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Action Potentials and Synapses
Neurons and Potentials
Neurons are highly irritable
Respond to adequate stimulus by generating an action
potential (nerve impulse)
Two types of signals
Graded potentials
Incoming short‐distance signals
Action potentials
Long‐distance signals of axons
Potential difference across the membrane of a resting
cell
Approximately –70 mV in neurons (cytoplasmic
side of membrane is negatively charged relative
to outside)
Generated by the differences in ionic makeup of
intracellular fluid and the extracellular fluid
K+ Na+ outside
Plasma
membrane
K+ Na+ inside
fluid outside
neuron
gated sodium
channel
Na+ voltage
Na+
Na+ reversed
©2007 Thomson Higher Education
In a membrane at rest, the inside of the neuron is negative relative to A strong disturbance initiates an action potential. Sodium gates open.
the outside. An electrical disturbance (yellow arrow) spreads from an Sodium flows in, reducing the negativity inside the neuron. The
input zone to an adjacent trigger zone of the membrane, which has a change causes more gates to open, and so on until threshold is
large number of gated sodium channels.
reached and the voltage difference across the membrane reverses.
Na+/K+ pump
K+ K+ K+
K+ K+
K+ Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+
Na+
propagating
action potential
K+
©2007 Thomson Higher Education
©2007 Thomson Higher Education
At the next patch of membrane, another group of gated sodium channels After each action potential, the sodium and potassium concentration
open. In the previous patch, some K+ moves out through other gated gradients in a patch of membrane are not yet fully restored. Active
channels.That region becomes negative again. transport at sodium–potassium pumps restores them.
Action Potential Propagation
Action potentials spread by themselves.
The action potential is self‐propagating and moves away from the stimulation site
Potentials can self‐propagate because the changes to the membrane potential don’t lose strength
A neuron can’t “fire” again until ion pumps restore its resting potential.
By diffusion, some potassium ions will always leak out of the cell and some sodium will always leak in
The sodium‐potassium pumps use ATP to actively pump potassium ions in and sodium ions out of the neuron
Necessary to keep the concentration of sodium ions higher outside, ready for another action potential to form.
Action Potential
Resting state
Only leakage channels for Na+ and K+ are
open
All gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed
Depolarization
A reduction in membrane potential (toward
zero)
Inside of the membrane becomes less
negative than the resting potential
Increases the probability of producing a
nerve impulse
Hyperpolarization
An increase in membrane potential (away
from zero)
Inside of the membrane becomes more negative
than the resting potential
Reduces the probability of producing a nerve
impulse
Action Potential Propagation
Threshold
At threshold:
Membrane is depolarized by 15 to 20 mV
Na+ permeability increases
Na influx exceeds K+ efflux
The positive feedback cycle begins
Threshold
Subthreshold stimulus—weak local
depolarization that does not reach threshold
Threshold stimulus—strong enough to push the
membrane potential toward and beyond
threshold
Threshold
All action potentials are alike and are
independent of stimulus intensity
Strong stimuli can generate action potentials
more often than weaker stimuli
The CNS determines stimulus intensity by the
frequency of impulses
Action Potentials
Action potentials spread by themselves.
The action potential is self‐propagating and moves away from the stimulation site.
Potentials can self‐propagate because the changes to the membrane potential don’t lose strength
Occurs in muscle cells and axons of neurons
Does not decrease in magnitude over distance
Principal means of long‐distance neural communication
An action potential is an all‐or‐none phenomenon—action potentials either happen completely, or not at all
Graded Potentials
Short‐lived, localized changes in membrane potential
Graded potential spreads as local currents change the membrane potential of adjacent regions
Occur when a stimulus causes gated ion channels to open
E.g., receptor potentials, generator potentials, postsynaptic potentials
Magnitude varies directly (graded) with stimulus strength
Decrease in magnitude with distance as ions flow and diffuse through leakage channels
Short‐distance signals
Graded Potential vs. Action Potential
Conduction Velocity
Conduction velocities of neurons vary
widely
Effect of axon diameter
Larger diameter fibers have less
resistance to local current flow and
have faster impulse conduction
Effect of myelination
Continuous conduction in
unmyelinated axons is slower than
saltatory conduction in myelinated
axons
Conduction Velocity
Effects of myelination:
Myelin sheaths insulate and prevent leakage of charge
Saltatory conduction in myelinated axons is about 30 times faster
Voltage‐gated Na+ channels are located at the nodes
APs appear to jump rapidly from node to node
Conduction Velocity
Multiple Sclerosis
An autoimmune disease that mainly affects young adults
Symptoms: visual disturbances, weakness, loss of muscular control, speech disturbances, and urinary incontinence
Myelin sheaths in the CNS become nonfunctional scleroses
Shunting and short‐circuiting of nerve impulses occurs
Impulse conduction slows and eventually ceases
Action Potentials and Synapses ‐ Part II
The Synapse
A junction that mediates information transfer from one neuron:
To another neuron
To an effector cell
Presynaptic neuron—conducts impulses toward the synapse
Postsynaptic neuron—transmits impulses away from the synapse
Synaptic Cleft
Fluid‐filled space separating the presynaptic and postsynaptic
neurons
Prevents nerve impulses from directly passing from one neuron to
the next
Transmission across the synaptic cleft:
Is a chemical event (as opposed to an electrical one)
Involves release, diffusion, and binding of neurotransmitters
Ensures unidirectional communication between neurons
Types of Synapses
Axodendritic—between the axon of one neuron and the
dendrite of another
Axosomatic—between the axon of one neuron and the soma of
another
Less common types:
Axoaxonic (axon to axon)
Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite)
Dendrosomatic (dendrite to soma)
Synapse
Neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse across the synapse,
and bind to receptors
Within a few milliseconds, the neurotransmitter effect is
terminated
Degradation by enzymes
Reuptake by astrocytes or axon terminal
Diffusion away from the synaptic cleft
Synaptic delay—time needed to do this (0.3–5.0 ms)
Synaptic delay is the rate‐limiting step of neural
transmission
Excitatory Synapse
Neurotransmitter binds to and opens chemically
gated channels that allow simultaneous flow of Na+ and K+ in opposite directions
Na+ influx is greater that K+ efflux, causing a net depolarization
If impulse is of threshold strength voltage‐gated channels open and start new action potential
Inhibitory Synapse
Neurotransmitter binds to and opens channels for K+ or Cl–
Causes a hyperpolarization (the inner surface of membrane becomes more negative)
Reduces the postsynaptic neuron’s ability to produce an action potential
Summation
Temporal summation
One or more presynaptic neurons transmit impulses in rapid‐fire order
Spatial summation
Postsynaptic neuron is stimulated by a large number of terminals at the same time
Neurotransmitters
50 or more neurotransmitters have been identified
Classified by chemical structure and by function
Acetylcholine
Biogenic Amines
Norepinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Histamine
Amino Acids
GABA, Glutamate, Glycine, Peptides
Peptides
Endorphins, Somatostatin, Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Purines
ATP, Adenosine
Gases and Lipids
NO2, CO2, Endocannabinoids
Chemical Classes of Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Released at neuromuscular junctions and some ANS neurons
Synthesized by enzyme choline acetyltransferase
Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Functional Classification of Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter effects may be excitatory (depolarizing) and/or inhibitory (hyperpolarizing)
Determined by the receptor type of the postsynaptic neuron
GABA and glycine are usually inhibitory
Glutamate is usually excitatory
Acetylcholine
Excitatory at neuromuscular junctions in skeletal muscle
Inhibitory in cardiac muscle