Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020

Nishar Alam Khan

DFMA
Design for Additive Manufacturing
Minimization of Residual Stress in Metal Additive Manufacturing
Introduction:
Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a solid material after the original cause of the stresses has
been removed. Residual stresses can result from a variety of mechanisms including inelastic (plastic)
deformations, temperature gradients (during thermal cycle) or structural changes (phase transformation)
[1]. Shot-peened materials utilize induced compressive surface residual stress to improve fatigue
resistance, and thermally toughened materials use induced residual stress to improve static loading.
However, most residual stress leads to unwanted cracks, deformation, or unexpected failure commonly
in the form of layer delamination warping, or lost part tolerances for AM parts. In metal additive
manufacturing this thermal cycle is characterize by:
• Rapid heating rate due to high energy intensity with steep temperature gradients.
• Rapid solidification with high cooling rates due to the small volume of melt pool
• Melt- back involving simultaneous melting of the top powder layer and re-melting of
underlying previously solidified layers.
Residual stress caused by this unique thermal cycle in AM is the critical issue for the fabricated
metal parts since the steep residual stress gradients generate part distortion which dramatically
deteriorates the functionality of the part.[2] This can lead to parts exceeding tolerances and experiencing
severe deformations.

Figure 1: Residual stress in the builds along z-direction (σz) A) 35 mm cube, B) 25 mm cube, C) 15 mm cube using MSC
Marc software taken from (“Residual stress investigation in additively manufactured samples” by Jaroslav Vavřík, Josef
Hodek)

From figure A pattern involving compressive residual stresses in the center and tensile stresses along
edges can be seen. The possible reason is the variation in cooling rates between the center and edges.
Those samples were manufacture using DED method [3].
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA

Types of residual stresses in AM:

The residual stresses in polycrystalline materials can be categorized according to two major classes:
macroscale and microscale residual stresses. The so-called Type I macroscale residual stresses are
distributed across the overall dimension of a part and contribute to its distortion. For example, they arise
due to long-range gradients of plastic deformation in the part. By contrast, the microscale residual
stresses manifest at the scale of microstructure and are categorized into two types: Type II intergranular
residual stresses and Type III intragranular residual stresses. Type II self-equilibrates over a length scale
of grains and results from strain incompatibility between grains. Type III is associated with the
heterogeneous microstructure such as dislocation cells inside grains and also satisfies the self-
equilibrium condition. In general, microscale residual stresses develop after material processing and
subsequently evolve under applied loading.[4]
Sources of Residual Stresses in AM:
As discussed previously, the various metal AM processes involve localized heating and cooling of top
surfaces and the re-melting of preceding layers. As a consequence of these non-homogeneous thermal
loads, RSs are generated, which may result in distortion of the part and also deteriorate performance.
The main source of RSs in processes with the melting, solidification, and re-melting thermal cycle can
be described by the temperature gradient mechanism (TGM) model. In the TGM model, the heat source
is often a high-intensity point source, and the material temperature at the location of the heat source
quickly elevates with respect to the surrounding material. The hot material expands, but is restricted by
the less expanding, cooler material around it. This restriction creates a compressive stress in the heat
source region. As the hot material cools, it contracts, but, again, the contraction is restricted by the less
expanding surrounding material, which results in permanent tensile residual stresses in the part, and it
often leads to a deflection or warped end product [6], as shown in Figure 2

Figure 2: Illustration of the temperature gradient mechanism and distortion, where "Ꜫth is the thermal strain, "Ꜫpl is the plastic
strain, and σtens and σcomp are the tensile and compressive stresses, respectively [7]

Methods of measuring residual stresses:

Destructive Methods
Destructive measurement techniques are often referred to as stress-relaxation methods or mechanical
methods. Common measurement techniques of this kind include hole-drilling, ring-core, deep hole,
sectioning, and contour methods. By removing material which contains RSs and measuring the degree
of the material relaxation (the deformation), the RS values can be determined

Hole Drilling
In a thorough report on measurement techniques for residual stresses, the hole-drilling method is
described as the removal of material (a drilled hole) of relatively small size—typically on the order of
1.8 mm in diameter and 2 mm in depth—in the region where RSs are to be measured. Prior to drilling,
strain gauges are arranged on the surface around the hole location (according to test standards), and,
once the material is removed, the part relaxes, and the corresponding relaxation strains are measured;
these strains are used to calculate the associated stresses. This method is not very complex and offers
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA
fast results, making it a very common technique in practice. Note that the size of the hole is often not
large enough to significantly impact the integrity of the part, and it can be repaired easily, if necessary.
Issues exist, however, with this method, including the concerns of stresses induced by the machining
process, a non-cylindrical hole, and non-circular (elliptical) shape. Despite these sources of error in the
stress measurement, the hole-drilling method remains an established method for determining RSs[6]
.
Ring Core
The ring-core method involves the measurement of strains of a surface induced by removing the
material around the outside of it. If one considers the hole-drilling method, the ring-core method can be
thought of as its inverse; a ring of material is removed to a certain depth, and the inner material is
allowed to relax. Strain gauges on this inner material capture the relaxation strains. The strains are used
to obtain the stresses associated with the relaxation. This method is superior to the hole-drilling method,
because it offers much larger surface strains, but often causes significant damage to the part, which
makes it far less desirable for use in practice. It is important to note that RSs may not be uniform through
the thickness of the part; thus, many researchers employ an incremental hole-drilling or ring-core
method. These methods remove material at incremental depths, so as to record stress values at various
depths and build a stress profile through the thickness [6].

Figure 3: Categories of residual stress (RS) measurement techniques (adopted from Reference [5]).

Deep-Hole Drilling
Deep-hole drilling involves a combination of hole-drilling and ring-core methods. Firstly, a hole is
drilled through the thickness of the part, and the diameter of that hole is accurately measured. The ring-
core method is then introduced to remove an amount of material around that hole. The material between
the ring and the hole relaxes as the RSs are removed, and the diameter of the hole is measured again.
The change in diameter is used to calculate the stresses that were removed. Again, the incremental depth
of the ring core in this method is used to build a stress profile through the thickness of the part. While
this technique is largely destructive, it is found to be useful in instances where the part is thick and very
large macro-stresses are expected to exist [6].
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA
Sectioning
Sectioning is a highly destructive method for measuring RSs. Sections of the specimen are removed,
and the deformation is measured. It is important that the sectioning process be conducted without
inducing plastic deformation or heat, which would interact with the RSs. As before, strain gauges are
used on the specimen to measure the relaxation strains, which are used, in turn, to obtain the stresses.
The deformation that occurs as a result of the relaxation may be axial deformation or curvature; the
axial deformation is a result of membrane RSs (surface stresses), and curvature is a result of bending
RSs (through-thickness stresses). A common assumption is that the bending stresses vary linearly
through the thickness [6].

Contour
Finally, the contour method is a newer method for measuring RSs. In this method, the specimen is cut,
and then the surface contour is measured, followed by data reduction and analysis. Arguably, the cutting
of the specimen is the most important, since the quality of the cut (flatness, constant width, no
discontinuities) influences the contour measurement and, thus, the data reduction and analysis steps.
Commonly, a wire electric discharge machine (EDM), which uses sparks to remove material, is used in
the material cutting process for uniform width and flat cutting. The contour measurement is carried out
on the contoured surfaces created from the cut (contoured
due to the relaxation from the removal of RSs). A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is often
employed in this step for high precision and accuracy. Data reduction is conducted by averaging each
pair of points (the mirrored point on both cutting faces). Finally, the smoothed data (from the data
reduction step) is used as an input (displacement boundary conditions) into a finite element model to
calculate the original stress [6]

Other Methods
Other destructive methods exist for measuring RSs: excision, splitting, and curvature (layer removal).
Commonly used with thin plates, excision involves the removal of some material around a strain gauge
to back out the stress in the part. Splitting is often used in thin-walled tubes, and it involves the sawing
of a deep cut into the specimen, and the opening or closing of the cut by surrounding material (during
the relaxation) can be related to RSs. The curvature method is often used in thin plates, where, by
removing (or adding) a thin layer of material, the plate deflects upward or downward; the extent of the
deflection is related to the RS within the part [6]

Non-Destructive Methods
The destructive methods discussed so far are advantageous because they provide drastic stress
relaxation for measurements, but they are not ideal when dealing with parts for use. By definition, the
induced damage degrades the integrity of the part and therefore, the part cannot be used for service after
the measurement. There can be cases that the geometry allows for devising coupons to be separated
from the functioning part, specifically for destructive RS measurement. On the other hand, non-
destructive methods, where the part is not significantly altered, are much more favorable with expensive
components. The non-destructive techniques include X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and
magnetic, ultrasonic, and thermoelastic methods.

X-ray diffraction method

The X-ray method is a non-destructive technique for the measurement of residual stresses on the surface
of materials. X-ray diffraction techniques exploit the fact that when a metal is under stress, applied or
residual stress, the resulting elastic strains cause the atomic planes in the metallic crystal structure to
change their spacings. X-ray diffraction can directly measure this inter-planar atomic spacing; from this
quantity, the total stress on the metal can then be obtained. Since metals are composed of atoms arranged
in a regular three-dimensional array to form a crystal, most metal components of practical concern
consist of many tiny crystallites (grains), randomly oriented with respect to their crystalline arrangement
and fused together to make a bulk solid. When such a polycrystalline metal is placed under stress, elastic
strains are produced in the crystal lattice of the individual crystallites. In other words, an externally
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA
applied stress or one residual within the material, when bellow the yield strength of the material, is
taken up by inter-atomic strains in the crystals by knowing the elastic constants of the material and
assuming that stress is proportional to strain, a reasonable assumption for most metals and alloys of
practical concern . Therefore, Xray diffraction residual stresses measurement is applicable to materials
that are crystalline, relatively fine grained, and produce diffraction for any orientation of the sample
surface. Sample may be metallic or ceramic, provided a diffraction peak of suitable intensity and free
of interference from neighboring peaks can be produced in the high back-reflection region with the
radiations available. Some investigators have used the X-ray method to evaluate the residual stress
distribution in dissimilar metal welds of maraging steel to quenched and tempered medium alloy
medium carbon steel across the weldment (i.e., perpendicular to welding direction) and to measure the
residual stresses on the top side of a double-electrode butt welded steel plates in longitudinal and
transversal directions. Indeed, some problems arise when using diffraction to determine the residual
stresses in large welds because the limited space available on most beam lines or X-ray diffractometers
means that samples often need to be cut-down in order to be measured. The geometry has to be such
that an X-ray can both hit measurement area and still be diffracted to the detector without hitting any
obstructions.[5]
Neutron diffraction method
Neutron diffractions method is very similar to the X-ray method as it relies on elastic deformations
within a polycrystalline material that cause changes in the spacing of the lattice planes from their stress-
free condition. The application of neutron diffraction in solving engineering relevant problems has
become widespread over the past two decades. The advantage of the neutron diffraction methods in
comparison with the X-ray technique is its lager penetration depth. In fact, the X-ray diffraction
technique has limits in measuring residual stresses through the thickness of a welded structure. On the
other hand, a neutron is able to penetrate a few centimeters into the inside of a material, thus it can be
applied widely to evaluate an internal residual stress of materials. It enables the measurement of residual
stresses at near-surface depths around 0.2 mm down to bulk measurement of up to 100mm in aluminum
or 25 mm in steel . This is especially useful for alloys of high average atomic number because the
penetration of X-rays falls off rapidly in this regime. With high spatial resolution, the neutron diffraction
method can provide complete three-dimensional maps of the residual stresses in material. At each
measurement point, strain was measured in three orthogonal directions: along the sample axis (axial
strain εA), transverse to it (transverse strain εT) and through the wall (normal strain εN). This was
achieved by mounting each sample in three different orientations (the strain measurement direction
bisects the incident and diffracted beam directions). However, compared to other diffraction technique
such as X-ray diffraction, the relative cost of application of neutron diffraction method, is much higher,
mainly because of the equipment cost. It is too expensive to be used for routine process quality control
in engineering applications.[5]
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA

Minimization of Residual Stress:

1.Control of heat affected zone: By (Controlling of Residual Stress in Additive Manufacturing of
Ti6Al4V by Finite Element Modeling G. Vastola G. Zhang Q.X. Pei Y.-W. Zhan)

They performed a systematic computational study of residual stress formation for single- track Electron
Beam Melting of Ti6Al4V. After careful matching their model to published experimental data, residual
stress was studied for nominal process parameters, showing the existence of a well-defined heat affected
zone surrounding the scan area. Later, starting from the nominal parameters, calculations were
performed to study the effect of beam size, beam power density, scan speed and bed pre-heating
temperature in altering the stress field. The simulations revealed that control of the HAZ size can be
achieved by choosing the appropriate beam size. At the same time, the beam power density was found
to positively correlate with the HAZ size, even at values within the limits of good powder processability.
With respect to the effect of the scan speed, their simulations showed that a deeper HAZ results from
lower scan speeds, while smaller HAZ result from higher scan speeds. Finally, the bed pre-heating
temperature was found to have the largest quantitative impact on the residual stress, with lower stresses
recorded at higher bed temperatures.[8]

Figure 4: Effect of beam size on residual stress profile at a scan speed of 0.5 m/s. With respect to nominal processing conditions of ω = 200
μm and i = 14 mA, the beam size is scaled by a factor of ω f and the power by a factor of Pf. Notice that the power is P = V i, where V is
constant at 60 kV. The residual stress components shown are the s11, s22 and the Von Mises stress in panels (a), (b), (c) respectively. The
panels show that the effect of beam size is to alter the depth of the heat affected zone (panel (a)-(b)) as well as influence the qualitative
behavior of the Von Mises stress profile (c).[8]
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA

2.Distortion mitigated by a balance of sacrificial material: (Mitigation of distortion in large

additive manufacturing parts Erik R Denlinger and Pan Michalaras)
Their study includes depositing equal material on each side of a substrate to balance the bending
moment about the neutral axis of the workpiece and applying heat to straighten the substrate. Simple
finite element models were also used to predict the effectiveness of the mitigation strategies in order to
reduce computation time and to avoid costly experiments. The deposition strategy is shown to reduce
the maximum longitudinal bending distortion in the large additive manufacturing part by 91%. It is
shown that after the distortion mode of concern is identified, simple finite element models can be used
to study distortion accumulation trends relevant to the large part.[9]

Figure 5. Desired geometry with cross-sectional plane for residual stress measurements (left), and proposed concept (right)
by Denlinger and Michalaras—upward and downward distortion mitigated by a balance of sacrificial material [9]

Figure 6. Residual stress distribution with only four sacrificial layers added (left) and with 12 balanced layers (right); the
balanced sacrificial material yields a uniform distribution, reducing the distortion of the part[9]

They found three distortion mitigation techniques in EBAM with wire feedstock of Ti–6Al–4V. Three
distortion mitigation techniques were investigated. Firstly, the part was heated after the deposition to
relax the thermal stresses; the other two methods involved the deposition of additional material across
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA
the neutral axis of the build, extending beyond the part geometry, to be machined after completion,
either after the completion of each layer or after the completion of all layers.
3. Application of bulk deformation methods: by Paul A. Colegrove, Jack Donoghue, Filomeno
Martina
Bulk deformation methods, such as rolling, applied in-process during AM can provide significant
benefits including reducing residual stresses and distortion, and grain refinement. The latter is
particularly beneficial for titanium alloys where the normally seen large prior β grains are converted to
a fine equiaxed structure giving isotropic mechanical properties that can be better than the wrought
material.

Figure 7. Investigations of bulk deformation processes (rolling) applied to AM components during the build process as a
slotted roller in the build direction (a), flat rolling ahead of the heat source in the build direction (b) or in the transverse
direction (c), and an inverted profile roller for thick regions (d)[10]

They investigated bulk deformation processes applied during the AM process for property, RS, and
distortion control. Rolling was applied to the WAAM of Ti–6Al–4V to apply plastic deformation to
relax the RSs formed. Depending on the orientation of the roller with respect to the part, the distortion
and RS could be nearly eliminated from about 550 MPa to less than 200 MPa
There are also benefits when applying rolling to aluminum where porosity is eliminated. In addition,
interpass rolling improved the ductility of 2024 in the vertical direction – removing one of the main
barriers to WAAM deposition of this material.[10]
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA
4. A computational framework to compensate for the distortion in AM processes:
Xu et al. developed a computational framework to compensate for the distortion in AM processes, to
manufacture dimensionally/geometrically accurate parts. The developed process is shown in Figure 8.
The part is additively manufactured from a CAD model, and the as-built (distorted) geometry is
measured with a CMM or 3D scanner. The distorted geometry is compared to the original CAD model,
and a new, “corrected” CAD model is generated by inverting the displacements between the geometry
and the CAD model. The new CAD model, then, has dimensions that, when printed, would distort into
the correct final geometry. The authors reported an improvement in shape deformation of 55% when
the compensated framework was implemented [11]

Figure 8. A computational framework to reduce shape deformation in AM processes [11]

They presented a general computational framework based on reverse compensation to reduce the
complex deformation that may happen in additive manufacturing processes. Corresponding points
between nominal and deformed shapes are found by applying cross-parameterization using a set of
feature points as shown in figure 9 and 10. Such feature points could be the existing salient features on
the model or the artificial markers that are added on 3D freeform surfaces. By studying the relation of
offset models and related deformation for surface points, the reverse compensation profile can be
established.[11]
The accuracy can be further improved by iteratively applying the compensation. However, their method
requires the fabrication of the nominal and the offset models, which makes the iteration expensive.
Plans to integrate a simulation framework with physical experiments such that the deformation can be
predicted by simulation with less physical tests that are required. Another limitation of our method is
that the measurement error cannot be compensated. Currently, the measurement error in their parts due
to the used 3D scanner is around 0.2–0.3 mm, which is much smaller than the deformation of the test
part.[11]
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA

Fig 9 Deformation of built part with compensation: (a) comparison Fig: 10 Physical parts comparisons: (a) without compensation
and (b) with compensation [11]
of entire model and (b) magnified views of two sections [11]

Conclusions:
• There is a huge demand for RS and part distortion prevention in additively manufactured
components, as one of the most appealing qualities of AM is the ability to produce complex
near-net shape geometries usually faster than most other techniques. Any distortion in precision
parts can be catastrophic in use, and RSs can negatively impact the fatigue life and other
mechanical performance characteristics.
• There are a number of methods for measuring RS, each with advantages and disadvantages,
different spatial resolutions, and capabilities regarding the size of the part. There are also a
variety of AM techniques and variable parameters available, each of which was shown to induce
RSs in the part, exceeding the yield strength of a material in some cases.
• The benefits of computational models of AM processes include the rapid and inexpensive
investigations of process parameters on RS, but the downside is the computational burden of
the simulations, as well as the correct capture of the physics and the validity of the assumptions
made. Experimental investigations are, of course, desirable, but they are expensive and time-
consuming. The research community needs a physically accurate and computationally
inexpensive AM process simulation. Another important and often neglected source of RS
formation is the microstructure evolution; this impacts the fundamental material properties, and
it plays a direct role in performance, but it is often missed in the simulations.
• Different AM technologies contain many unique features and parameters, which influence the
temperature gradients in the part and lead to development of RSs. The stresses formed in AM
parts are typically observed to be compressive in the center of the part and tensile on the top
layers. To mitigate these stresses, process parameters must be optimized, which requires
exhaustive and costly experimentations. Alternative to experiments, holistic computational
frameworks which can capture much of the physics while balancing computational costs are
introduced for rapid and inexpensive investigation into development and prevention of RSs in
AM.
Reg: 19MCD0042 Assignment-3 Date:6-27-2020
Nishar Alam Khan
DFMA
References:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual_stress
2. “Residual stress in Metal Additive Manufacturing”, by C.Li,Z.Y.Liu, 4th CIRP Conference
on Surface Integrity (CSI 2018
3. “Residual stress investigation in additively manufactured samples” by Jaroslav Vavřík,
Josef Hodek) COMTES FHT a.s., Průmyslová 995, Dobřany, Czech Republic
4. “Microscale residual stresses in additively manufactured stainless steel” Wen Chen1,3,4,
Thomas Voisin1,4, Yin Zhang 2,4
5. Rossini, N.S.; Dassisti, M.; Benyounis, K.Y.; Olabi, A.G. “Methods for Measuring Residual
Stresses in Components”. Mater. Des. 2012, 35, 572–588.
6. “Review On Residual Stress Development, Prevention, and Compensation in Metal
Additive Manufacturing” Kevin Carpenter and Ali Tabei
7. Mercelis, P.; Kruth, J.P. Residual stresses in selective laser sintering and selective laser
melting. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2006, 12, 254–265.
8. Controlling of Residual Stress in Additive Manufacturing of Ti6Al4V by Finite Element
Modeling G. Vastola G. Zhang Q.X. Pei Y.-W. Zhan)
9. Mitigation of distortion in large additive manufacturing parts Erik R Denlinger1 and Pan
Michaleris
10. Application of bulk deformation methods for microstructural and material property
improvement and residual stress and distortion control in additively manufactured
components Paul A. Colegrove a,⁎, Jack Donoghue b, Filomeno Martina
11. Xu, K.; Kwok, T.H.; Zhao, Z.; Chen, Y. A reverse compensation framework for shape
deformation control in additive manufacturing. J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng. 2017, 17, 021012.