INTRODUCTION TO

THERMODYNAMICS
Presented by:
Suman Acharya
Lecturer
Department of Applied Sciences
NCE

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Introduction
■ Thermodynamics is of Greek origin and is translated as the combination of
– Therme: Heat
– Dynamics: power
■ Engineering Thermodynamics is the branch of applied science which deals with
energy.
■ It is also defined as the study of heat and work.
■ Thermodynamics mainly deals with 3 E’s
– Energy
– Equilibrium
– Entropy

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Thermodynamic System, Surroundings and
Boundary
Thermodynamic system is a quantity of matter or
a space which is chosen for the study.
All the medium outside to the system is called
surroundings.
The medium which separates system from its
surroundings is called boundary.
System and surroundings taken together is called
universe.

Objective of most of the thermodynamic analysis is to study the interaction between

the system and the surroundings and effects of this interaction on the system or on the
surroundings.
System and surroundings can interact with each other either by mass transfer or
energy transfer. 3
Closed System

• Only Energy can cross the boundary

of the system
• A system with fixed mass, no mass
transfer, energy can transfer in and
out
• Eg: a tightly capped cup of coffee,
piston Cylinder device with no exits

Total mass of a closed system always remains constant therefore any closed
system can be completely described by the properties of particular amount of
mass inside the system. Hence, a closed system is also called a control mass
(CM).

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Open System
System in which both mass and energy transfer takes place is called open system
Eg: an open cup of coffee, air compressor

In case of an open system, properties of particular mass cannot describe the

properties of the system for any instant.
For the study of an open system, we select some specified region and analyze this
region with reference to thermodynamic properties. Hence an open system is also
called a control volume (CV).
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Isolated System

• Neither mass nor energy can cross the boundary of

system.
• Eg: Coffee in closed and well insulated thermos bottle

Mass Energy
Closed System No Yes
Open System Yes Yes
Isolated System No No

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Microscopic Vs Macroscopic Viewpoint
The behavior of a system may be investigated from either a microscopic or
macroscopic point of view.
Microscopic Viewpoint
• A system is analyzed with reference to its
molecular behavior.
• a large number of variables
• statistical thermodynamics
• used by scientists
• Calculation is time-consuming and tedious.
• Volume of air inside room = no. of air
molecules inside room * volume of each air
molecule
Macroscopic Viewpoint
• A system is analyzed with reference to certain
measurable bulk properties.
• Less number of variables
• classical/applied thermodynamics
• used by engineers
• relatively simpler and faster
• Volume of air inside room = volume of room =
l*b*h
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Thermodynamic Property
Any parameter or variable used to describe a thermodynamic system is called a
thermodynamic property.
Most common thermodynamic properties are pressure (P), temperature (T) and
volume (V). Other properties which will be dealt in the following chapters are internal
energy (U), total energy (E), enthalpy (H) and entropy (S).

Thermodynamics properties can be divided into two general classes, intensive and
extensive Properties:

Intensive Property
Thermodynamic property which is independent of mass or part of the system
considered is called an intensive property. Eg. Pressure (P) and temperature (T)

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Extensive property
Thermodynamic property which is proportional to mass or part of the system
considered is called an extensive property. Eg: Volume (V), internal energy (U), total
energy (E), enthalpy (H), entropy (S)

Specific Property

Extensive properties can be converted into intensive form by dividing their value by
mass. Extensive property per unit mass is called the specific property.

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Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium if there is no change in any
properties of the system when it is isolated from its surroundings.

A system is said to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium if all intensive properties

have same value throughout the system.
For a thermodynamic system to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium, it should
satisfy the following equilibrium conditions: thermal equilibrium, mechanical
equilibrium and chemical equilibrium.
For a system to be in a thermal equilibrium, there should not be any temperature
difference within the system.
For a system to be in a mechanical equilibrium, there should not be any pressure
difference within the system.
For a system to be in a chemical equilibrium, there should not be any chemical
reaction.
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Thermodynamic State
Each unique condition at which a thermodynamic system can exist is a called a
thermodynamic state. Or
A set of properties that describes the conditions of a system.
Eg: Mass m, Temperature T, Volume V, Pressure P

Thermodynamic state is specified with the values of thermodynamic

properties.

State 1: T1 = 20 oC, V1= 1 .5 m3

When heat is supplied to the given system.
State 2: T2 = 20 oC, V2 = 2.5 m3

Figure: Isothermal Heating

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Properties of a Thermodynamic Property

A variable is a property, if and only if,

• it has a single value at each equilibrium state.

• a change in its value between any two prescribed states is
independent of path.

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Differences Between State function and Path
Function
State/Point Function Path Function

• Those variables which depend only on • Those variables which depend not only
end states on end states but also on the path
• are thermodynamic properties • are not thermodynamic properties
• exact differential (dV) • inexact differential (δW)
• Cyclic integral is zero. • Cyclic integral is non-zero.
• Eg. All thermodynamic properties such • Eg. Heat and work
as pressure, temperature, volume, etc.

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Thermodynamic Process

The path followed by a system when it undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another is called a thermodynamic process.

Thermodynamic process can also be defined as a locus of states through which

system passes while undergoing change form one equilibrium state to another.

Thermodynamic process is described with the help of property diagrams such as

P-V, T-V, P-T, P-h, T-s diagrams etc.

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Constant Volume (Isochoric) Heating

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Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Heating

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Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Heating

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Reversible and Irreversible Process

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Reversible and Irreversible Process
Any process which passes through a series of equilibrium states such that each
intermediate states can be located on a property diagram is called a reversible
process.

This process once having take place it can be reversed. In doing so, it leaves no
change in the system or boundary.

Any process which passes through a series of intermediate states which cannot be
defined or cannot be located on a property diagram is called an irreversible process.

This process cannot return both the system and surrounding to their original
conditions.

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Cyclic Process
A process is said to be a cyclic process, if the
initial state of the system is restored by a number
of different processes in series. For a cyclic
process, initial and final states are identical.

Specific Volume
• volume per unit mass of the substance
• reciprocal of density
𝑉
• unit: m3/kg 𝑣=
𝑚
• low density gas and vapor

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Pressure
■ is defined as force per unit area.
■ is denoted by P.
■ Units: N/m2 (Pa), bar or atm
■ 1 bar = 100 kPa = 105 Pa
■ 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 * 105 Pa

1. Atmospheric pressure (𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ):

• pressure exerted by ambient air on any surface
• measured by barometer in terms of height of the mercury column (𝑧𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜 )
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜

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2. Gauge Pressure (𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆 )
• pressure of any system measured with reference to atmospheric pressure
• measured by pressure gauge or manometer
• Pressure gauge gives pressure reading directly in Pa or bar.
• Manometer gives gauge pressure of a system in terms of height of a certain
manometric fluid (zmano ).
Pgauge = ρgzmano

3. Absolute Pressure (𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 )

• pressure of a system measured with reference to perfect vacuum

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Relation between absolute, atmospheric and gauge pressures:

Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

Pgauge = Pabs − Patm
Sometimes Psys < Patm , and Pgauge = −ve.
Negative gauge pressure is called vacuum gauge.

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Temperature
■ degree of hotness or coldness of a system
■ property of a system which defines the direction and magnitude of heat
transfer
■ measured by a thermometer
■ Commonly used scales are oC, oF and K.

𝐶−0 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273 𝐶 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273

= = Or, = =
100 − 0 212 − 32 373 − 273 5 9 5

Scale FP BP
Celcius 0 100
Fahrenheit 32 212
Kelvin 273 373

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Equality of Temperature
Two systems are said to have equal temperatures, if there
is no change in any properties of both the system when
they are brought in contact with each other.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

When two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third system, then these two systems should also be
in thermal equilibrium
This basic fundamental has been given emphasis and
named as Zeroth law because it is used in all temperature
measurement process.

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Example 1
A container having two compartments contains steam as shown in figure. The specific volume
of steam in compartment B is 5m3/kg. The membrane breaks and the resulting specific volume
is 8 m3/kg. Find the original specific volume of steam in the compartment A.

Ans: 10 m3 /kg

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Question 1

A cylinder with a total volume of 1 m3 has a movable piston as shown in

Figure. When the piston is at one fourth of the length, both sides have same
specific volume of 4 m3/kg. Determine the specific volumes of both sides
when the piston is at middle of the cylinder.

Ans:8, 2.66

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Example 2

A large chamber is separated into two compartments which are maintained

different pressures, as shown in figure. Pressure gauge A reads 200 kPa, and
pressure gauge B reads 150 kPa. If the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa,
determine the absolute pressure existing in the compartments and the reading
of gauge C.

Ans: 250 kPa, 50 kPa, -50 kPa

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Question 2

A vessel shown has two compartments as shown in figure below at different

pressures. The pressures gauge A reads 4 bars and B reads 2 bars. The
barometer reads 760 mm of Hg. Calculate the reading of gauge C.
[ Take ρ= 13600 kg/m3 and g= 9.81 m/s2]

Ans: 200 kPa

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Example 3

A cylinder encloses a gas with a piston shown in figure below. The area of
piston is 0.01 m2 . Take the atmospheric pressure to be 0.01 Mpa and the
local gravitational acceleration as 9.81 m/s2. . If the weight of the piston is
490.50 N, what is the gas pressure? Will the gas pressure change if the gas
volume beneath the piston is double?

Ans: 150.05 kPa

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Question 3

A piston cylinder arrangement shown in figure below has the cross-section

area of 0.01m2 and a piston of mass of 80 kg. If the atmospheric pressure is 1
bar, what should be the gas pressure to lift the piston? If 50 kg mass is added
above the piston, what would be the new pressure?

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Example 4

A piston cylinder device loaded with a linear spring with a spring

constant of k = 100 kN/m contains a gas initially at a pressure of 100
kPa and a volume of 0.05 m3, as shown in Figure. The cross sectional
area of the piston is 0.1 m2. Initially spring touches the piston but
exerts no force on it. Heat is supplied to the system until its volume
doubles, determine the final pressure.

Ans:600 kPa

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Question 4

A piston cylinder arrangement loaded with a linear spring as shown in figure

below has a cross-sectional area of 0.01 m2, contains gas piston mass of
80kg. Initally spring touches the piston but exerts no pressure on it. Heat is
supplied to the system until its volume doubles. Determine the final
pressure.
[ Take g= 9.81 m/s2 , Outside atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa,
spring constant, k= 50 kN/m, initial volume = 0.06 m3 of gas

Ans: 30178.45 kPa

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Extra Question 1

The device shown in the figure below has a free moving piston between the
two chambers. The initial total volumes of A and B are equal. specific
volumes of A and B are 100 m3/kg and 50 m3/kg . If the piston is moved so
that x is one forth of the entire length, determine the final specific volumes
of the chambers of A and B.

Ans: 50,75

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Extra Question 2
A large chamber is separated into compartments 1 and 2, as shown in Figure
which are kept at different pressure. Pressure gauge A reads 300 kPa and
pressure gauge B reads 120 kPa. If the local barometer reads 720 mm Hg,
determine the absolute pressure existing in the compartments and the reading
of gauge C. Take  = 13600 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2.

Ans: 396.0595, 276.0595, 180 kPa

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Extra Question 3

For the piston cylinder device shown in Figure determine the absolute
pressure inside the device. [Take 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎]

Ans: 301.3 kPa

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Extra Question 4

Three pressure gauges are connected to a container consisting of two

compartments as shown in figure below. If the local barometer reads 760
mm of Hg and pressure gauges A and B reads 250 kPa and 150 kPa
respectively, determine the absolute pressure in each compartment and
reading of pressure gauge C.
[ Take ρ= 13600 kg/m3 and g= 9.81 m/s2]

Ans: 351.396kPa, 501.396 kPa, 400 kPa

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Extra Question 5

A 15 kg piston in a cylinder with diameter of 0.15 m is loaded with a linear

spring and the outside atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa, as shown in Figure.
The spring exerts no force on the piston when it is at the bottom of the
cylinder and for the state shown, the pressure is 300 kPa with volume of 0.02
m3. The valve is opened to let some air in, causing the piston to rise 5 cm.
Find the new pressure. [Take 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 ]

Ans: 308.7 kPa

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