general. Problem centered curriculum designs are organized to reinforce cultural
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traditions and also to address those community and societal needs that are currently
unmet. Though these designs place the individual in a social setting, they are unlike
learner centered designs in a major way. Problem centered designs are planned
before the arrival of students.
2.1 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

Curriculum implementation process is a network of varying activities involved in
translating curriculum designs into classroom activities and changing people’s attitudes
to activities.
Bishop (1985) states that curriculum implementation involves two main processes:
 It involves changing the attitude of policy makers, administrators, supervisors,
teachers and parents, but the sole goal of this process is the learner.
 It involves providing the materials and administrative means to make curriculum
implementation possible.
Implementation phase The implementation phase involves colleges which are to use
the planned curriculum:
- Scheduling implementation.
- In-service training and orientation of teachers and other education personnel.
- Provision of other supportive services.
- Introduction of necessary organizational changes within the school system.
- Introduction of the process of informing the general public about the new
curriculum and its implementation.
Teacher Education Programmes Successfully facilitates implementation of any

curriculum. Curriculum requires sufficient supply of trained man-power. Teachers should
go through training programmes. In Uganda, such programmes include: - Pre-service
Teacher Training - Secondary Teacher Education - Adult Educators‟ Training - Teacher
Training for special Education In-service Teacher Training.
Pre-instructional Planning by Teachers Pre-instructional planning helps curriculum

designers to plan a curriculum model that can be appropriately implemented. However,
some Curriculum plans may not be implemented because of the following reasons:
 Misinterpretation of community values and expectations.
 Misconceptions of the needs, interests and capabilities of pupils.
 Lack of administrative support.
 Lack of commitment and feelings of the teacher when using instructional
strategies he/she is not familiar with.
 Lack of adequate materials.
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Curriculum implementers The supportive personnel, teachers, parents and local
communities all play an important role in curriculum implementation. However, we shall
mainly discuss the role of teachers in this process.
Teacher’s role in curriculum implementation

A teacher is the most important person in curriculum implementation.
The teacher implements the ideas and aspirations of the designers. The success of the
curriculum therefore depends on teachers. That is, if teachers are dedicated and
imaginative, they can enliven what in the education system would otherwise be dull and
lifeless. - It is what the teacher does in the classroom, his adoption of the syllabus to
meaningful learning experiences that really counts. The teacher must therefore use
methods and techniques that make it easy for pupils to understand. - The teacher is
also the source of feedback to the school authorities and the Ministry of Education. If
during implementation, certain practices or elements of the syllabus are not satisfactory,
the teacher should try to see to it that they are changed or eradicated. Educational
administrators need to have this information for further changes or adjustments. -
Finally, one of the supportive services, which should be rendered to teachers so as to
ensure continuity and comprehensiveness, is the provision of in-service training.
2.2 INNOVATIONS AND REFORMS IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Definition of innovation
To innovate is to introduce changes and new ideas. Innovation is therefore defined
as activating forces within the system to alter it. It can also be defined as making and
initiating adjustments to improve an educational activity. As a teacher, it is must to
make changes in our methods of teaching, ways of obtaining and using learning aid
and methods of class control.
Factors of innovation
Any process of innovation involves the following four major factors:
 The change agent (innovator)
Innovators range from teachers to international bodies like UNESCO and
UNICEF, World Vision, Action Aid that are always involved in education.
 The innovation or change itself. New approaches can affect innovation. For
example, new methods of teaching, integrated approaches, new subjects,…
 User system. This is a person or group at which the innovation is directed or
targeted. An innovation has a purpose that involves people.
 Time. Innovation is essentially a social process and so takes place over a
period of time.
275
The process of innovation
Most innovation under goes through the following logical phases:
 Identification of problems
 Identification of possible solutions to the problem
 Selection of a particular solution (innovation)
 Trialing and evaluation- this is a pilot phase it involves sensitization,
establishing internal organization, procurement and organization, training
courses and setting up monitoring and feedback procedures
 Implementation
 Institutionalization
Reforms in Primary School Curriculum
This is an example of curriculum innovation in Uganda. In 1989, the Education

Policy Review Commission (EPRC) came up with a report entitled, “Education for
National Integration and Development.” It recommended several changes in our
formal education system concerning curriculum, methodology, structure,
management and financing of different levels and types of education in Uganda. In
1992, the Government White Paper on implementation of the recommendation of the
1989 Commission Report was produced and was discussed by government, leading
to the desired reform in the education system. Following the proposed structure of
education through the reform, the government of Uganda has undertaken the
following steps to improve the quality and equity of Primary Education:
(i) The introduction of thematic curriculum in lower Primary classes: This is in
addition to the existing curriculum. The emphasis on lower Primary
Curriculum is on the use of Area/Local language in the rural schools and the
acquisition of numeracy, literacy and life skills in order to improve the quality
of Primary Education.
(ii) Volume two of the Primary School Curriculum was introduced to improve the
Primary School Curriculum with the aim of producing citizens after School,
who are self-sufficient. As a result, production skills, art and crafts: performing
arts and home management were included to equip the learners with better
technical skills.
(iii) Continuous assessment has also been introduced as an educational reform in
addition to the summative assessment to improve the learners‟ performance
and cater for all learners‟ abilities. Cumulative assessment materials/cards
have been given to schools for this purpose.
(iv) Democratization of education as an innovation was set up. This refers to
providing equal opportunity to all children of school going age. The curriculum
276
has been revised to include learning items for the special needs children such
as the deaf, blind, dumb and those from areas such as Karamoja, who are
given a special time for learning. The government of Uganda has on this
matter, created special needs centres in schools and encouraged the
integration of the disabled children within the normal schools.
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Mr. Oyom Joseph Jolly, joswaldlyn@yahoo.com, 0772957506/0701702033

Success and Good luck!

My colleagues lecturers and tutors in different Universities and ECD Training

ABOUT THE AUTHOR ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT (ECD) ......................................... 1

UNIT TWO ........................................................................................................................................... 15

CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................... 15

UNIT THREE ....................................................................................................................................... 50

CHILD CARE AND PARENTING PRACTICES ............................................................................. 50

UNIT FOUR ......................................................................................................................................... 69

CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION.................................................................................................. 69

HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN ECD ............................................................................................... 79

UNIT SIX ............................................................................................................................................ 110

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION ....................................................................................................... 110

UNIT SEVEN ..................................................................................................................................... 150

COMMUNICATION SKILLS............................................................................................................ 150

UNIT EIGHT ...................................................................................................................................... 170

COMPUTER APPLICATION .......................................................................................................... 170

INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT (ECD)

 Introduce learners to the concept of ECD

1.1 CONCEPT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT (ECD)

ECD can be considered as a process, stage or set of programmes. As a process, ECD

The international definition of Early childhood includes prenatal and, cognitive

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF ECD

The objectives of ECD as outlined in the Uganda Government White Paper on

1.3 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs) AND EDUCATION

From these international commitments and declarations, Early Childhood programmes

For families, ECD programs involving parents can;

 Improve parent child relationships,

 Early interventions in ECD leads to increased earnings as many more people

1.5 TYPES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Day care centres

Home based ECD Centres

Community based ECD Centres

Nursery schools/ Kindergarten

Lower Primary classes (P1-3)

Beginning in infancy, children were taught through lullabies, songs, and

In Uganda, Nursery education (ECD) was brought by the British colonialists.

1.7 EARLY ADVOCATES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

Comenius’s perspective on the role of education in children’s lives:

John Locke’s perspective of the role of education in children’s lives:

Rousseau’s perspective of the role of education in children’s lives:

Maria contributed the following to ECD;

 Designed classrooms to suite children’s needs and level

Froebel was a German educator. In 1840 he created the word

Froebel contributed the following to ECD;

1.8 CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

A right is a basic need that a person is entitled to by virtue of being a human

Categories of children’s rights

Children’s rights are in four categories that include:

Importance of promoting children’s rights

 Report any abuse to caregiver or parents

 Provide for the needs of the children

ECD Centre Heads

 Sensitize parents on the children’s rights and responsibilities

Local Council Officials

 Be a watchdog in their communities to ensure that children’s rights and

Child Welfare and Probation Officers

1.9 GENDER RESPONSIVENESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Gender responsiveness refers to a situation where caregivers are sensitive to

1.10 CHILD ABUSE, CHILD NEGLECT AND CHILD LABOR

CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT