1.

INTRODUCTION

This script provides you with the theoretical and practical knowledge of
poetry,. You will learn the definition of poetry, the kinds of poetry, and the
elements of poetry. You are given some examples of poetry and so you can
define poetry using your own words. When you have learnt the theory of poetry,
you are given some poems to analyze as the practical knowledge. Then you
will be assigned to read them loudly with good pronunciation, rhythm, and
intonation. Finally you may try to create your own poems.
However, in creating your own poems, you do not need to learn the
theory. It is because there is no theory of how to create poems. You just need
to express your idea and feeling by exploring the potencies of language as
have been demonstrated by some poets whose poems are presented in the
part of “Poems for Experience”.

General Competence
After this course the students are expected to have theoretical and practical
knowledge of poetry.

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 2. DEFINITION OF POETRY

Specific Competence:
When you have learnt this chapter, you are expected to define poetry
using your own words.

What is the definition of poetry? To answer this question let us read the
following poem by William Wordsworth:

I WANDERED LONELY AS A CLOUD

I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o’er valleys and hills’
When all at once I saw crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils,
Besides the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine

And twinkle on the milky way,
They stretched in never-ending line,
Along the margin of a bay:
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced: but they

Out-did the sparking waves in glee;
A pot could not but gay’
In such a jocund company;
I gazed—and gazed—but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought

For oft, when on my couch I lie

In vacant o in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude:
And then heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.

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Read the poem loudly. Consider the stressed and unstressed syllables. Listen
carefully to your voice when you are reading. Can you hear the rhythmic sound
in the poem? Can you hear the rhyme or the repetition of particular sound while
you are reading? Can you enjoy that thyme and rhythm?
The poem above is composed in the pattern of rhythm and rhyme. Let
us read the first stanza:

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ ˇ ˇ – ˇ
I wandered lonely as a cloud

ˇ – ˇ – – ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ –
That floats on high o’er valleys and hills’

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – –
When all at once I saw crowd,

ˇ– ˇ – ˇ – ˇ ˇ
A host, of golden daffodils,

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
Besides the lake, beneath the trees,

– ˇ ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ ˇ –
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze

The combination of unstressed syllables which are signed by ˇ and stressed

which are signed by – constructed a rhythmic pattern in each line. This pattern
is called rhythm.
You can also find the repetition of the similar sound. Pay attention to the
repetition of /au/ in the final words in the line 1 and line 2, the repetition of the
sound ils in the final words in the line 2 and line 4, and the repetition of the
sound is in the final words in the lines five and six.
You can also find the repetition of the sound /l/ in several words. Read
loudly and carefully all the stanza and you can find the sound that is repeated
in the words lonely, cloud, floats, valleys, hills, all, golden, daffodils, lake, and
fluttering.

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 Now, pay attention to the language use. The words used in this poem
are common words. However in this poem they function to build imagination in
the readers’ minds. Consider the line I wandered lonely as a cloud, and the line
That floats on high o’er valleys and hills.
Pay attention to the phrase golden daffodils. The poet uses the adjective
golden instead of yellow which is the natural color of daffodils. This is a
metaphor that functions to describe the beauty of daffodils. Hence Wordsworth
does not say “The daffodils are beautiful”, directly. He says it by using
metaphor golden daffodils. Metaphor is one of figurative speech which is
commonly used in poem.
Now, read again the above poem. Try to grasp the content that the poet
wants to convey. Can you grasp the poet’s feeling? Is he happy or sad? Try to
find it by reading the poem again and again. Pay attention to the image he
presents, i.e. the golden daffodils. In the last line he says that he dances with
them. Listen also to the rhythmical sound that touches your ear.
if you read carefully, you can find the poet’s feeling. In this poem he is
very happy. The use of image of golden daffodils suggests that he is very
happy. Golden daffodils are very beautiful and beautiful is very close to
happiness. This happiness is suggested more strongly in the last lines which
says that the speaker is dancing with the daffodils. The rhythmical sound also
suggest that he is very happy. The use of unstressed and stresses syllables
suggests that the poet is singing happily.
By the example above it clear that poetry is composed with two aspects.
The aspects are sound and language. To define the definition of poetry, let us
consider what Kennedy and Gioia (2002:xxv) say: “Poetry is a rhythmical
composition of words expressing an attitude. Designed to surprise and delight,
and arouse and emotional response.
In the same sense, Daiches ( 1964: 137) says that poet uses the
intellectual meaning of words, as the prose writer does, and he also uses their
association suggestion and suggestions, their sound and rhythm, and the
musical and other patterns they form in combination with each other.

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 The other definition is that poetry is the media of the poet to
communicate his ideas or feeling through the use of poetical language and
rhythmical sound.
In short, in composing poem, a poet exploits both the sound and the
meaning of language. The poet uses rhythm and rhyme to construct artistic
sound that appears in musical pattern. In the term of language, a poet uses
imagery and the figurative language such as, metaphor, metonymy, etc.
Now, can you define poetry in your own language? Try to make it by
considering the above examples and explanation.

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 3. THE KINDS OF POETRY

Specific Competence:

After reading this chapter you are expected to explain the kinds of
poetry.

A. The kind of poetry in terms of content

Basically, in terms of content, there are two kinds of poetry. They are lyric and
narrative poetry. To see the difference read the following poems:

FIRE AND ICE

By: Robert Frost

Some say the world will end in fire,

Some say in ice.
>From what I've tasted of desire
I hold with those who favor fire.
But if it had to perish twice,
I think I know enough of hate
To say that for destruction ice
Is also great
And would suffice.

Also read the second poem by William Butler Yeats:

THE LAKE OF INNISFREE

I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,

And a small cabin built there, of clay and wattle made:
Nine bean-rows will I have there, a hive for honey-bee,
And I live alone in the bee-loud glade.

And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes

dropping slow,
Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket
sings;
There midnight’s all the glimmer, and noon a purple glow,
And evening full of the linnet’s wings.

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 I will arise and go now, for always night and day
I hear the lake water lapping with low sound by the shore;
While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavement gray,
I hear it in the deep heart’s core.

Now, compare the poem above with the following poem by Edwin
Arlington Robinson:

RICHARD CORRY

Whenever Richard Corry went down town,

We people on the pavement looked at him:
He was a gentleman from sole to crown,
Clean favored, and imperially slim.

And he was always quietly arrayed,

And he always human when he talked;
But he still fluttered pulses when he said,
“Good morning and he glittered when he walked.

And he was rich—yes, richer than a king—

And admirably schooled in every grace:
In fine, we thought that he was everything
To make us wish that we were in his place.

So on we worked, and waited for the light,

And went without the meat, and cursed the bread;
And Richard Corry, one calm summer night,
Went home and put a bullet through his head.

Can you find the difference between the there poems above? Let us
discuss the first poem. The poem is entitled Fire and Ice,
In this poem, the poet presents an abstract idea about how the world will
end. He presents this abstract idea through the concrete objects, i.e. fire and
ice. The fire is the symbol of war, while ice is the symbol of peace. Hence this
poem is about whether world will end in war or peace.
The second poem is about the poet’s dream of living in happiness. The
lake of Innisfree has become the symbol of this dream.
In the third poem you can find something which is deferent from the first
and the second poem. You can find a story of a man namely Richard Corry.

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Richard Corry becomes the character of the story. The setting is a society living
in poverty.
I short, lyric poem is a short poem expressing the thoughts and feeling of
a single speaker. Often a poet will write a lyric first person (e.g. I will arise and
go now, and go to Innisfree) but not always. Instead, a lyric might describe an
object or recall an experience without the speaker’s ever bringing himself or
herself into it. (Kennedy, 2002:674). In the relatively same sense Wynn (2001:
9) says that lyric includes all poems that are primary about a subject and
contains little narrative content. The subject of a lyric poem may be the poet’s
emotion, an abstract idea, a satirical insight, or a description of a person or
place.
Narrative poem is a poem that tells a story. It invites the skills of a writer
of fiction: the ability to draw characters and setting briefly, to engage attention,
to shape a plot. (Kennedy, 2001: 12).
The third kind of poetry is dramatic poetry. Dramatic poetry refers to the
spoken directly by character in a drama. In other words, it is the dialogue
between characters in drama that is composed in the form of poetry.
By the citations above it can be concluded that a lyric poem contains the
poet’s thought, experience, and feeling. Narrative poem is composed with the
main purpose to tell a story.

B. The Kinds of Poetry in terms of Form

Stanzaic Form

Stanza is a group of lines in poem which is recognizable. It is a unit of

poetry in which pattern of rhyme are organized into verse. It is similar to
paragraph in prose.

1. Couplet

Couplet is a stanza that consists of two lines and usually rhymed. And
then we have an heroic couplet which is frequently found in English poems. It is

8
form of stanza that composed in the form of two rhyming lines of iambic
pentameter. Read the following lines from of Dryden:

A man so various, that he seeme’d to be

Not one, but all mankind’s epitome:
Stiff in opinion, always in the wrong;
Was everything by starts and nothing long.

The above stanza is composed in two heroic couplets.

2. Triplet (or Tercet)

A stanza composed in the form of triplet consists of three lines and

usually with one repeated rhyme a a a. Read the following by Marshall.

Whenas in silks my Julia goes.

Then, then (methinks) how sweetly flows
That liquefaction of her clothes.

3. Quatrain

Quatrain is composed in a stanza that consists of four. It is either

rhyming or nor rhyming.. Read the following stanza by Marvell as the example:

My love is of a birth as rare

As ‘tis for object strange and high:
It was begotten by despair
Upon impossible.

4. Sestet

When a pot is composing a stanza in six lines, he is creating a sestet. It

is, specifically, it is the second part of sonnet. All sonnets have fourteen lines
which are divided into an octave and a sestet. A sestet is commonly rhymed in
abcabc such as the last lines of Millton’s sonnet, “When I considered How my
Light is spent”:

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That murmur, soon replies, God doth nt need
Either man’s work of his own gifts, who bet
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best; his state
Is kingly. Thousand at his bidding speed
And post o’er land and ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait.

5. Octave

Have you ever read a stanza that consists eight lines? May be you will
answer no, because you do not know its characteristic. It may be found in a
sonnet in the first eight lines of stanzas.

6. Spenserian Stanza

Spenserian stanza was designed and employed by Spenser, a very

famous English poet. Its composition consists of nine lines. The first eight lines
are composed iambic pentameter while the last lines or the ninth line is in
hexameter. This stanza rhymes ababbccbcc. This form has bee used widely by
other poets such as Burns, Shelley, and Keats. The following stanza is from
Shelley’s The Revolt of Islam:

I could not choose but gaze: a fascination

Dwelt in that moon, and sky, and cloud, which drew
My fancy thither, and in expectation
Of what I know not, I remained: —the hue
Of the white moon, amid than heaven so blue,
Suddenly stained with shadow did appear;
Like a great ship in the sun’s sinking sphere
A speck ship in the sun’s sinking sphere
Beheld afar at sea, and swift it came anear.

7 Ottava Rima

This is one of stanzaic form which is composed of eight and rhyming in

the pattern of abababcc. Thi is a particular stanza used by a large number of

10
famous poet, such as Milton, Shakespeare, Byron, and Keats. The following
Ottava Rima is taken from Byron’s Don Juan:

But words are things, and a small drop of ink

Falling like dew, upon a thought, produces
That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think;
Tis strange, the shortest letter which man uses
Instead of speech, may form a lasting link
Of ages; to what straits old Time reduces
Frail man. When paper—even a rag like this,
Survives himself, his tomb, and all that’s his.

8. Sonnet

Sonnet is originated in Italian poetry. It is a poem that composed in

fourteen-line and iambic pentameter. English sonnet consists of three quatrains
and a couplet and rhyming abab, cdcd, etet,gg .English famous sonneteer is
William Shakespeare.

9. Free Verse

You have read and learnt all the stanzaic form discussed previously. All
of the forms that have been discussed are composed in the patterns of rhyme.
In terms of rhythm, they are also created in the pattern of rhythm to created
musical effect. Is there any other poetical form which is free of such pattern?
Yes, you can find poems which are not composed in those patterns. In other
words, they are free verse.
What is free verse? Reaske (1966: 18) says that free verse is it is poetry
which is free from traditional pattern of line, rhyme, and rhythm. Each line is
created in various numbers of line, types of feet poetry; it concerns with the
meaning only. This form has been used widely since the movement of
symbolism.

11
 4. THE ELEMENTS OF POETRY

Specific Competence:
When you have learnt this chapter, you expected to have the following
abilities:
1. Explaining the elements of poetry.
2. Applying the knowledge of the elements in analyzing poetry.

There are two main elements of poetry, i.e. the sound element and the
meaning element. The sound element is the sound pattern that appears
beautifully in a poem. In other words it is the musical aspect of a poem. It
consists of rhyme and rhythm. Rhythm is developed through the
suprasegmental aspect of words, i.e. stressed and unstressed syllable. Rhythm
is developed through similarity of sound of a particular syllable if some words in
a poem.
The element of sound functions as music pattern in a poem. When a
poem is being read loudly, this musical pattern appears into the listeners’ ears
as rhythmic sound. By this the listeners will have a pleasure. In other words,
this is an entertainment aspect of a poem.

Rhythm

To understand the rhythm in a poem, read carefully and loudly the

following:
ˇ – ˇ – ˇ ˇ – ˇ
I wandered lonely as a cloud

ˇ – ˇ – – ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ –
That floats on high o’er valleys and hills’

12
 ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – –
When all at once I saw crowd,

ˇ– ˇ – ˇ – ˇ ˇ
A host, of golden daffodils,

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
Besides the lake, beneath the trees,

– ˇ ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ ˇ –
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze

While reading, you should pay attention to the sign above each line. The sign –
means unstressed syllable and the sign ˇ means the stressed syllable. What do
you hear? Do you hear a musical pattern that is composed through this pattern
of sound? Yes, of course you do. This pattern is called rhythm. Rhythm is one
aspects of poetry.
There are several types of rhythm. They are as follows:
11. iambic :ˇ – diameter 2 units
2. trochaic :– ˇ trimeter 3 units
3. spondee :– – ˇ tentrameter 4 units
4. dactylic :ˇ ˇ – pentameter 5 units
5. anapestic : – ˇ ˇ hexameter 6 units
(Taylor. 1981: 199).

Now, look at those patterns in the following examples:

1. Iambic

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
release / release / release

ˇ – ˇ– ˇ –
to fall / into / despair

13
ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ
Marie / disco / vers candy

2. Trochaic:

– ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ
Melting / melting / melting / melting

– ˇ –ˇ – ˇ – ˇ
Peter / disa / greed en / tirely

– ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
clever /writing / filled the / page

3. Anapestic

ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ –
to the top / to the top

ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ –
a retriev / er appeared

ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ – ˇ
and a ter / rible thunder

4. Dactylic

– ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ
shivering / shivering / shivering / shivering / shivering
– ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ – ˇ – ˇ ˇ – ˇˇ

terribly / ill with the / symptoms of / viral pneu / monia

– ˇ ˇ – ˇˇ – ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ ˇ
note how the / minister / whispered at / Emily’s grave

Now, read the following poem. What do you think the dominant rhythm?

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STOPPING BY WOODS ON A SNOWY EVENING

ˇ – ˇ ˇ ˇ – ˇ –
Whose woods these are I think I know.

ˇ – ˇ ˇ ˇ – ˇ ˇ
His house is in the village though;

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
He will not see me stopping here

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
To watch his woods fill up with snow

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
The little horse must think it queer

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
To stop without a farmhouse near

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
Between the woods and frozen lake

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ ˇ ˇ –
The darkest evening of the year.

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
He gives his harness bells a shake

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
To ask if there is some mistake.

ˇ –ˇ –ˇ – ˇ –
The only other sound’s the sweep

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
Of easy wind and downy flake

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
The woods are lovely dark and deep.

ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ –ˇ ˇ –
But I have promises to keep,
ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
And miles to go before I sleep,

ˇ – ˇ – ˇ – ˇ –
And miles to go before I sleep.

15
Yes, you are right. The above poem is dominated by iambic. The rhythm is
composed with unstressed and stressed syllables.
By the explanation above, it can be concluded that rhythm is the musical
aspect in a poem. It functions to pleasure the listener’s desire to listen to the
beautiful sound.

RHYME

The other pattern of sound is the repetition of a particular sound; which

is called rhyme. The repetition may occur at the initial syllable, medial syllable,
or the final syllable. It consists of alliteration, assonance, and consonance.
Alliteration is the repetition of initial sound, or initial rhyme, e.g. rain and ruin.
Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel sounds surrounded by different
kinds of consonants, e.g. bird and thirst. It may occur at the initial, medial, or
final position of any words.
The other pattern of rhyme is couplet rhyme. It is composed in the
pattern of aabb in the end of each line in a stanza. The last pattern of rhyme is
interlocking. It is the similarity of sound in the end of line in the pattern of abab,
or ababa, etc.. The following lines are the good examples of couplet rhyme:

Breathes there the man, with soul so dead. a

Who never to himself hath said a
The pattern of rhyme in those lines are a a.
The complete example is in the following poem:
The third rhyme type is perfect and half-perfect rhyme. Perfect rhyme is
often called exact rhyme. It occurs when the stressed vowels following differing
consonant sounds are identical, e.g. take and make, and consonants sound are
identical, such as fleet and street. The following example is taken from Keats
“Ode on a Grecian Urn.” This example shows the use of perfect and half-
perfect rhyme.

Thou still unravish’d bride of quietness,

Thou foster-child of Silence and slow Time,

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Sylvan historian, who canst thus express
A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme:

Read the above stanza carefully. Identify the sound “ess” in the first and third
lines. They are perfect rhymes since they are identical sounds. The sound
“ime” in the second and fourth lines, on the other hand, are half-rhymes
because only the final consonants are identical.
The fourth type of rhyme is masculine and feminine. When the final
syllables of the rhyming words are stressed, and there is identical sound after
the difference in the initial consonants such as contort and purport, then the
masculine rhyme occurs. On the other hand, when the rhyming of stressed
followed by identical unstressed syllables such as treasure and pleasure, then
feminine rhyme occurs. Consider the following example

THE ELEMENTS OF MEANING

The elements of meaning of poetry are composed in two aspects of meaning.

The aspects are imagery and figurative speech.

1. Imagery

Imagery plays important role in poetry. Why? Because the idea that or
theme the poet wants to convey in his poem is an abstract concept. Love, for
example, is an abstract concept that cannot be perceived by our five sensory. A
poet needs a concrete object that can be perceived and so the reader can
understand the abstract concept. Robert Burns’ happiness of falling in love
which is still an abstract concept becomes real when he presents it through the
poem,”My Luve is like a red, red rose.” Rose becomes an imagery that
suggests the happiness of love.
Imagery is derived from image. Image suggests a thing seen. Imagery
means a word or a sequence of words that refers to any sensory experience.
The experience might be a sight (visual imagery) such as a dim light, sound
(auditory imagery) such as pounding surf, a touch (tactile imagery) such as

17
scratchy beard, a smell (olfactory) such as the scent of apple blossom, and
taste (gustatory) such as bitter tang of gin.
Read again the poem by Wordsworth ‘I wander Lonely as a Cloud’.
What type of imagery dominates the poem? The poem is dominated by visual
imagery. The visual imageries in the poem are, for example, daffodil, cloud etc.
They are visual imagery because we can see them with our imagination. The
function of imagery is to build imagination in the readers’ mind.

2. Theme

Theme is an important aspect of poetry. Why is it important? Poetry, like

any other literary genre, expresses the poet’s feeling or emotion, and ideas.
While Reaske (1988: 42) says that theme is the basic idea which the poet is
trying to convey. Therefore, theme is an essential aspect of poetry since it is
the idea that the poet wants to communicate through his or her poem. In the
poem “My Luve is Like a Red, Red rose,” Robert Burns want to convey the
feeling of love.
Theme in a poem, however, is not stated directly as in scientific writing.
Read carefully Burn’s poem “My Luve is like a Red, Red Rose.” Can you find
any directly statement that he is happy? Instead of saying that he is happy with
his love, he presents red rose to symbolize his emotional state. He also
manipulates the potency of sound. Listen carefully when it is read aloud. You
will find that the dominant consonant is /s/ which functions as cacophony that
represents happiness. Why does he do this? It is to gain aesthetic value.
In short, a poetical theme is not stated directly. A poet often uses
language potential power to communicate his feeling or ideas. Grasping the
theme, we should explore the elements of poetry.

3. Figurative Language

1. Metaphor

Metaphor is a comparison between two different things, for example in the

following lines cited from Shakespeare’s Hamlet:

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His words were sharp knives
The sharp knife of his words cut through the silence.
He spoke sharp, cutting words with his knife-edged voice.
His words knifed through the still air.
“I will speak dagger to her…”

In the lines above the words are compared to the knives. This comparison
means that the words can kill or hurt. The following poem is a good example of
metaphor.

THERE IS A GARDEN ON HER FACE

(Thomas Campion 1567-1620)

There is a garden in her face

Where roses and white lilies grow;
A heavenly paradise is that place
Wherein all pleasant fruits to flow
There cherries grow with none may buy,
Till “Cherry ripe” themselves do cry.

Those cherries fairly do enclose

Of orient pearl a double row,
Which when her lovely laughter shows,
The look like rose-buds filled with snow.
Yet them peer nor prince can buy.
Till “Cherry ripe” themselves do cry

Her eyes like angles watch them still,

Her brows like bended bows do stand
Threatening with piercing frowns to kill
All that attempt, with eye or hand.
These sacred cherries to come nigh
Till all “Cherrr ripe” do cry.

Now, pay attention to the phrase “There is a garden in her face.” Garden here
means a metaphor to describe the beauty of a girls who is, perhaps, the poet’s
sweetheart. In this sense, the face’s beauty is being compared indirectly to the
garden.
When a metaphor is composed with a word like or as, it is called simile.
We can find simile in many poems. The very popular example is Robert Burn’s
poem, ‘My love is like a red, red rose.’

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 The other type of metaphor is personification. Personification is a
comparison nonhuman thing to human. A boy and a girl who love each other
often this personification, such as ‘The moon is smiling when you say you love
me’.
The last type of metaphor is synecdoche. It is a particular metaphor in
which a speaker says a part of a thing to signify the whole. So, when a poet
says that a girl has beautiful eyes, he signifies the whole body, not only the
eyes.

2. Metonymy
Metonymy is the use a related object to stand for thing actually being
talked about. For a better understanding, read the following poem by Robert
Gropusso
NIGGER

Hi, Dad!
I met the nicest boy
Today
He’s in one of my classes
Dad, his clothes have holes in them.
Why, Dad?
His hair is different from mine, Dad.
But I think he’s nice, Dad,
Dad,
What’s a Nigger?
Nobody, Honey,
Nobody.

The metonymy in the poem is a nigger boy. The thing being talked about in the
poem is racial discrimination in American society.

3. Symbol

Symbol is any concrete things or any action is a poem that implies a

meaning beyond its literal; sense. In the poem My Luve is like a red. Red Rose,
rose is the symbol of love. For you complete comprehension, read the
complete poem as the following:

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 MY LUVE IS LIKE A RED, RED ROSE
Robert Burns

My luve is like a red, red rose,

That’s newly sprung in June:
My luve is like the melodie,
That’s sweetly play’d in tune.

As fair as thou, my bonnie lass,

So deep in luve am I;
And I will luve thee still, my Dear,
Till a’ the sea gang dry.

Till a’ the sea gang dry, my Dear,

And the rocks melt wi’ the sun:
And I will luve thee still, my Dear,
While the sand o’ life shall run.

And I fare-thee weel, my only luve,

And fare-thee-will, a while!
And I will come again, my Luve,
Tho’ ten thousand mile!

What are the characteristics of symbol? The characteristics of symbol are

as follows:
1. It is a concrete object. As in above poems, rose is a concrete object that
represents love.
2. In narrative poem, the part of the character’s body is the symbol.
3. It is a special kind of image in the richness of images that exceeds the
usual image in the richness of connotation. In above poems, red rose
connotes the happiness of love.
4. It appears continuously to represent a thing.
The other thing that you should know is the kinds of symbol. There are
two types of symbol, i.e. conventional and non-conventional symbol.
Conventional symbol is a symbol which its meaning is based on the convention
of the society in which the symbol is used. For instance rose is emblem of love
in the English society.
Non-conventional symbol is the symbol which its meaning is not based
on the convention. It is created by the poet to suggest his own meaning.

21
Inferring its meaning the reader should find the suggestions or connotation of
the object functioned as the symbol.

4. Hyperbole

Hyperbole is an overstatement, i.e. a comparison using exaggeration.

For example, ‘He threw the ball so fast it caught catcher’s mitt on fire’. The
clearer example is in the poem “My Luve is Like a Red, Red Rose.” Try to infer
the meaning of the phrase, “Till all the sea gang dry,” and “And the rocks melt
wi’ the sun.” These phrases are hyperbole since it is impossible that the sea will
dry and the rock melt with the sun. In this poem the poet describe his love as
an eternal love. He uses hyperbole to tell us that he has an eternal love

5. Repetition

Repetition is a figurative language in which a particular words or phrases

is repeated. This is applied when a poet wants to emphasize a certain idea. So,
when Robert Burns repeats the word red, he actually conveys the important of
this word to convey his theme of love.

6 Irony

Not only in poetry, but also in common communication we use irony. Irony
is used when we mocking or ridicule somebody by saying something which is
contradictory to the reality. So, for instance, when we say, “Good Work” to
mock somebody’s bad work, we use irony. A boss who says, Good Morning” to
his employee is actually using irony.

7. Sarcasm

Sarcasm can also be found in common communication and poetry. It used

by an angry speaker. A poet or speaker who is angry may use rude word.

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Onomatopoeia

Some poet often uses onomatopoeia is his or her poem to suggests

meaning. However, not only poet uses this, we often use this in our speech.
For instance we say click to refer to the operating of mouse in computer
system. What is the meaning of this term in poetry? Read the following poem to
have a complete understanding.

MEETING AT NIGHT

I
The grey sea and the long black land:
And the yellow half-moon large and low;
And the startled little waves that leap
And fiery ringlets from the sleep,
As I gain the cove with pushing prow,
And quench its speed I’ the slushy sand.

II
Then a mile at warm sea scented beach;
Three fields to cross warm sea-scented beach;
A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch
And blue spurt of a lighted match.
And a voice less loud, thro’ its joys and fears,
Than two hearts beating each to each.

Now, can you find the dominant sound? Yes, of course you can. The
dominant sound is /s/. This sound suggests the gentle. Pay attention to the
word slushy.
Now, read the following poem by Shakespeare.

Hark, hark!
Bow-wow,
The watch-dogs bark!
Bow-how.
Harki, hark! I hear
The strain of strutting chanticleer
Cry, “Cock-a-doodle-doo!”

23
What is the meaning of hark, bow-wow? This is the imitation of sound produced
by dogs. Cock-a-doodle-doo is the imitation of chanticleer’s sound. What is the
meaning of this poem? Perhaps it describes the situation in a rural place or
animal farm.

Summary

Poetry is a literary genre uses by poets to express the emotional state or

ideas through the intellectual use of and rhythmical words. There are two main
aspects of poetry, i.e. sound patterns and language. The sound pattern is
composed in rhyme and rhythm. Rhythm is the application of stressed and
unstressed syllables, and rhyme is the use of similar sound at the end or
beginning of words. Language is the use of imagery and figurative to convey
the meaning to be inferred by the readers.

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 5. READING AND UNDERSTANDING POEMS

Specific Competence
After finishing this chapter, students are expected to:
1. Analyzing poems
2. Reading poems loudly in good pronunciation and rhythm.
3. Creating their own poems

A. HOW TO READ POEM

How to read poem successfully? Kennedy and Gioia (2001: 8-7) suggest three
steps, i.e. reading without any expectation, read for the detail meaning as the
second reading, and paraphrasing.
In the first step, read the poem without any expectations and open mind.
In this step you have to let yourselves to experience the reading ant not to
worry about the troublesome of any strength words.
In the second reading, read the exact meaning of every word. Refer your
dictionary to find the meaning of words which are new to you. Try to find the
figurative languages that the poet might be used. And then try to infer the
meaning. How to find the figurative languages and their meaning? Here are two
suggested steps that you might apply. First, recognize special words or
phrases, or sentences that are illogical. Take the sentence, “There is a garden
on her face.” Is it logic that you can find a garden on someone’s face? Of
course, it is not. Hence, it is a figurative language. Then you might have a
question, such as “What kind of figurative language is it?” To answer this
question you have to apply the second step, i.e. try to find the objects
mentioned; in this example they are garden and face. The garden is on a
woman’s face. While, logically, it is impossible that you can find garden on
someone’s face. In this case, the face is being compared to a garden, thus it is
a metaphor. To find the metaphorical meaning, try to explore the characteristics
of the garden that face is being compared to. It is beautiful, thus, “There is a
garden on her face” means that she is beautiful.
When reading silently, sound the words in your mind. However, in reading
aloud, you sound the words with your organ of speech. Pay attention to the

25
stressed and unstressed syllables to produce the sound effects. Refer to the
phonology of English. You will enjoy it.
The other method is by trying to paraphrase the poem as a whole. In this

method, you can paraphrase. Paraphrasing means you try to rewrite the poem

based on your interpretation using your own words. Take the following stanza

from by William Butler Yeats’ “The Lake of Innisfree”

as an example:
I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,
And a small cabin built there, of clay and wattle made:
Nine bean-rows will I have there, a hive for honey-bee,
And I live alone in the bee-loud glade.

You might paraphrase it as, “I will get up now to go to Innisfree to build a small
cabin of clay and wattle. There I will have a hive for honey-bee and so I can live
alone in the bee-loud glade.” When you have done this process, you have had
a more complete understanding of the poem you are reading.

Tone
Finding tone in a poem is one of your duties as a reader because it is
the poetic speaker’s attitude toward the subject matter. The attitude might be
anger, irony, sadness, happiness, or any other attitudes. Read again Robert
Burns’ “My Luve is Like a Red, Red Rose.” Read it and pay attention to every
words spoken. Read how he says that his love is like a read rose and melodie.
These statements indicates that he is happy.

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C. Poems for Experience

Here are some poems which you are expected to analyze. You are given
some guiding questions for each poem. You might wonder why each poem has
different guiding question. The difference is due to the fact that above all the
similarities, every poem has its own characteristics. Some poems have the
dominant repetition figurative language. Therefore, you need difference
questions to guide your understanding. Answering the questions well, you
should refer to the theory given in previous chapters.
When you have finished your analysis, you are expected to read them
loudly in good pronunciation, rhythm, and intonation. Finally you are expected
to create your own poems. You may imitate your favorite poet’s style of
creating poems. However, for the shake of your own development, in the future
you should have your own style.

MY LUVE IS LIKE A RED, RED ROSE

Robert Burns

My luve is like a red, red rose,

That’s newly sprung in June:
My luve is like the melodie,
That’s sweetly play’d in tune.

As fair as thou, my bonnie lass,

So deep in luve am I;
And I will luve thee still, my Dear,
Till a’ the sea gang dry.

Till a’ the sea gang dry, my Dear,

And the rocks melt wi’ the sun:
And I will luve thee still, my Dear,
While the sand o’ life shall run.

And I fare-thee weel, my only luve,

And fare-thee-will, a while!
And I will come again, my Luve,
Tho’ ten thousand mile!

Note:
Luve: love

27
Thou: you
Bonnie lass: nice girl, a girl who becomes a man’s sweetheart.
Play’d: played
Gang: going gangue, worthless rock or other matter occurring in a vein or deposit
within or alongside a valuable mineral. It is also called veinstone.

Guiding questions:
1. What is the tone of the poem?
2. What kinds of imagery are in this poem?
3. What is the sound pattern of the poem? Explain your answer.
4. What is the dominant figurative language in the poem?
5. What are the characteristics of rose and melodie?
6. What is meant that the speaker’s love is like a red, red rose and melodie?
7. What is meant that he will love her until the sea gang dry and the rock melt with
the sun?
8. What is the theme of the poem?

FIRE AND ICE

Robert Frost

Some say the world will end in fire,

Some say in ice.
From what I've tasted of desire
I hold with those who favour fire.
But if it had to perish twice,
I think I know enough of hate
To say that for destruction ice
Is also great
And would suffice.

Guiding questions

1. What are the sound patterns in this poem, i.e. rhyme and rhythm?
2. What fire and ice suggest?
3. What are the symbolic meanings of fire and ice?
4. What is meant that the world will end in fire?
5. What is meant that the world will end in ice?
6. What is the poem theme?

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 The Road Not Taken
by Robert Frost

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry I cannot traveled both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;

Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,

And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.

I shall be telling with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a woods, and I –
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the differences.

Guiding questions:
1. What are the patterns of rhyme and rhythm in the poem above?
2. What is the characteristic of road?
3. What is meant literally that there are two diverged road?
4. What is the symbolic meaning of the two diverged road?
5. What is meant that the speaker took the road that is less traveled by?
6. What is the theme of the poem?

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 The Tyger
William Blake

Tyger! Tyger! Burning Bright

In the forest of the night,
What immortal hand or eye
Could frame thy fearful symmetry?

In what distant sheep or skies

Burnt the first of thine eyes?
On what wings dare he aspire?
What the hand dare seize the fire?
What the hand dare seize fire?

And what shoulder & what art,

Could twist the sinews of thy heart?
And when thy heart began to beat,
What dread hand? & what dread feet?

What the hammer? What the chain?

In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil? What dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp?

When the stars threw down their spears,

And water’d heaven with their tears,
Did He smile His work to see?
Did he who made the Lamb make thee?
Tyger! Tyger! Burning bright
In the forest of the night.
What immortal hand or eye,
Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?

Notes:
Thy: yours
Thee: you (object)
Thine: belonging to or associated with you, when “you” is singular
Dread: to feel extremely frightened or worried about something that may happen in the
future.

Guiding questions
1. What are the patterns of rhyme and rhythm of the poem above?
2. What is the image of tiger presented in the poem?
3. To what animal is that tiger being compared?
4. What are the characteristics of tiger and lamb?
5. What is the symbolic meaning of tiger and lamb?
6. What does the poet want to communicate by presenting tiger and lamb?

30
 7. What is the theme of the poem above?

GO LOVELY ROSE
Edmund Waller (1606-1687)

Go lovely rose,
Tell her that wastes her time and me,
That now she knows
When I resemble her to thee,
How sweet and fair she seems to be.

Tell her that young,

And shuns to have her Graces spy’d,
That hadst thou sprung
In Deserts, where no men abide,
Thou must have uncommented died.

Small is the worth,

Of Beauty from the light retir’d;
Bid her come forth,
Suffer herself to desir’d,
And not blush so to be admired.

Then die, that she,

The common fate of all things rare,
May read in thee
How small a part of time they share,
That are wondrous sweet and fair.

Notes:
Spy’d: spied
Retir’d: retired
Desir’d: desired.

Guiding questions:
1. What are the patterns of rhythm and rhyme in the poem above?
2. What is the figurative language that is dominant in the above poem?
3. What is the poetical meaning of lovely rose?
4. What is meant that the lovely rose has to go?
5. Why does the lovely rose have to go?
6. What is the theme of the poem?

THE DEFINITION OF LOVE

Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)

My love is of a birth as rare

31
 As tis for object strange and high;
It was forgotten by despair.

Magnimous despair alone

Could show me as divine a thing,
Where feeble hope could ne’er have flown,
But vainly flapped its tinsel wing.

And yet I quickly might arrive

Where my extended soul is fixed,
But fate does iron wedges drive,
And always crowds itself betwixt.

For fate with jealous eye does see

Two perfect loves, nor lets them close;
Their union would her ruin he;
And her tyrannic power depose.
And therefore her decree of steel
Us as the distant poles have placed,
(Though love’s whole on us doth wheel)
Not by themselves to be embraced;

Unless the giddy heaven fall,

And earth some new convulsion tear,
And, us to join, the world should all
Be cramped into planisphere.

As lines, so love’s oblique may well

Themselves in every angle greet;
But ours so truly parallel,
Though infinite, can never meet.

Therefore, the love which us doth bind,

But fate so enviously debars,
Is the conjunction of mind,
And opposition of the stars.

Guiding questions:
1. What is the rhythm and rhyme of the poem?
2. What is the speaker’s tone about love?
3. What can you conclude about love based on the poem?
4. What do you think the theme of the poem?

32
 I WANDERED LONELY AS A CLOUD

William Wordsworth (1770-1850)

I WANDERED lonely as a cloud

That flouts on high o’er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host the lake beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine

And twinkle on the Milky Way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay:
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced; but they

Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:
A pot could not but the gay,
In such a jocund company;
I gazed—and gazed—but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft, when on my couch I lie

In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.

Note:
Breeze: wind ranging in strength from light to moderate, with a speed of 6 to 50 kph/4
to 31 mph
Daffodil: springtime plant with trumpet-shaped flowers: a European plant that has
yellow trumpet-shaped flowers and long slender leaves growing from a bulb.
o’er: over
Solitude: state of being alone: the state of being alone, separated from other people,
whether considered as a welcome freedom from disturbance or as an unhappy
loneliness.
Jocund: cheerful and full of good humor

Guiding questions:
1. What are the patterns of sound in the poem above?
2. What kinds of imagery can you find in the poem?
3. What can you infer the line” I wandered lonely as a cloud?”

33
 4. What is the speaker attitude toward the daffodils?
5. What is the symbolic meaning of daffodils?
6. What is the theme of the poem?

SHE DWELL AMONG

UNTRODEEN WAYS
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)

She dwelt among untrodden ways

Besides the springs of Dove,
A maid whom there none to praise
And very few to love:

A violet by mossy stone

Half hidden from the eye!
—Fair as a star, when only one
Is shining in the sky.
She lived unknown, and the few could know
When Lucy ceased to be;
But she is in her grave, and, oh,
The difference is to me!

Note:
untrodden ways: the ways which are not trodden.
Dove: Holy Spirit: in Christianity, a manifestation or representation of the Holy Spirit
Ceased (Past): stop happening: to come to an end; to bring something to an end

Guiding questions:
1. What are the patterns of sound in the poem?
2. What is meant by “Besides the spring of Dove”?
3. What is the metaphorical meaning of the second stanza, especially the words” A
violet by mossy stone/ Half hidden from the eye!”?
4. What tone is in the poem?
5. What is the theme of the poem?

SHE WAS A PHANTOM OF DELIGHT

William Wordsworth (1770-1850)

She was phantom of delight

When first she gleamed upon my sight;
A lovely apparition, sent
To be a moment’s ornament;
Her eyes as stars of Twilight fair;
Like Twilight’s too, her dusky hair;
But all things else about her drawn

34
 From May-time and cheerful Dawn;
A dancing Shape, an Image gay,
To Haunt, to startle, and way-lay,

I saw her upon nearer view,

A spirit, yet a Woman too!
Her household light and free,
And steps of virgin-liberty;
A countenance in which did meet
Sweet, promises as sweet;
A Creature not too bright or good
For human nature’s daily food;
For transient sorrow, simple wiles,
Praise, blame, love, kiss, tears, and smiles.

And now I see with eye serene

The very pulse of the machine;
A Being breathing thoughtful breath,
A Traveler between life and death;
The reason firm, the temperate will,
Endurance, foresight, strength, and skill;
A perfect Woman, nobly planned,
To warn, to comfort, and command;
And yet a Spirit still, and bright
With something of angelic light.

Notes:

Phantom: unreal being or sensation, illusion, apparent power.

Delight: great joy and pleasure, somebody or something that brings somebody great joy
and pleasure
Angelic: very kind or beautiful
Haunt: appear to somebody as a ghost.

Well. It’s Love, Love alone

Anonym

Well, it’s love, love alone

Caused King Edward to leave his throne,
It was love, love, love alone
Caused King Edward to leave his throne.

On de tenth of December we heard de talk:

He gave his throne to de Duke of York.
It was love, love, love, love alone

35
 Caused King Edward to leave his throne.

King Edward was noble; King Edward was great,

It was love caused him to abdicate,
It was love, love, love, love alone
Caused King Edward to leave his throne.

He sorry dat his mommy would grieve,

He could not help it, he would have to leave,
It was love, love, love, love, alone
Caused King Edward to leave his throne.

You can take his cow; you can take his goat,
Leave him with his yachting boat.
It was love, love, love, love, alone
Caused King Edward to leave his throne.

You can take his money; you can take his store,
Or give him that lady from Baltimore,
It was love, love, love, love, alone
Caused King Edward to leave his throne.

I don’t know what dis Simpson got her bone

Dat caused de king to leave his throne.
It was love, love, love, love, alone
Caused King Edward to leave his throne.

On de tenth of December nineteen-thirty-six

De Duke of Windsor to get his kicks.
It was love, love, love, love, alone
Caused King Edward to leave his throne.

Notes:
De: the
Dis: this Dat: that
Guiding questions:
1. What are the patterns of sound of the poem above?
2. What kind of figurative language is used?
3. Why does the poet repeat love, love alone, and King Edward?
4. What is the speaker’s attitude toward love as the subject matter?
5. What is the theme of the poem above?

36
 MEETING AT NIGHT

The grey sea and the long black land:

And the yellow half-moon large and low;
And the startled little waves that leap
And fiery ringlets from the sleep,
As I gain the cove with pushing prow,
And quench its speed I’ the slushy sand.

II
The a mile at warm sea scented beach;
Three fields to cross warm sea-scented beach;
A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch
And blue spurt of a lighted match.
And a voice of a lighted match.
And a voice less loud, thro’ its joys and fears,
Than two hearts beating each to each.

Notes:
Slushy: covered with or full of melting snow and ice

Guiding questions:
1. What are the sound patterns in this poem?
2. What is the effect of the visual image in the first and the second lines?
3. What is the effect of the tactile imagery in the last line of the fisrt stanza?
4. What is the effect of auditory imagery in the fifth line in the second stanza?
5. What is being told in this poem?
6. What is the theme of the poem?

ANNABEL LEE
Edgar Allan Poe

It was many and many years ago,

In a kingdom by the sea,
That a maiden there lived whom you may know
By the name of Annabel Lee,
And this Maiden she lived with no other thought,
Than to love and be loved by me.

She was a child and I was a child

In this kingdom by the sea:
But we loved with a love that was more than love—
I and my Annabel Lee,

37
 With a love that the winged seraphs of heaven
Coveted her and me.

And this was the reason that long ago,

In this kingdom by the sea,
A wind blew out of cloud, shilling.
My beautiful Annabel Lee,
So that her high-born kinsmen came
And bore her away from me,
To shut her up in a sepulcher .
In this kingdom by the sea.

The angles, not so happy in heaven,

Went envying her and me—
Yes! that was the reason (as all men know,
In this kingdom by the sea)
That the wind came out of cloud one night,
Chilling and killing my Annabel Lee.

But our love is stronger by far than the love

Of those who were older than we—
Of many far wiser than we—
And neither the angles in heaven above,
Nor the demons down the under the sea,
Can ever discover my soul from soul
Of the beautiful Annabel Lee:

For the moon never beams without bringing me dreams

Of the beautiful Annabel Lee;
And the stars never rise, but I feel the bright eyes
Of the beautiful Annabel Lee;
And so, all the night tide, I lie down by the side
Of my darling –my life and my bride,
In the sepulcher by the sea.
In her tomb by sounding sea.

Notes:
Seraphs: angel: an angel of the highest rank in the traditional medieval hierarchy of
nine categories of angels. In the Book of Isaiah they are described as having
six wings
Sepulcher: burial place: a vault in which somebody is buried

Guiding questions:
1. Who is the speaker?
2. Who is Annabel Lee?
3. What is the tone of this poem?

38
 4. What happened to Annabel Lee? Show the evidence to prove your answer.
5. What is the theme of the poem?

TO CELIA
Ben Johnson

Drink to me with thine eyes,

And I will pledge with mine;
Or leave a kiss but in the cup
And I’ll not look for wine
The thirst that from the soul doth rise
Doth ask a drink divine;
But might I Jove’s nectar soup,
I would not change for thine.

I sent the late a rosy wreath,

Not so much honouring thee.
As giving it hope that there
It could not withered be;
But thou thereon didst only breathe
And send’st it back to me;
Since when it grows, and smells, I swear
Not of itself but thee!

Note:
Rosy:
1. rose-colored: of the reddish-pink color of roses
2. like a rose: resembling roses, characteristic of roses, or full of roses
Thee: You (object)

Guidance questions:
1. What are the sound patterns in the poem?
2. Is the speaker a man or a woman?”
3. IS Celia a man or a woman?
4. What is meant by the line “Drink to me with thine eyes”?
5. What is meant by the line “Or leave a kiss but in the cup”?
6. What is the meaning of the line “The thirst that from the soul doth rise”?
7. What is meant by the lines “But might I Jove’s nectar soup,/ I would not
change for thine.”?
8. What does “it” in the line “Since when it grows, and smells, I swear” refer to?
9. What is the meaning of the last line?
10. What is the theme of this poem?

39
 HOPE IS THE THING WITH FEATHERS
Emily Dickinson

Hope is the thing with feathers

That perches the in the soul,
And sings the tune without the words,
And never stops at all.

And sweetest in the gale is heard;

And sore must be the storm
That could abash the little bird
That kept so many warm.

I’ve heard it in the chilliest land,

And on the strangest sea;
Yet, never, in extremity,
It asked a crumb of me.

Note:
Perch: place for bird to sit: a place for a bird to land or rest on, for example, a branch
or a pole in a cage.

Guiding questions:
1. What are the sound patterns of the poem?
2. What is the characteristic of wing in line one?
3. What is the meaning of line one that “Hope is the thing with leather?”
4. What does the poet want to say about hope? Present the evidence from the
poem to prove your answer.

40
REFERENCES

Daiches, David, 1964. A Study of Literature for Readers and Critics. New York: W.W.
Norton & Company Inc.

Gwynn, R.S, 2002. Poetry, A Pocket Anthology. New York: Addison Ashley
Educational Publisher Inc.

Kennedy, X.J & Gioia. 2001. Poetry Tenth Edition. New York: Longman.

Reaske, Christopher Russel, 1966. How to Analyze Poetry. New York:

Monarch Press.

Taylor, Richard, 1981. Understanding the Elements of Literature. London: The

Macmillan Press LTD.

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 THE CONTENT

1. Introduction 1

2. The Definition of Poetry 2

3. The Kinds of Poetry 6

4. The Elements of Poetry 13

5. Reading and Understanding Poems 27

6. Refernces 43

42