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undergraduate can understand this book. This edition has been com-
pletely revised and reorganized, without however losing any of the
clarity of presentation that was the hallmark of the previous editions.
The first six chapters provide ample material for a first course: begin-
ning with the basic properties of groups and homomorphisms, the
topics covered include Lagrange's theorem, the Noether isomorphism
Joseph J. Ro
theorems, symmetric groups, G-sets, the Sylow theorems, finite abelian
groups, Krull-Schmidt theorem, solvable and nilpotent groups, and the
Jordan-Holder theorem.
The middle portion of the book then uses the Jordan-Holder theorem
to organize the discussion of extensions (automorphism groups, semi-
direct products, the Schur-Zassenhaus lemma, Schur multipliers) and
simple groups (simplicity of projective unimodular groups and, after a
return to G-sets, a construction of the sporadic Mathieu groups).
The book closes with three chapters on: infinite abelian groups, with
emphasis on countable groups; free groups and presentations of
groups, coset enumeration, free products, amalgams, and HNN exten-
sions; and a complete proof of the unsolvability of the word problem
for finitely presented groups, as well as the Higman imbedding theo-
rem and the undecidability of the isomorphism problem for groups.
Fourth Edition
ISBN 0-387-9L285-8
Plate 1 Plate 2 b
Generators:
-----
qi ------
S~ Ti Y t k
Relations:
Plate 3 Plate 4
Presentation of the group of the Higrnan imbedding theorem Proof of Lemma 12.26; $6 is finitely related
Generators:
Relations:
Graduate Texts in Mathematics Joseph J. Rotman
Editorial Board
J.H. Ewing F.W. Gehring P.R. Halmos
Department of Department of Department of
Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics
Indiana University University of Michigan Santa Clara University
Bloomington, IN 47405 Ann Arbor, MI 48109 Santa Clara, CA 95053
USA USA USA
Production coordinated by Brian Howe and managed by Bill Imbornoni; manufacturing super-
vised by Gail Simon.
Typeset by Asco Trade Typesetting Ltd., Hong Icong.
Printed and bound by R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Harrisonburg, VA.
Printed in the United States of America.
Group Theory is a vast subject and, in this Introduction (as well as in the
earlier editions), 1 have tried to select important and representative theorems
and to organize them in a coherent way. Proofs must be clear, and examples
should illustrate theorems and also explain the presence of restrictive hypo-
theses. I also believe that some history should be given so that one can
understand the origin of problems and the context in which the subject
developed.
Just as each of the earlier editions differs from the previous one in a signifi-
cant way, the present (fourth) edition is genuinely different from the third.
Indeed, this is already apparent in the Table of Contents. The boolc now
'begins with the unique factorization of permutations into disjoint cycles and
the parity of permutations; only then is the idea of group introduced. This is
consistent with the history of Group Theory, for these first results on permu-
tations can be found in an 1815 paper by Cauchy, whereas groups of permu-
tations were not'introduced until 1831 (by Galois). But even if history were
otherwise, 1 feel that it is usually good pedagogy to introduce a general
notion only after becoming comfortable with an important special case. 1
have also added several new sections, and I have subtracted the chapter on
Homological Algebra (although the section on Horn functors and character
groups has been retained) and the section on Grothendieck groups.
The format of the boolc has been changed a bit: almost all exercises now
occur at ends of sections, so as not to interrupt the exposition. There are
several notational changes from earlier editions: I now write N 5 G instead
of N c G to denote "H is a subgroup of G"; the dihedral group of order
2n is now denoted by D,,,instead of by D,;the trivial group is denoted by 1
instead of by (1); in the discussion of simple linear groups, I now distinguish
elementary transvections from more general transvections; I speak of the
... Preface to the Fourth Edition
VI~I
out in many elegant ideas and proofs. I am happy to thank once again those
who helped me (directly and indirectly) with the first two editions: K.I. Appel,
M. Barr, W.W. Boone, J.L. Britton, G. Brown, D. Collins, C. Jockusch,
T. McLaughlin, C.F. Miller, 111. H. Paley, P. Schupp, F.D. Veldkamp, and
Contents
C.R.B. Wright. It is a pleasure to thank the following who helped with the
present edition: K.I. Appel, W.W. Boone, E.C. Dade, F. Haimo, L. McCulloh,
P.M. Neumann, E. Rips, A. Spencer, and J. Walter. I particularly thank
F. Hoffman, who read my manuscript, for his valuable comments and
suggestions.
CHAPTER 1
Groups and Momomorphisms
Permutations
Cycles 4
CHAPTER 2
The Isomorphism Theoreins
Subgroups
Lagrange's Theorem
Cyclic Groups
Normal Subgroups
Quotient Groups
The Isomorphism Theorems
Correspondence Theorem
Direct Products
...
Contents Contents Xlll
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 8
Symmetric Groups and G-Sets Some Simple Linear Groups
Finite Fields
Conjugates
The General Linear Group
Symmetric Groups
The Simplicity of A,, PSL(2, K)
Some Representation Theorems PSL(tn, K)
Classical Groups
G-Sets
Counting Orbits
Some Geometry CHAPTER 9
Permutations and the Mathieu Groups
CHAPTER 4
The Sylow Theorems Multiple Transitivity
Primitive G-Sets
p-Groups Simplicity Criteria
The Sylow Theorems Affine Geometry
Groups of Small Order Projective Geometry
Sharply 3-Transitive Groups
CHAPTER 5 Mathieu Groups
Normal Series Steiner Systems
Some Galois Theory
The Jordan-Holder Theorem CHAPTER 10
Solvable Groups Abelian Groups
Two Theorems of P. Hall
Central Series and Nilpotent Groups Basics
p-Groups Free Abelian Groups
Finitely Generated Abelian Croups
CHAPTER 6 Divisible and Reduced Groups
Finite Direct Products Torsion Groups
Subgroups of Q
The Basis Theorem Character Groups
The Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups 4
Canonical Forms; Existence
Canonical Forms; Uniqueness CHAPTER 11
The ICrull-Schmidt Theorem Free Groups and Free Products
Operator Groups Generators and Relations
Semigroup Interlude
CHAPTER7 Coset Enumeration
Extensions and Cohomology Presentations and the Schur Multiplier
The Extension Problem Fundamental Groups of Complexes
Automorphism Groups Tietze's Theorem
Semidirect Products Covering Complexes
Wreath Products The Nielsen-Schreier Theorem
Factor Sets Free Products
Theorems of Schur-Zassenhaus and Gaschiitz The ICurosh Theorem
Transfer and Burnside's Theorem The van Kampen Theorem
Projective Representations and the Schur Multiplier Amalgams
Derivations HNN Extensions
xiv Contents
CHAPTER 12
The Word Problem
Introduction
Turing Machines
The Marltov-Post Theorem
The Novikov-Boone-Britton Theorem: Sufficiency of Boone's
Lemma
Cancellation Diagrams
The Novikov-Boone-Britton Theorem: Necessity of Boone's
Lemma
The Higman Imbedding Theorem
To the Reader
Some Applications
Epilogue Exercises in a text generally have two functions: to reinforce the reader's
grasp of the material and to provide puzzles whose solutions give a certain
APPENDIXI pleasure. Here, the exercises have a third function: to enable the reader to
Some Major Algebraic Systems discover important facts, examples, and counterexamples. The serious reader
should attempt all the exercises (many are not difficult), for subsequent proofs
APPENDIX I1 may depend on them; the casual reader should regard the exercises as part of
Equivalence Relations and Equivalence Classes the text proper.
APPENDIX I11
Functions
APPENDIX IV
Zorn's Lemma
APPENDIX V
Countability
APPENDIXVI
Commutative Rings
Bibliography
Notation
Index
CHAPTER 1
One says that a poly~lomial(or a rational function) f of p variables is u-unbed if, by permuting
the variables in all possible ways, one obtains exactly r distinct polynomials. For exam-
ple, f(x,, x,, x,) = x, + x, + x, is a I-valued function, while g(x,, x,, x,) = x,x, + x, is a
3-valued function.
T o each polynomial f(x) of degree p, Lagrange associated a polynomial, called its resolvent,
and a rational function of p variables. We quote Wussing (1984, English translation, p. 78): "This
connection between the degree of the resolvent and the number of values of a rational function
leads Lagrange ... to consider the number of values that can be taken on by a rational
function of p variables. His conclusion is that the number in question is always a divisor of
p!. . . . Lagrange saw the 'metaphysics' of the procedures for the solution of algebraic equations
by radicals in this connection between the degree of the resolvent and the valuedness of rational
functions. His discovery was the starting point of the subsequent development due to Rufiini,
Abel, Cauchy, and Galois.. . . It is remarkable to see in Lagrange's work the germ, in admittedly
rudimentary form, of the group concept." (See Examples 3.3 and 3.3' as well as Exercise 3.38.)
4
2 1. Groups and Homomorphisms Cycles 3
dratic formula. In 1830, E. Galois (only 19 years old at the time) invented
groups, associated to each polynomial a group of permutations of its roots,
1.1. The identity function 1, on a set X is a permutation, and we usually denote it by
and proved that there is a formula for the roots if and only if the group of 1. Prove that l a = a = a 1 for every permutation a E SX.
permutations has a special property. In one great theorem, Galois founded
group theory and used it to solve one of the outstanding problems of his day. 1.2. For each a E S,, prove that there is P E S, with a p = 1 = pa (Hint. Let P be the
inverse function of the bijection a).
1.3. For all a, p, y E S,, prove that @(by)= (a&. Indeed, if X , Y, Z, W are sets and
f:X + Y, g: Y -+ Z, and h: Z -+ Ware functions, then h ( g f ) = (hg)f. (Hint:
Recall
Permutations that two functions f, g: A -+ B are equal if and only if, for all a E A, one has
f(a) = s(a1.1
Definition. If X is a nonempty set, a peumastation of X is a bijection a: X -+ X.
We denote the set of all permutations of X by Sx.
In the important special case when X = (1, 2, ... , n), we write St,instead of Cycles
S,. Wote that IS,,I = n!, where I YI denotes the number of elements in a set Y.
In Lagrange's day, a permutation of X = (1,2, . . . , n) was viewed as a The two-rowed notation for permutations is not only cumbersome but, as we
rearrangement; that is, as a list i,, i,, ..., in with no repetitions of all shall see, it also disguises important features of special permutations. There-
the elements of X. Given a rearrangement i,, i,, . .. , i,,, define a function fore, we shall introduce a better notation.
a: X -+ X by a ( j ) = ij for all j E X. This function a is an injection because the
list has no repetitions; it is a surjection because all of the elements of X DeEmitiasrm. If x E X and a E S,, then a Bxes x if a(x) = x and a rnooes x if
appear on the list. Thus, every rearrangement gives a bijection. Conversely, a(x)#x. -
any bijection a can be denoted by two rows:
Definition. Let i,, i,, .. ., i, be distinct integers between 1 and n. If a E St,fixes
the remaining n - r integers and if
a(il) = i,, a(i2) = i3, . . . , a(ir-,) = i,., a(ir) = i,,
and the bottom row is a rearrangement of (1,2,. . ., n). Thus, the two
versions of permutation, rearrangement and bijection, are equivalent. The then a is an r-cycle; one also says that a is a cycle of btzgth r. Denote a by
advantage of the new viewpoint is that two permutations in Sx can be (il i2 .- - ir).
(i::)
"multiplied," for the composite of two bijections is again a bijection. For
example, a = (, ,)
1 2 3
and p = are permutations of (I, 2 , 3 ) The
Every 1-cycle fixes every element of X, and so all 1-cycles are equal i: the
identity. A 2-cycle, which merely interchanges a pair of elements, is called a
We warn the reader that some authors compute this product in the reverse order: first LY and
then p. These authors will write functions on the right: instead of f(x), they write (x)f (see
footnote 4 in this chapter).
1. Groups and Homomorphisms Cycles 5
1.14. (i) Let a = p y in S,,,where P and y are disjoint. If P moves i, then ak(i)= pk(i) Theorem 11.2. Let a E S, and let a = PI .. ./It be a complete factorization into
for all k 2 0. disjoint cycles. This factorization is unique except for the order in which the
(ii) Let a and /? be cycles in S, (we do not assume that they have the same factors occur.
length). If there is i, moved by both a and p and if a y i , ) = pk(i,) for all
positive integers k, then a = p.
Proof. Disjoint cycles commute, by Exercise 1.8, so that the order of the
factors in a complete factorization is not uniquely determined; however, we
shall see that the factors themselves are uniquely determined. Since there is
Factorization into Disjoint Cycles exactly one 1-cycle (i) for every i fixed by a, it suffices to prove uniqueness of
the cycles of length at least 2. Suppose a = y, . . .y, is a second complete
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 factorization into disjoint cycles. If PCmoves i,, then P/(i,) = ak(i,) for all k,
Let us factor a = into a product of disjoint cycles. by Exercise 1.14(i).Now some yj must move i,; since disjoint cycles commute,
6 4 1 2 5 3 8 9 7
Now a(1) = 6, and'so a begins (1 6; as 4 6 ) = 3, a continues (1 6 3; since we may assume that yj = y,. But y,k(i,) = ak(i,) for all k, and so Exercise
a(3) = 1, the parentheses close, and a begins (1 6 3). The smallest integer not 1.14(ii) gives P, = y,. The cancellation law, Exercise 1.6, gives P, ...A_, =
having appeared is 2; write (1 6 3)(2, and then (1 6 3)(2 4; continuing in y, .. .y,-,, and the proof is completed by an induction on max(s, t).
this way, we ultimately arrive at the factorization (which is a product of
disjoint cycles)
a = (1 6 3)(2 4)(5)(7 8 9).
1.15. Let a be the permutation of {1,2, ..., 9 ) defined by a(i) = 10 - i. Write a as a
Theorem 1.1. Every permutation a E S,, is either a cycle or a product of disjoint product of disjoint cycles.
cycles. 1.16. Let p be a prime and let a E S,. If aP = 1, then either a = 1, a is a p-cycle, or a is
a product of disjoint p-cycles. In particular, if a2 = 1, then either a = 1, a is a
ProoJ The proof is by induction on the number lz of points moved by a. The transposition, or a is a product of disjoint transpositions.
base step k = 0 is true, for then a is the identity, which is a 1-cycle. If k > 0,
let i, be a point moved by a. Define i, = a(i,), i, = a(i,), . . ., i,,, = a(ir), 1.17. How many a E Sf,are there with a2 = 1? (Niizt. (i j) = ( j i ) and (i j)(lc I) =
where r is the smallest integer for which i,,, E {i,, i,, i,, . .. , i,.) (the list i,, i,, (Ic O(i 8.1
i,, .. .,i,, . . . cannot go on forever without a repetition because there are only 1.18. Give an example of permutations a, p, and y in S, with a commuting with P,
n possible values). We claim that a(i,) = i,. Otherwise, a(i,) = ij for some with p commuting with y, but with a not commuting with y.
j 2 2; but a(ij-,) = i,, and this contradicts the hypothesis that a is an injec-
tion. Let a be the r-cycle (i, i, i, ..- i,). If r = n, then a is the cycle a. If
r < n and Y consists of the remaining n - r points, then a(Y) = Y and a fixes
the points in Y. Now a /{i,, i,, . .. , i,) = a /{i,, i, . . ., i,.). If a' is the permuta- Even and Odd Permutations
tion with a'/ Y = a (Y and which fixes {i,, i,, . . .,i,), then a and a' are disjoint
and a = aa'. Since a' moves fewer points than does a, the inductive hypothe- There is another factorization of permutations that is useful.
sis shows that a', and hence a, is a product of disjoint cycles. Ell
One often suppresses all 1-cycles, if any, from this factorization of a, for I Theorem 1.3. Every perrntltation a E S,, is a product of transpositions.
1-cycles equal the identity permutation. On the other hand, it is sometimes
Pro*$ By Theorem 1.1, it suflices to factor cycles, and
convenient to display all of them. I
Defimition. A complu~efactsriz~&ta'o~~
of a permutation a is a factorization of a
as a product of disjoint cycles which contains one 1-cycle (i) for every i fixed
by a. Every permutation can thus be realized as a sequence of interchanges.
Such a factorization is not as nice as the factorization into disjoint cycles.
In a complete factorization of a permutation a, every i between 1 and n First of all, the transpositions occurring need not commute: (1 3)(1 2) =
occurs in exactly one of the cycles. (1 2 3) and (1 2)(1 3) = (1 3 2); second, neither the factors nor the number
Even and Odd Permutations 9
8 1. Groups and Homomorphisms
(a b)(a c, ... c,)(b dl ... d , ) = ( a c, ... c, b dl ... dl). = -sgn (z2.- . r,,) sgn (P) (by induction)
= sgn(r1. . z,,,) sgn(P) (by Lemma 1.5)
Proof. The left side sends a l-,c, H c,; c, t-,ci+,H ci+, if i < k; c , ~t-+ b H a;
b t--+ dl H dl; dj H dj+, H dj+, if j < 1; d, H a H b. Similar evaluation of the
right side shows that both permutations are equal. For the second equation,
just multiply both sides of the first equation by (a b) on the left. Ell
(i) A permutation a E Sn is even if and only if sgn(a) = 1.
(ii) A permutation a is odd if and only if it is a product of an odd number of
Definaition. If a E St, and a = P I . . . P, is a complete factorization into disjoint
transpositions.
cycles, then signum a is defined by
P r o d (i) We have seen that sgn(z) = - 1 for every transposition r. Therefore,
if a = r, . ..r, is a factorization of a into transpositions, then Theorem 1.6 gives
By Theorem 1.2, sgn is a well defined function (see Appendix 111). If r is a sgn(a) = sgn(z,) ... sgn(zq)= (- Thus, sgn(a) = 1 if and only if q is even.
transposition, then it moves two numbers, say, i and j, and fixes each of the If a is even, then there exists a factorization with q even, and so sgn(a) = 1.
n - 2 other numbers; therefore, t = (n - 2) + 1 = n - 1, and so Conversely, if 1 = sgn(a) = (- I)', then q is even and hence a is even.
(ii) If a is odd, then it has no factorization into an even number of transpo-
sitions, and so it must be a product of an odd number of them. Conversely, if
Lemma 1.5. If P E S,, and z is a transposition, then a = z, . . .rq with q odd, then sgn(a) = (- = - 1; by (i), a is not even, and
hence a is odd.
sgn(rP) = - sgn(P).
10 1. Groups and Homomorphisms Semigroups 11
-
(pronounced: a is congruent to b modulo n) means that n is a divisor of a - b.
Denote the congruence class of an integer a mod n by [a]; that is,
Definition. Let G be a semigroup and let a E G. Define a' =a and, for
[a] = (b E H: b a mod n)
n 2 1, define a"'" a a an.
= (a + kn: ~ E H ) .
Corollary 1.9. Let G be a semigroup, let a E G, and let m and n be positive The set Z,, of all the congruence classes mod n is called the integers modulo
integers. Then an'* a n = am+''= a n* a'" and (an')" = am"= ( a n F 98; it is an abelian group when equipped with the operation: [a] + [b] =
+
[a b]; here e = [O] and [-a] + [a] = [O] (Z, is even a commutative ring
Proof. Both sides of the first (or second) equations arise from an expression
having m + n (or mn) factors all equal to a. But these expressions need no
parentheses, by Theorem 1.8. B - -
when "one" is [I] and multiplication is defined by [a] [b] = [ab]). The reader
should prove that these operations are well defined: if [a'] = [a] and [b'] =
[b], that is, if a' a mod n and b' b mod n, then [a' + b'] = [a + b] and
[arb'] = [ab].
If k is a field, then the set of all n x n nonsingular matrices with entries in
The notation a" obviously comes from the special case when * is multipli-
cation; a" = aa . .. a (n times). When the operation is denoted by +, it is more k is a group, denoted by GL(n, k), called the general linear group: here the
natural to denote a * a ~ r . .. . * a = a i-+
a . . . -t- a by nu. In this additive nota- operation is matrix multiplication, e is the identity matrix E, and if A-I is the
+
tion, Corollary 1.9 becomes ma + na = (m n)a and (mn)a = m(na). inverse of the matrix A, then AA-' = E = A-'A. If n 2 2, then GL(n, k ) is not
abelian; if n = 1, then GL(1, I<)is abelian: it is the multiplicative group k x of
all the nonzero elements in 1c.
If R is an associative ring (we insist that R has an element I), then an
Groups element u is a unii in R if there exists v E R with uv = 1 = vu. If a is a unit, so
that ab = 1 = ba for some b E R, then it is easy to see that ua is also a unit in
The most important semigroups are groups. R (with inverse bv) and that U(R), the grorrp ofunits in R, is a multiplicative
group. If R is a field k, then U(lc) = k x . If R is the ring of all n x n matrices
Definition. A group is a semigroup G containing an element e such that: over a field 12, then U(R) = GL(n, 12).
(i) e * a = a = a * e f o r a l l a ~ G ; Theorem 1.169. If G is a group, there is a unique element e with e * a = a = a * e
(ii) for every a E G, there is an element b E G with for all a E G. Moreover, for each a E G, there is a unique b E G with a * b = e =
b * a.
Exercises 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 show that S, is a group with composition as Proof. Suppose that e' * a = a = a * e' for all a E G. In particular, if a = e,
operation; it is called the symmetric group on X . When X = ( I , 2, .. ., n), then e' * e = e. On the other hand, the defining property of e gives e' * e = e',
then S, is denoted by S,, and it is called the symnetric grorrp on n letters. and so e' = e.
14 1. Groups and Homomorphisms Groups 15
1.25. Let a and b lie in a semigroup G. If a and b commute, then (a * b)" = a n* bn for
Suppose that a * c = e = c * a . Then c = c i e = c * ( a * b ) = ( c * a ) r b=
every iz 2 1; if G is a group, then this equation holds for every n E Z.
e * b = b, as desired. El!
1.26. A group in which x2 = e for every x must be abelian.
As a result of the uniqueness assertions of the theorem, we may now give
names to e and to b. We call e the identity of G and, if a x b = e = b * a, then 1.27. (i) Let G be a finite abelian group containing no elements a # e with a2 = e.
we call b the inverse of a and denote it by a-'. Evaluate a, * a, c - ;c a,, where a,, a,, .. . , a,, is a list with no repetitions, of
all the elements of G.
(ii) Prove Wilson's theorertz: If p is prime, then
Corollary 1.11. If G is a group and a E G, then
(a-')-I = a. (p - I)! = -1 modp.
(Hint. The nonzero elements of Z, form a multiplicative group.)
Proof. By definition, (a-I)-' is that element g E G with a-' x g = e = g * a-I.
But a is such an element, and so the uniqueness gives g = a. 1.28. (i) I f a = (1 2 ... I. - 1 I.), thenol-' = (r I. - 1 ... 2 1).
(ii) Find the inverse of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ' 8 9
Definition. If G is a group and a E G, define the powers of a as follows: if n is
a positive integer, then a" is defined as in any semigroup; define no = e; define
a-fl = (a-l)". 1.29. Show that a:Z,, -i Z,,, defined by n(x) = 4x2 - 3x7, is a permutation of Z,, ,
and write it as a product of disjoint cycles. What is the parity of a? What is a-I?
Even though the list of axioms defining a group is short, it is worthwhile 1.30. Let G be a group, let a E G, and let m, n E Z be (possibly negative) integers.
to make it even shorter so it will be as easy as possible to verify that a Prove that a'"c a'' = anrfn= a n a'" and (a1')" = am"= (all)m.
particular example is, in fact, a group.
1.31. Let G be a group, let a E G, and let m and n be relatively prime integers. If
a" = e, show that there exists b E G with a = bn. (Hint. There are integers s and
Thec~rem1.12. If G is a semigroup with an element e such that:
t with 1 = sin + tn.)
(if) e * a = a for all a E: G; and
(ii') for each a E G there is an element b E 6 with b * a = e, then G is a group. 1.32 (CawceSBatiorn Laws). In a group G, either of the equations a * b = a * c and
b a a = c * a implies b = c.
PPOO$We claim that if x * x = x in G, then x = e. There is an element y E G 1.33. Let G be a group and let a E G.
with y * x = e , and y * ( x : & x ) = y * x = e . O n the other hand, y * ( x * x ) = (i) For each a E G, prove that the functions La:G -+ G, defined by x c r a * x
(y * x ) * x = e * x = x. Therefore, x = e. (called lvft translation by a), and R,: G -+ G, defined by x cr x * a-I (called
If b + a = e, let us show that a * b = e. Now (a * b) * (a * b) = a * [(b * a) * b] right tra~zslabionby a), are bijections.
= a * [e b] = a * b, and so our claim gives a r b = e. (Observe that we have (ii) For all a, b E G, prove that Lo,, = L, 0 L, and R,,, = R, 0 R,.
used associativity for an expression having four factors.) (iii) For all a and b, prove that La o R, = R, 0 La.
l [ f a ~ Gwemust
, show that a * e = a . Choose b ~ G w i t hb * a = e = a * b
1.34. Let G denote the multiplicative group of positive rationals. What is the identity
(using our just finished calculation). Then a * e = a *; ( b r a) = (a t b ) * a = of G? If a E G, what is its inverse?
e * a = a, as desired. B
1.35. Let n be a positive integer and let G be the multiplicative group of all nth roots
of unity; that is, G consists of all complex numbers of the form e2"ik'n,where
EXERCISES k E Z.What is the identity of G? If a E G, what is its inverse? How many
1.23. If G is a group and a,, a,, .. ., a,, E G, then elements does G have?
(al *a,*... *an)-' = a;'*a;?, *--.*a;'. 1.36. Prove that the following four permutations form a group V (which is called the
4-grol6p):
Conclude that if n 2 0, then (a-I)" = (an)-'. 1; (1 2)(3 4); (1 3)(2 4); (1 4)(2 3).
1.24. Let a,, a,, ... ,a,, be elements of an abelian semigroup. If b,, b,, ..., b,, is a 1.37. Let k = IW u (m), and define 110 = ao, 11% = 0, co/m = 1, and 1 - a, =
rearrangement of the ai, then ao = GO - 1. Show that the six functions W -+ W, given by x, llx, 1 - x,
1/(1 - x), X/(X- I), (X - 1)/x, form a group with composition as operation.
1. Groups and Homomorphisms Homomorphisms 17
The two-element groups G and H, whose multiplication tables are given Here are some examples. Theorem 1.6 shows that sgn: S,, -+ {*I) is a
above, are isomorphic: define f : G -+H by f(1) = [O] and f (- 1) = [I]. homomorphism; the function v: Z -+ Z,, defined by v(a) = [a], is a homo-
morphism; if lcx denotes the multiplicative group of nonzero elements of a
This definition also applies to semigroups. field k, then determinant is a homomorpliism det: GL(n, k) k ". -+
1. Groups and Homomorphisms Homomorphisms
It is plain that (a) is, indeed, a subgro~lpof G. Notice that different ele-
ments can generate the same cyclic subgroup. For example, (a) = (aF').
EXAMPLE 2.1. If G is a group, then G itself and {I) are always subgroups (we If X consists of a single element a, then (X) = (a), the cyclic subgroup
shall henceforth denote the subgroup (1) by 1). Any subgroup H other than generated by a. If X is a finite set, say, X = {a,, a,, ..., a,,} then we write
G is called proper, and we denote this by H < G; the subgroup 1 is often (X) = (a,, a,, . .., a,) instead of (X) = ((a,, a,, .. ., a,,}).
called the trivial subgroup. Here is a description of the elements in (X).
2.2. Let f : G -+ H be a homomorphism, and define
EXAMPLE Definition. If X is a nonempty subset of a group G, then a word on X is an
kernel f = (a E G: f(a) = 1) element w E G of the form
and
image f = (h E H: h = f (a) for some a E G). where xi E X, ei = $1, and n 2 1.
Then K = kernel f is a subgroup of G and image f is a subgroup of H. To see
that K 5 G, note first that f(1) = 1, so that 1 E K. Also, if s, t E I<, then Theorem 2.7. Let X be a subset of a group G. If X = (a, then (X) = 1; if X
f(s) = 1 = f (t), and so f(st-') = /(s) f (t)-' = 1; hence st-' E K, and so K is a is nonempty, then (X) is the set of all the words on X.
subgroup of G. It is equally easy to see that image f is a subgroup of H.
Proof: If X = (a, then the subgroup 1 = {I) contains X , and so (X) = 1. If
Notation. We usually write kerf instead of kernel f and im f instead of X is nonempty, let W denote the set of all the words on X. It is easy to see
image f. that W is a subgroup of G containing X: 1 = xi1x1 E W; the inverse of a
word is a word; the product of two words is a word. Since (X) is the smallest
We have been using muliiplicative notation, but it is worth writing the subgroup containing X, we have (X) c W. The reverse inclusion also holds,
definition of subgroup in additive notation as well. If G is an additive group, for every subgroup H containing X must contain every word on X. There-
then a nonempty subset S of G is a subgroup of G if s E S implies -s E S and fore, W 5 H, and W is the smallest subgroup containing X. @
s, t E S imply s + t E S. Theorem 2.2 says that S is a subgroup if and only if
0 E S and s, t E S imply s - t E S.
Theorem 2.5. The intersection of any family of subgroups of a group G is 2.1. Show that A,, the set of all even permutations in S,#, is a subgroup with n!/2
g r o q on n letters.) (Hint. Exercise 1.21.)
elements. (A, is called the adter~tati~~g
again a subgroup of G.
2.2. If k is a field, show that SL(n, k), the set of all n ,:n matrices over k having
Proof. Let (S,: i E I} be a family of subgroups of 6. Now 1 E Si for every i, and determinant 1, is a subgroup of GL(n, k). (SL(n,k) is called the special di~~ear
0 n
so 1 E Si. If a, b E S,, then a, b E Si for every i, and SO ab-' E Si for every group over k.)
i; hence, ab-' E 0 S,, and Si 5 G. !3 2.3. The set theoretic union of two subgroups is a subgroup if and only if one is
contained in the other. Is this true if we replace "two subgroups" by "three
Co~olllary2.6. If X is a subset of a group 6, then there is a smdnllest subgroup subgroups"?
H of G containing X; that is, if X c S and S 5 G, then H _< S. 2.4. Let S be a proper subgroup of G. If G - S is the complement of S, prove that
(G - S ) = G.
Pro05 There are subgroups of G containing X; for example, G itself contains
2.5. Let f : G 4 H and g: G --+ H be homomorphisms, and let
X; define H as the intersection of all the subgroups of 6 which contain X.
Note that H is a subgroup, by Theorem 2.5, and X c H. If S 5 G and X c S, I< = (a E G: f(a) = g(a)).
then S is one of the subgroups of G being intersected to form H; hence, Must I< be a subgroup of G?
H 5 S, and so H is the smallest such subgroup. El
2.6. Suppose that X is a nonempty subset of a set Y. Show that S, can be ifnbeddedin
S,; that is, S, is isomorphic to a subgroup of S,.
Definition. If X is a subset of a group G, then the smallest subgroup of G I
containing X, denoted by (X), is called the srsbgro~dpge~~eratehdby X. One 2.7. If n > 2, then A,, is generated by all the 3-cycles. (Hint.(ij)(jk) = (ijk) and (tj)(kI) =
also says that X generates (X). (ijk)(jkl).)
In particular, if H and K are subgroups of G, then the subgroup (H u I<) 2.8. Imbed Sn as a subgroup of A,+,, but show, for n 2 2, that Sn cannot be imbedded
is denoted by H v K. in Afl+l.
2. The Isomorphism Theorems
24 Lagrange's Theorem
25
2.9. (i) Prove that Sn can be generated by (1 2), (1 3), ...,(1 n). determining whether two right cosets of S are the same when a representative
+
(ii) Prove that Sn can be generated by (1 2), (2 3), ...,(i i 1), .. ., ( n - 1, n). of each is known.
(iii) Prove that Sn can be generated by the two elements (1 2) and (1 2 .,. rz).
(iv) Prove that S, cannot be generated by (1 3) and (1 2 3 4). (Thus, S, can be
Lemma 2.8. If S 5 G, then Sa = Sb if and only if ab-' E S (as = bS if and only
-generated by a transposition and a 4-cycle, but not every choice of transpo- ifb-la E S).
sition and 4-cycle gives a generating set.)
-
multiples of some nonzero vector v = (x,, yo); that is, C = {ru: r E R). It is S comprise a partition of G (each such coset is nonempty, and G is their
easy to see that zf is a subgroup of G. If u = (a, b) is a vector, then the coset disjoint union). This being true, there must be an equivalence relation on G
u + C is easily seen to be the line parallel to C which contains u. lurking somewhere in the background: it is given, for a, b E G, by a b if
-
EXAMPLE 2.4. If G is the additive group Z of all integers, if S is the set of all ab-' E S, and its equivalence classes are the right cosets of S.
multiples of an integer n (S = (n), the cyclic subgroup generated by iz), and if
a E Z, then the coset a + S = {a + qn: q E Z) = {k E Z:li a mod n); that is, Theorem 2.10. If S 5 G, then the number of right cosets of S in G is equal to
the coset a + {n) is precisely the congruence class [a] of a mod n. the number of left cosets of S in 6.
EXAMPLE 2.5. Let G = S, and let H = (r) = {1, r), where r = (1 2). The right ProoJ: We give a bijection f : W -+9, where 9 is the family of right cosets of
cosets of H in G are S in G and 2'is the family of left cosets. If Sa E LZ?,your first guess is to define
H={l,x); H(l 2 3 ) = { ( l 2 3 ) , ( 2 3 ) ) ; .f(Sa) = US,but this does not work. Your second guess is to define f(Sa) =
a-IS, and this does work. It must be verified that f is well defined; that is, if
H(1 3 2) = {(I 3 2), (1 3)). Sa = Sb, then a-'S = b-'S (this is why the first guess is incorrect). It is rou-
The left cosets of H in G are tine to prove that f is a bijection.
H = 1 ,r (1 2 3)H = ((1 2 3), (1 3)); Definition. If S 5 G, then the i r d a . of S in G, denoted by [G: S], is the
number of right cosets of S in G.
Notice that distinct right cosets are disjoint (as are distinct left cosets),just as Theorem 2.10 shows that there is no need to define a right index and a left
in the example of parallel lines. Notice also that right cosets and left cosets index, for the number of right cosets is equal to the number of left cosets.
can be distinct; for example, (1 2 3)H # H ( l 2 3); indeed, (1 2 3)H is not It is a remarkable theorem of P. Hall (1935) that in a finite group G, one
equal to any right coset of H in G. can always (as above) choose a common system ofveprrsenfatiues for the right
and left cosets of a subgroup S; if [G : S ] = n, there exist elements t,, . .., t , E
A right coset St has many representatives; every element of the form st G so that t,S, . . ., t,,S is the family of all left cosets and St,, . . ., St,, is the
for s E S is a representative of St. The next lemma gives a criterion for family of all right cosets.
26 2. The Isomorphism Theorems Lagrange's Theorem
Definitioa. A group G has expsaent n if x" = 1 for all x E G. A=[: ] and B = [ -1 -1I].
Show that A4 = E = B3, but that AB has infinite order.
Remark. Some people use the term "exponent" to mean the smallest possible 2.18. Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. (Hint. Use the division
n such that xn = 1 for all x E G. For us, the 4-group V has exponent 4 as well algorithm.)
as exponent 2. I
i
Lagrange's theorem shows that a finite group G of order n has exponent n. 2.19. Prove that two cyclic groups are isomorphic if and only if they have the same
order.
Corollary 2.13. If p is a prime and IGl = p, then G is a cyclic group. Definido~.The Eakr tp--~ncrfion
is defined as follows:
Proof. Take a E G with a # 1. Then the cyclic subgroup ( a ) has more than
one element (it contains a and I), and its order l(a)l z 1 is a divisor of p. 2.20. If G = (a) is cyclic of order n, then ak is also a generator of G if and only if
- 1
Sincepisprime,J(a)l=p=JG/,andso(a)=G. El (It, n) = 1. Conclude that the number of generators of G is y(n).
2.21. (i) Let G = (a) have order rs, where (r, s) = 1. Show that there are unique
CornMary 2.14 (Fermat). If p is a prirne and a is an integer, then a p a mod p. b, c E G with b of order r, c of order s, and a = bc.
(ii) Use part (i) to prove that if (r, s) = 1, then q(rs) = q(r)y(s).
-
Proof. Let G = U(Zp), the multiplicative group of nonzero elements of Z,;
since p is prime, bpis a field and G is a group of order p - 1.
Recall that for integers a and b, one has a b mod p if and only if [a] =
[b] in Z,. If a E Z and [a] = [O] in Zp, then it is clear that [alp = [0] = [a].
If [a] # CO], then [a] E G and so [a]*-' = [I], by Corollary 2.12; multiplying
I
2.22. (i) If p is prime, then cptpk)= pk - pk-I = p"(1 - l/p).
(ii) If the distinct prime divisors of n are p,, . .., p,, then
cp(tz) = n(1 - l/p,). . .( 1 - l/p,).
2.23 (Euler). If (r, s) = 1, then s'~'') = 1 mod r. (Hint.The order of the group or' units
by [a] now gives the desired result. U(Z,,>is (p(n1.1
2. The Isomorphism Theorems Normal Subgroups 29
Theorem 2.16. If n is a positive integer, then Proof: Necessity follows at once from Lemma 2.15. For the converse, let
a E G have largest order, say pk (it follows that gpk = 1 for all g E G). Of
course, the unique subgroup H of order p is a subgroup of (a). If (a) is a
proper subgroup of G, then there is x E G with x $ (a) but with x p E (a); let
where the sum is over all divisors d of n with 1 < d I n. x P = a! If k = 1, then x P = 1 and x E H I (a), a contradiction; we may,
therefore, assume that k > 1. Now
Proof. If C is a cyclic subgroup of a group G, let gen(C) denote the set of all
its generators. It is clear that G is the disjoint union
so that 1 = pm for some integer m, by Exercise 2.13. Hence, x p = amp,and so
1 = ~ - ~ a "Since , so x-'a'" E H s (a).
' ~ . G is abelian, x-'arnp = ( ~ - ' a " ) ~and
where C ranges over all the cyclic subgroups of G. We have just seen, when This gives x E (a), a contradiction. Therefore, G = (a) and hence is cyclic.
G is cyclic of order n, that there is a unique cyclic subgroup Cd of order d for
every divisor d of n. Therefore, n = \GI = Ed,,Igen(C,)I. In Exercise 2.20,
however, we saw that lgen(Cd)i= q(d); the result follows.
ProoJ If 6 is cyclic, then the r e s ~ ~isl tLemma 2.15. For the converse, recall Show that G is a nonabelian group (so G is not cyclic) of order 8 having a unique
from the previous proof that G is the disjoint union U gen(C), where C subgroup of order 2. (See Theorem 4.22.)
ranges over all the cyclic subgroups of G. Hence, n = /GI = xigen(C)I I
Ed,,q(d) = n, by Theorem 2.16. We conclude that G must have a cyclic sub-
group of order d for every divisor d of n; in particular, G has a cyclic sub- Normal Subgroups
group of order d = n, and so G is cyclic. B
This brief section introduces the fundamental notion of normal subgroups.
Observe that the condition in Theorem 2.17 is satisfied if, for every divisor
We begin with a construction which generalizes that of cosets.
d of n, there are at most d solutions x E G of the equation xd = 1 (two cyclic
subgroups of order d would contain more than d solutions).
Definition. If S and T are nonempty subsets of a group G, then
Theorem 2.13. S T = (st: s E S a n d t~ T).
(i) If F is a field and if G is a finite subgroup of F x , the multiplicative group
If S 5 G, t E G, and T = (t), then S T is the right coset St. Notice that the
of nonzero elements of F, then G is cyclic.
(ii) If F is a finite field, then its multiplicative group F is cyclic. family of all the nonempty subsets of G is a semigroup under this operation:
30 2. The Isomorphism Theorems Normal Subgroups 31
if S, T, and U are nonempty subsets of G, then (ST) U = S(TU),for either side Definition. If x E G, then a conjugate of x in G is an element of the form axa-'
consists of all the elements of G of the form (st)u = s(tu) with s E S, t E and for some a E G; equivalently, x and y are conjugate if y = y,(x) for some
U E U. fl E G.
Remark. The subset S T need not be a subgroup. 2.25. If S is a subgroup of G, then SS = S; conversely, show that if S is a finite
nonempty subset of G with SS = S, then S is a subgroup. Give an example to
Pro05 Define a function cp: S x T 4 S T by (s, t) I+ st. Since cp is a surjection, show that the converse may be false when S is infinite.
it suffices to show that if x E ST, then Icp-'(x)l = I S n TI. We show that 2.26. Let {Si: i E I ) be a family of subgroups of a group G, let {Siti: i E I ) be a family
cpV'(x) = {(sd,d-It): d E S n TI. It is clear that (pp-"(x)contains the right side.
For the reverse inclusion, let (s, t), (a, z) E cp-'(x); that is, s, a E S, t, z E T,
0 n
of right cosets, and let D = Si. Prove that either Siti = or Siti = Dg 0
for some g.
and st = x = ar. Thus, s-la = tz-' E S n T; let d = s-'a = tz-' denote their 2.27. If S and T are (not necessarily distinct) subgroups of G, then an (S-TI-double
common value. Then a = s(s-'a) = sd and d-'t = zt-'t = z, as desired.
coset is a subset of G of the form SgT, where g E G. Prove that the family of all
(S-T)-double cosets partitions G. (Hint. Define an equivalence relation on G by
There is one kind of subgroup that is especially interesting because it is a = b i f b = s a t f o r s o m e s ~ : S a n dT
t ~)
intimately related to homomorphisms. 2.28. Let S, T _< G, where G is a finite group, and suppose that G is the disjoint union
(ii) If X = @, then ( x ) = a,
~ 1. If X # then (X)G is the set of all words on Corollary 2.22. If N a G, then the natural map (i.e., the function v: G -, GIN
the conjugates of elements in X. defined by v(a) = Na) is a surjective homomorphism with kernel N.
(iii) If gxg-' E X for all x E X and g E G, then (X) = (X)G a G.
2.38. If H and K are normal subgroups of G, then H v K a G. ProoJ The equation v(a)v(b) = v(ab) is just the formula NaNb = Nab; hence,
v is a homomorphism. If Na E GIN, then Nn = v(a), and so v is surjective.
2.39. Prove that if a normal subgroup H of G has index 12, then g" E H for all g E G. Finally, v(a) = Nu = N if and only if a E N, by Lemma 2.8, so that N = ker v.
Give an example to show this may be false when H is not normal.
Ed
We have now shown that every normal subgroup is the kernel of some
Quotient Groups homomorphism. Different homomorphisms can have the same kernel. For
example, if a = (1 2) and b = (1 3), then y,, y,: S, -,S, are distinct and
The construction of the quotient group (or factor group) GIN in the next ker y, = 1 = ker y,.
theorem is of fundamental importance. The quotient group construction is a generalization of the construction of
We have already seen that if X and Y are nonempty subsets of a group G, Z, from Z. Recall that if n is a fixed integer, then [a], the congruence class of
then their product +
a mod n, is the coset a (n). Now (n) a Z,because Z is abelian, and the
XY = (xy: x E X and y E Y) +
quotient group Z/(n) has elements all cosets a (n), where a E Z, and oper-
+ + + + +
ation (a (n)) (b (n)) = a b (n); in congruence class notation,
defines an associative operation on the family of all nonempty subsets of G. [a] + +
[b] = [a b]. Therefore, the quotient group Z/(n) is equal to Z,, the
If H is a subgroup of G, then the family of all right cosets of H in G need not group of integers modulo n. An arbitrary quotient group GIN is often called
be closed under this operation. In Example 2.5, we looked at the right cosets G mod N because of this example.
of I-I = ((1 2)) in S,. The product of right cosets
Definitioira. If a, b E G, the csmmu~aaor~
of a and b, denoted by [a, b], is
is not a right coset of N, for it has four elements while right cosets of H have [a, b] = aba-'b-'.
two elements. In the proof of the next theorem, we shall see that if H is a
normal subgroup, then the product of two right cosets of N is also a right The counrnl~tntorsubgroa~p(or derived subgroup) of G, denoted by G', is the
coset of H. subgroup of G generated by all the commutators.
Theorem 2.28. If N a G, then the cosets of N in G fornz a grottp, denoted by We shall see, in Exercise 2.43 below, that the subset of all commutators
GIN, of order [G : N]. need not be a subgroup (the product of two commutators need not be a
commutator).
P r o d To define a group, one needs a set and an operation. The set here is
the family of all cosets of N in G (notice that we need not bother with the
Theorem 2.23. The co~nrnutatorsubgroup G' is a normal subgroup of G. More-
adjectives "feft" and "right" because N is a normal subgroup). As operation,
over, if N a G, then GIH is abelian if and only if G' < H.
we propose the multiplication of nonempty subsets of G defined earlier. We
have already observed that this operation is associative. Now
ProoyC I f f : G -+ G is a homomorphism, then f (G') IG' because f([a, b]) =
NaNb = ~ a ( a - ' ~ a ) b(because N is normal) [fa, fb]. It follows from Exercise 2.34 that G' a 6 .
= N(aa-')Nab = NNab = Nab (because N I 6). Let H a G. If GIN is abelian, then HaHb = HbHn for all a, b E G; that is,
Nab = Nba, and so ab(ba)-' = aba-'b-I = [a, b] E H. By Corollary 2.6, G'
Thus, NaNb = Nab, and so the product of two cosets is a coset. We let the N. Conversely, suppose that G' I 19. For every a, b E G, ab(ba)-' = [a, b] E
reader prove that the identity is the coset N = N 1 and that the inverse of Na 6' I H, and so Hab = Hba; that is, GIH is abelian. El
is N(n-I). This group is denoted by GIN, and the definition of index gives
IG/NI = [G:N]. Those who write conjugates as b-lab write commutators as a-'b-lab.
34 2. The Isomorphism Theorems The Isomorphism Theorems 35
by solving Exercise 2.19: If G = (g) and H = (h) are cyclic groups of order proof. Let v: G -, GIN be the natural map, and let v' = v (T, the restriction of
rz, then G s H. Define a homomorphism f : Z -+ G by f(k) = yk. It is easy to v to T. Since v' is a homomorphism whose kernel is N n T, Theorem 2.24
see that f is a surjection, while Exercise 2.13 shows that kerf = (n). The first gives N n T a T and T/(N n T) E im v'. Our remarks above show that im v'
isomorphism theorem gives Z/(n) r G. Similarly, Z/(rz) r H, and so G r H. is just the family of all those cosets of N having a representative in T; that is,
Since Z/(n) = Z,,, every cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Z,,. irn v' consists of all the cosets in NTIN. El
Lemma 2.25. If S nrzd T are subgroups of G and if one of them is normal, then Theorem 2.27 (Third l[somorphism Theore~n).Let K 5 H 5 G, where both K
S T = S v T=TS. and H are normal subgroups of G. Then HIK is a normal szibgroup of G/K and
Proof. Recall that S T is just the set of all products of the form st, where s E S
and t E T; hence S T and TS are subsets of S v T containing S u T. If S T and PPUooJ Again we let the first isomorphism theorem do the dirty work. Define
TS are subgroups, then the reverse inclusion will follow from Corollary 2.6. f : G/K -+ G/H by f(I<a) = Ha (this "enlargement of coset" map f is well
Assume that T a G. If s, t , and s2t2E ST, then defined because K I H). The reader may check easily that f is a surjection
with kernel H/K. El
(s, t1)(s2t,)-l =~ ~ t ~ t 2 ~ ~ ; ~
Imagine trying to prove the third isomorphism theorem directly; the ele-
ments of (G/I<)/(H/K) are cosets whose representatives are cosets!
= s,s,lt,
= (s,s,')t, E ST,
where t, = s2(t,t,')sz1 E T because T a G. Therefore, ST = S v T. A simi- 2.44. Prove that a homomorphism f : G -+ H is an injection if and only if ker f = 1.
lar proof shows that TS is a subgroup, and so TS = S v T = ST. 2.45. (i) Show that the 4-group V is a normal subgroup of S4. (We shall do this more
efficiently in the next chapter.)
Suppose that S < H 5 G are subgroups with S a G. Then S a H and the (ii) If K = ((1 2)(3 4)), show that I<a V but that K is not a normal subgroup
quotient HIS is defined; it is the subgroup of G/S consisting of all those cosets of S,. Conclude that normality need not be transitive; that is, K a H and
Sh with h E H. In particular, if S a G and T is any subgroup of G, then H a G need not imply K a G.
S _< S T 5 G and ST/S is the subgroup of G/S consisting of all those cosets 2.46. Let N a G and let f : G -+ H be a homomorphism whose kernel contains N.
Sst, where st E ST. Since Sst = St, it folfows that ST/S consists precisely of all Show that f induces a homomorphism A,: GIN -+ H by f,(Na) = f (a).
those cosets of S having a representative in T. 2.47. If S, T 5 G, then ST is a subgroup of G if and only if ST = TS.
Recall the product formula (Theorem 2.20): If S, T I G, then ISTI ISn TI = 2.48 (Modulrar Law). Let A, B, and C be subgroups of G with A 2 B. If A n C =
IS// TI; equivalently, I TI//S n TI = I STI//SI. This suggests the following B n C and AC = BC (we do not assume that either AC or BC is a subgroup),
theorem. then A = B. ,
2.49 (DedeErilmd Law). Let H, K, and L be subgroups of G with H < L. Then
Theorem 2.26 (Seco~BgHsomorphism Theorem). Let N nrzd T be subgroups of HI< n L = H(I< n L) (we do not assume that either HI< or H(I< n L) is a sub-
G with N normal. Then N n T is normal in T and T/(N n T) r NT/N. group).
2.50. Let f: G -+ G* be a homomorphism and let S* be a subgroup of G*. Then
Rernark. The following diagram is a mnemonic for this theorem: f -'(S*) = {x E G: f(x) E S * ) is a subgroup of G containing lter f.
Correspondence Theorem
The theorem in this section should be called the fourth isomorphism theo-
rem. Let X and X* be sets. A function f : X -+ X* induces a "forward
motion7' and a "bacltward motion" between subsets of X and subsets of X*.
38 2. The Isomorphism Theorems Correspondence Theorem 39
The forward motion assigns to each subset S c X the subset f ( S ) = bijection. (If G is finite, then we may prove [S : T I = [S" : T * ] as follows:
( f ( s ) :s E S } of X * ; the backward motion assigns to each subset S* of X* the
subset f -'(S*) = { x E X : f ( x ) E S " ) of X . Moreover, iff is a surjection, these [S* : T " ] = IS"I/IT*I = IS/KI/IT/KI
motions define a bijection between all the subsets of X* and certain subsets
of X. The following theorem is the group-theoretic version of this.
If T a S, then the third isomorphism theorem gives T / K a S/K and
Theorem 2.28 (Correspondence Theorem). Let I< a G and let v: G --+ G/K be (S/I<)/(T/K)r S / K ; that is, T* a S* and S*/T* r SIT. It remains to
the natural map. Then S t-, v(S) = S/I< is a bijection porn the fatnily of all show that if T * a S*, then T a S. The reader may verify that T =
those subgroups S of G which contain K to the family of all the subgrozrps lcer pv,: S -* S*/T*, where v, = vlS and p: S* -t S*/T* is the natural map.
of C/K. B
Moreover, if we denote S / K by S*, then:
(i) T I S i f and only if T* 5 S*, and then [S : T I = [S" : T * ] ; and
(ii) T a S i f and only i f T * a S*, and then SIT r S*/T".
2.51. If G' < N 5 G, where G' is the commutator subgroup of G, then H a G and
G/H is abelian.
Remark. A mnemonic diagram for this theorem is:
2.52. Give an example to show that if H a G, then G need not contain a subgroup
isomorphic to G/H.
2.55 (%assenhaus).Let G be a finite group such that, for some fixed integer n > 1,
(xy)" = x"ynfor all x y E G. If G[n] = {z E G: zn = 1) and G" = {xu:x E G), then
both G[n] and G* are normal subgroups of G and IG"l = [G : G[n]].
2.60. (i) Show that (h, 1) E H x 1 and (1, k) E 1 x I< commute. Proof: The homomorphism 9:H x K -+ (HIA) x (KIB), defined by q(h, Ic) =
(ii) H x 1 and 1 x K are normal subgroups of H x I(. (Ah, Bk), is surjective and ker = A x B. The first isomorphism theorem
(iii) (H x l ) n ( l x K ) = 1 and(H x 1)(1 x K ) = H x K. now gives the result.
2.61. H x K is abelian if and only if both H and I< are abelian.
It follows, in particular, that if N a H, then N x 1 a H x K.
2.62. (i) Prove that Z , r Z 2 x Z,.
(ii) If (myn) = 1, then Z,,, E Z,, x Z.. (Hint. Use the Chinese Remainder Corollary 2.31. If G = H x K, then G/(H x 1) E K.
Theorem).
2.63. If p is a prime, prove that ZI,2 $ Z , x Z,. There are two versions of the direct product H x K: the external version,
whose elements are ordered pairs and which contains isomorphic copies of
2.64. Let p: G x G 4 G be the operation on a group G; that is, p(n, b) = nb. If G x G H and K (namely, H x 1 and 1 x K); the iaternal version which does contain
is regarded as the direct product, prove that p is a homomorphism if and only
H and K as normal subgroups and in which HK = G and H n K = 1. By
if G is abelian.
Theorem 2.29, the two versions are isomorphic. In the future, we shall not
2.65. Let A be an abelian group, and let cc: H -+ A and P: I( -+ A be homomorphisms. distinguish between external and internal; in almost all cases, however,
Prove that there exists a unique homomorphism y: H x I< -+ A with y(h, 1) = our point of view is internal. For example, we shall write Corollary 2.31 as
a(h)for all h E H and y(1, k) = j(k) for all k E K . Show that this may be false if (H x K)/H E K.
A is not abelian.
r=l
G/HiI. Lemma 3.1. If G is a group, then the relation " y is a eor$udgate of x in G," that
is, y = gxg-' for some g E G, is an equivalence relation.
2.77. Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over a field F. Prove that, as abelian
groups, V r F, x ..- x F,,, where Fir F for all i. Pros$. Routine.
Definition. If p is a prime, then an elementary ahelian p - ~ P Q is
H aUfinite
~ group Defiaitiow. If G is a group, then the equivalence class of a E G under the
G isomorphic to Z p x ... x Z p . of x in G" is called the co~tjugacyclas.~of a; it is
relation "y is a conj~~gate
denoted by aG.
2.78. Prove that every abelian group G of prime exponent p is elementary abelian,
that G is a vector space over Z,,and that every homomorphism q:G -+ G is a
linear transformation. Of course, the conjugacy class a Gis the set of all the conjugates of a in 6.
Exercise 2.4S(i) can be rephrased: a subgroup is normal if and only if it is a
(disjoint) union of conjugacy classes. If a and b are conjugate in G, say, b =
gag-', then there is an isomorphism y: G -+ G, namely, conjugation by 8,
with y (a) = b. It follows that all the elements in the same conjugacy class have
3. Symmetric Groups and G-Sets Conjugates 45
44
The conjugate g ~ g - 'is a subgroup of G isomorphic to H: if y,: G -+ G is 3.7. Let G be a finite group, let H be a normal subgroup of prime index, and let
conjugation by 8, then yglH is an isomorphism from H to gHg-'. x E H satisfy C,(x) < CG(x).If y E H is conjugate to x in G, then y is conjugate
to x in H.
Note that a subgroup H is a normal subgroup if and only if it has only one
conjugate. 3.8. If a,, .. .,a,, is a list of (not necessarily distinct) elements of a group G, then, for
a11 i, a i . . . a , a 1 . ..ai-, is conjugate to a, ... a,,.
DeEinition. If H IG, then the normalizm of H in G, denoted by NG(H),is 3.9. (i) Prove that NG(aHa-') = aNG(H)aW'.
NG(H)= {a E G: aHa-' = H). (ii) If H 5 K G, then N K ( H )= NG(H)n I<.
3. Symmetric Groups and G-Sets Symmetric Groups 47
(iii) If H, K 5 G, prove that NG(H)n NG(K)5 NG(Hn K). Give an example in If a(i) = 12 and a ( j ) = 1, then E: k H 1. But apor-l: k H i H j I-+ 1, and so
which the inclusion is proper. apaW1(k)= n(k). Therefore, TC and spa-I agree on all symbols of the form
k = a(i); since a is a surjection, it follows that n = spa-l.
3.10. Iff : G -t H is surjective and A IZ(G), then f(A) 5 Z(H).
3.1 1. If H I G, then NG(H)_< {a E G: @Ha-' 5 H}; when H is finite, then there is Theorem 3.5. Permutaations a, P E S,, are conjugate if and only if they have the
equality. (There are examples of infinite subgroups H 5 G with aHa-l < H for sanze cycle structure.
some a E G).
Proof. The lemma shows that conjugate permutations do have the same cycle
Definition. An n x n matrix M = [mij] over a field K is monomial if there is structure. For the converse, define y E Sn as foIlows: place the complete fac-
a E St,and (not necessarily distinct) nonzero elements x,, . . . , x,, E K such that torization of a over that of p so that cycles of the same length correspond,
xi if j = a ( i ) , and let y be the function sending the top to the bottom. For example, if
mij =
0 otherwise.
Monomial matrices thus have only one nonzero entry in any row or col-
umn. Of course, a monomial matrix in which each xi = 1 is a permutation
matrix over I<. (This definition will be generalized when we discuss wreath then y(i) = k, y(j) = E, etc. Notice that y is a permutation, for every i between
products.) 1 and n occurs exactly once in a complete factorization. The lemma gives
yay-1 = P, and so a and /? are conjugate.
3.12. (i) Let k be a field. If G = GL(n, Ic) and T is the subgroup of G of all diagonal
matrices, then NG(T)consists of all the monomial matrices over Ic.
(ii) Prove that NG(T)/Tg S,,.
3.13. (i) If H is a proper subgroup of G, then G is not the union of all the conjugates
of H.
(ii) If G is a finite group with conjugacy classes C,, ..., C,,, and if g iE Ci, then 1 2 3 4 5 6
then y = (2 4) = (1 2 5)(3 6 4) Notice that y is not unique; for
example, the 3-cycle in a could also be written (1 2 3), and the "downward"
permutation is now y' = (1 5)(2 6 4 3). The multiplicity of choices for y is
explained by Theorem 3.2.
Symmetric Groups
Corollhny 3.6. A subgroup H of S,, is a normal subgroup if and only if, whenever
Definition. Two permutations a, P E S, have the same cycle strlrcttwe if their a E H, then every /3 having the same cycle structure as a also lies in N.
complete factorizations into disjoint cycles have the same number of r-cycles
for each r. Proof. By Exercize 2.34, H a Sn if and only if H contains every conjugate of
its elements. El
Lemma 3.4. If a, ,!? E St,, then spa-' is the permutation with the same cycle
stru.ctui.eas P which is obtained by applying a to the synzbols in P. The solution of Exercise 2.45(i), which states that Y a S,, follows from the
fact that V contains all products of disjoint transpositions.
EXAMPLE 3.1. If ,!?= (1 3)(2 4 7) and a = (2 5 6)(1 4 3), then spa-I = If 1 < r < n, then Exercise 1.5 shows that there are exactly
(a1 a3)(a2 a 4 a7) = (4 1)(5 3 7). (l/r) [n(n - 1). . . (n - r + I)] distinct r-cycles in S,,. This formula can be used
to compute the number of permutations having any given cycle structure if
Proof. Let n be the permutation defined in the lemma. If P fixes a symbol i, one is careful about factorizations with several factors of the same length. For
then n fixes a(i), for a(i) resides in a 1-cycle; but spa-l(a(i)) = aP(i) = a(i), example, the number of permutations in S, of the form (a b)(c d) is
and so spa-' fixes a(i) as well. Assume that ,!? moves i; say, P(i) = j. Let the
complete factorization of P be
the factor 1 occurring so that we do not count (a b)(c d) = (c d)(a b) twice.
3. Symmetric Croups and G-Sets
S5
Cycle Structure Number Order Parity
s4 1 1 Even
Cycle Structure Number Order Parity 10 = (5 x 4)/2 2 Odd
1 Even 20 = (5 x 4 x 3)/3 3 Even
(1) 1
6 = (4 x 3)/2 2 Odd 30 = (5 x 4 x 3 x 2)/4 4 Odd
(12) 24 = 5!/5
8 = (4 x 3 x 2)/3 3 Even 5 Even
(123)
(1234) 6 = 4!/4 4 Odd
Even
5 ~ 4 x 32 x 1
(123) (45) 20=-x- 6 Odd
3 2
Table 3.1
A5
Cycle Structure Number
Order Parit,v
,.,
Let us now examine S, using Table 3.1. The 12 elements of A , are eight 1 Even
3-cycles, three products of disjoint transpositions, and the identity. These ele- 3 Even
ments are the 4-group V together with 5 Even
2 Even
(1 2 3); (1 3 2); (2 3 4); (2 4 3);
Table 3.2
We can now see that the converse of Lagrange's theorem is false.
SG
Cycle Structure Number Order Parity
Theorem 3.7. A, is a group of order 12 having no subgroup of order 6.
Cl (1) 1 1 Even
Proof (T.-&. Sheu). If such a subgroup H exists, then it has index 2, and so c
2 (12) 15 2 Odd
Exercise 2.16 gives a2 E H for every a E A,. If a is a 3-cycle, however, then c3 (123) 40 3 Even
C4 (1234) 90
~ , this gives 8 elements in H , a contradiction. C3
a = a4 = ( u ~ )and C, (12345) 144
4 Odd
5 Even
CG (123456) 120 6 Odd
c7 (12)(34) 45 2 Even
C8 (12)(345) 120 6 Odd
3.14. (i) If the conjugacy class of x E G is (a,, . .. , a,}, then the conjugacy class of x-' C9 (12) (3456) 90 4 Even
is (a;', ..., a;'}. Cl0 . (12)(34)(56) 15 2 Odd
(ii) If a E S", then a is conjugate to awl. C II (123)(456) 40 3 Even
3.15. A, is the only subgroup of S4 having order 12. 720 = 6!
Table 3.3
50 3. Symmetric Groups and G-Sets Some Representation Theorems
this section we give some elementary theorems on representations; that is, on We now generalize Cayley's theorem.
homomorphisms into familiar groups.
The first such theorem was proved by Cayley; it shows that the study of Theorem 3.114. If H < G and [G : H I = n, then there is a homomorphism
subgroups of symmetric groups is no less general than the study of all groups. p: G -+ S,, with ker p (: H.
Theorem 3.12 (Cayby, 1878). Every group G can be imbedded as a subgroup of ProoJ If a E G and X is the family of all the left cosets of H in G, define a
SG.In particular, if I GI = n, then G can be imbedded in S,,. function pa: X -+ X by gH t-+ agH for all g E G. It is easy to check that each
pa is a permutation of X (its inverse is pa-,) and that a I-, pa is a homomor-
Pro@$ Recall Exercise 1.33: for each a E G, left translation La: G -, G, defined phism p: G --+ S, z S,,. If a E ker p, then agH = gH for all g E G; in particular,
by x I-, ax, is a bijection; that is, La E S,. The theorem is proved if the func- aH = H , and so a E H; therefore, ker p I H. It4
tion L: G -,S,, given by a t-, La, is an injection and a homomorphism, for
then G r im L. If a # by then La(l) = a f b = Lb(l),and so La # Lb.Finally, Defiaitioaa. The homomorphism p in Theorem 3.14 is called the re~resmta-
we show that Lab= La 0 Lb. If x E G, then Lab(x)= (ab)x, while (La o L,) (x) = tion of G on the cosets of H.
L,(L,(x)) = La(bx) = a(bx); associativity shows that these are the same.
When H = 1, Theorem 3.14 specializes to Cayley's theorem.
Definition. The homomorphism L: G -,S,, given by a t-, La, is called the bfi
regafar represent~tionof G.
Coroiil2ry 3.15. A simple group G which contains a subgroup H of index n can
The reason for this name is that each La is a regular permutation, as we be imbedded in S,,.
shall see in Exercise 3.29 below.
Prot.$ There is a homomorphism p: G -,St,with lcer p < H < G. Since G is
Corollary 3.13. If k is a field and G is a finite group of order n, then G can be simple, lcer p = 1, and so p is an injection.
imbedded in GL(n, k).
Corollary 3.16. An infinite simple grozrp G has no proper subgroups of finite
Proop4: The group P(n, k) of all n x n permutation matrices is a subgroup of index.
CL(n, k) that is isomorphic to St, (see Exercise 1.45). Now apply Cayley's
theorem to imbed G into P(n, k). Corollary 3.15 provides a substantial improvement over Cayley's theorem,
at least for simple groups. For example, if G z As, then Cayley's theorem
The left regular representation gives another way to view associativity. imbeds G in S,,. But G has a subgroup H r A, of order 12 and index
Assume that G is a set equipped with an operation * such that there is an 60112 = 5, and so Corollary 3.15 says that G can be imbedded in S,.
identity e (that is, e * a = a = a * e for all a E G) and each element a E G has a
(two-sided) inverse a' (i.e., a *a' = e = a' * a). Then, for each a E G, the func- Theorrem 3.27. L.et H 5 and let X be the family of all the conjugates of H in
tion La: G --+ G, defined by La(x) = a * x, is a permutation of G with inverse 6. There is a homomorphism 111: G -+ S, with lcer $ 5 NG(H).
La,.If * is associative, then 6 is a group and Cayley's theorem shows that the
function L: 6; -,S,, defined by a I-+ La, is a homomorphism; hence, im L is a Proop$.If a E G, define $a: X -+ X by $ a ( g ~ g - l =
) a g ~ g - ' a - l . If b E G, then
subgroup of S,. Conversely, if im L is a subgroup of S,, then * is associative.
For if La o L, E im L, there is c E G with La 0 L, = LC.Thus, La o L,(x) = $at//,(gHg-l) = tja(bgNg-'b-') = abg~g-lb-'a-l - $a,(g&?-l).
Lc(x) for all x E G; that is, a * (b * x) = c * x for all x E G. But if x = e, then
a * b = c, and so c * x = (a * b) * x. This observation can be used as follows. We conclude that t,ba has inverse II/,-~,so that $a E S, and $: G -+ S, is a
Assume that G = (x,, ...,x , ) is a set equipped with an operation *, and homomorphism.
assume that its multiplication table [aij] is a Latin square, where aij = xi * xi. If a E ker t,h, then agPig-la-l = gHg-' for all g E G. In particular, aHa-' =
Each row of the table is a permutation of G, and so * is associative (and G is H, and so a E NG(II);hence lcer $ 5 NG(H). !El
a group) if the composite of every two rows of the table is again a row of the
table. This test for associativity, however, is roughly as complicated as that in Defiwitio~.The homomorphism 11of Theorem 3.17 is called the represeafa-
Exercise 1.42; both require about n3 computations. $ion of d;: on the conjd~gatesof H.
54 3. Symmetric Groups and G-Set;
define B(g) is the set of distinct polynomials of the form go, and G, = Y(g) =
gU(xl,.. -,xn)= g(xol, . . - ,xu,); (o E G = S,,: go = 8).
Given g, Lagrange defined
given g, how many distinct polynomials go are there? If go = g for all o E S,,,
then g is called a symmetric function. If a polynomial f (x) =
roots r,, . .., r,, then each of the coefficients ai of f(x) = a,
zy=,
n~=, nixi has
(x - ri) is a
g*(x1, Y XU) = n
oE S,
(x-s"(x1, ..- xn));
Y
symmetric function of r,, . . . , I;,. Other interesting functions of the roots may he then defined the resolvent A(g) of g to be the polynomial obtained from g*
not be symmetric. For example, the discriminant of f(x) is defined to be the by removing redundant factors. If r is the degree of A(g), then Lagrange
number d2, where d = ni<j +
nix,
(ri - r,). If D(xl, . . . , x,) = (xi - xj), then it
is easy to see, for every o E St,, that Do = D (for all i < j, either xi - xj or
claimed that r = n!/(Y(g)((Abbati (1803) proved this claim). This formula is
the reason Lagrange's theorem is so-called; Lagrange's theorem for sub-
xj - xi = -(xi - xj) occurs as a factor of Do). Indeed, D is an anernating groups of arbitrary finite groups was probably first proved by Galois.
function of the roots: Do = D if and only if o E An. This suggests a slight EXAMPLE 3.4'. If G acts on itself by conjugation and x E G, then B(x) is the
change in viewpoint. Given g(x,, . . . , x,), find conjugacy class of x and G, = CG(x).
EXAMPLE 3.5'. If G acts by conjugation on the family of all its subgroups and
it H IG, then B(H) = {all the conjugates of H} and G, = NG(H).
this is precisely what Lagrange did (see Examples 3.3 and 3.3' below). It is
easy to see that Y(g) 5 S,; moreover, g is symmetric if and only if 9 ( g ) = Sn, Theorem 3.19. If X is a G-set and x E X, then
while Y(D) = An.Modern mathematicians are concerned with this same type
of problem. If X is a G-set, then the set of all f : X + X such that f (ox) = f(x)
for all x E X and all a E G is usually valuable in analyzing X. Proof. If x E X, let GIG, denote the family of all left cosets of G, in G. Define
f : B(x) -+GIG, by f(ax) = aG,. Now f is well defined: if ax = bx for some
EXAMPLE3.3. If k is a field, then Sn acts on k[x,,. .., x,] by crg = gaywhere b E G, then b-'ax = x, b-'a E G,, and aG, = bG,. The function f is an injec-
ga(xl, x,,) = g(~o1,..., xan). tion: if aG, = f(ax) = f(cx) = cG, for some c E G, then c-'a E G,, c-'ax = x,
EXAMPLE
3.4. Every group G acts on itself by conjugation. and ax = cx; the function f is a surjection: if a E G, then aG, = f(ax). There-
fore, f is a bijection and lB(x)l = IG/G,l = [G : G,]. R!
EXAMPLE 3.5. Every group G acts on the family of all its subgroups by conju-
gation. Corollary 3.20. If a finite group G acts on a set X, then the number of elements
in any orbit is a divisor of I GI.
There are two fundamental aspects of a G-set.
3.38 (Abbati). If k is a field, g E k[x,,. .., x,], and o E S,, write ga(xl, ..., x,) = of G-orbits of X, then
g(xal, .. ., x,,), as in Example 3.3. Show that, for any given g, the number of N = (1IIGI) C F(4,-
distinct polynomials of the form go is a divisor of n!. (Hint. Theorem 3.19.) tcG
Definition. A G-set X is tvmsiti~eif it has only one orbit; that is, for every
Corollary 3.23. If X is a finite transitive G-set with 1x1> 1, then there exists
z E G having no fixed points.
x, y E X, there exists o E G with y = ox.
Proof. Since X is transitive, the number N of orbits of X is 1, and so Burnside's
3.41. If X is a G-set, then each of its orbits is a transitive G-set.
lemma gives
3.42. If H 5 G, then G acts transitively on the set of all left cosets of H (Theorem 3.14)
and G acts transitively on the set of all conjugates of H (Theorem 3.17).
Now F(1) = 1x1> 1; if F(z) > 0 for every z E G, then the right hand side is
3.43. (i) If X = {x,, ..., x,) is a transitive G-set and H = GXt,then there are elements
g l , ..., g, in G with gixl = xi such that glH, ..., g,,H are the distinct left
too large. El
cosets of H in G.
(ii) The stabilizer H acts on X, and the number of II-orbits of X is the number Burnside's lemma is quite useful in solving certain combinatorial problems.
of (H-H)-double cosets in G. Given q distinct colors, how many striped flags are there having n stripes (of
equal width)? Clearly the two flags below are the same Gust turn over the top
3.44. Let X be a G-set with action a: G x X -+ X, and let 6: G -+S, send g E G into
flag and put its right end at the left).
the permutation x t-, gx.
(i) If K = ker h, then X is a (G/IC)-set if one defines
(gK)x = gx.
other hand,
Let us make the notion of coloring more precise.
Proof. Since ~ ( c , .,.., c,,) = (c,,, ...,c,) = (c,, ..., cn),we see that cri = ci for In 1937, PolyB pushed this technique further. Burnside's lemma allows one
all i, and so zi has the same color as i. It follows that zxi has the same color to compute the number of blue and white flags having nine stripes; there are
as i, for all k; that is, all i in the (7)-orbit of X have the same color. But 264 of them. How many of these flags have four blue stripes and five white
Exercise 3.39 shows that if the complete factorization of r is z = . . .Ptcrl, stripes?
and if i occurs in pj, then the set of symbols occurring in Pj is the (r)-orbit
containing i. Since there are t(r) orbits and q colors, there are qt(') n-tuples Theorem (Polyii, 193737).Let G 5 S,, where 1x1= n, let 1V1 = q, and, for each
fixed by r in its action on V". fi4 i 2 1, define oi = c: + +
- - - cd. Then the number of (q, G)-colorings of X
with f, elements of color c,, for every r, is the coefficient of c:lc?. ..c$ in
Definition. If the complete factorization of r E S,, has e,(r) 2 0 r-cycles, then pG(g1, ..- ,@I,).
the index of z is
ind(z) = E'(')~:(') ...x2(r). The proof of Polyh's theorem can be found in combinatorics books (e.g.,
see Biggs (1989), Discrete Mathematics). Let us solve the flag problem posed
If G 5 S,, then the cycle i n k of G is the polynomial above; we seek the coefficient of b4w5in
P,(x,,. . ., x.) = (l/IGI) C ind(4 E QCx,, . - -%,I.
reG
,
A short exercise with the binomial theorem shows that the coefficient of b4w5
For example, let us consider all possible blue and white flags having nine is 66.
stripes. Here 1x1= 9 and G = (z) t; Sg, where i = (1 9)(2 8)(3 7)(4 6) (5).
Now, ind(1) = x:, ind(r) = x,x$ and the cycle index of G = (z) = {I, z) is
Corollary 3.25. If 1x1= n and G 5 S,,, then the number of (q, G)-colorings of
X is PG(q,...,q).
3.46. (i) Let p be a prime and let X be a finite G-set, where IG( = pn and 1 4is not
divisible by p. Prove that there exists x E X with zx = x for all z E G.
ProoJ By Burnside's lemma for the G-set V, the number of (q, G)-colorings (ii) Let V be a d-dimensional vector space over ifp, and let G 2 GL(d, iZ,) have
of X is order p". Prove that there is a nonzero vector v E V with zv = v for all z E G.
(l/lGl) F(7). C
raG 3.47. If there are q colors available, prove that there are
Some Geometry
The familiar euclidean n-space is the vector space R" consisting of all n-tuples
of real numbers together with an inner (or dot) product. If gi is the vector
having ith coordinate 1 and all other coordinates 0, then the startdard basis is
(E,, . . .,E.). A vector x = (x,, . . . ,x,) has the unique expression x =
and if y = (y,, . .., y,,), then the h e r p r o h c t (x, y) is defined to be the num-
xi
ber xi xiyi.
A subset {u,, . . . , u,,) of R" is called an orthonormal basis if (ui, uj) = dij;
that is, (ui, ui) = 1 for all i and (u,, uj) = 0 when i # j (it is easy to see that an
orthonormal basis is a basis, for it is a linearly independent subset of R"
having n elements). The standard basis is an orthonormal basis. If {ui, .. .,un)
is an orthonormal basis and if x = xi
xiui, then (x, x) = ( x i xiue zj
xjuj) =
Figure 3.1
xi, xixj(ui,uj) = xi
x:. If x = (x, . .. x,!) E R", define llxll =
I I
~ l x l=J ~(x, x)), and define the distance between x and y to be /Ix - yll.
Jm(thus,
Lemma 3.26.
(i) A linear transformation S: Rn-t R" is orthogonal iJ and only if (SE,, ...,
SE.) is an orthonormal basis (where (E,, . . .,E,) is the standard basis).
(ii) Every orthogonal transformation S is a motion.
llSxll = (SX,SX)=
i, j
xixj(Ssi, Ss,) = x xi
I
= \\x/(~, (Tx, Ty) = (x, y) for all x, y E R".
and S is orthogonal.
(ii) If x = xi xisi and y = zi
yisi, then /iSx - Syl/ = //S(x- y)lj2 =
Ilx + y1I2 = tx + YYx + Y)= llxl12 + 2(x, Y)+ llyIl2.
IICi (xi - yi)S&iI12= Ci (xi - yi12 = IIx - .YI12. Similarly, since T is linear (by Lemma 3.27),
'
Notice that every orthogonal transformation (as is every motion) is an
injection, for if x # y, then 0 # llx - yll = l\Sx - Syll and Sx # Sy; since S is
a linear transformation on Rn with nullity 0, it follows that S is invertible. It
is easy to see that if S is orthogonal, then so is S-'.
Lemma 3.27. Every motion S: R" -+ Rnfixing the origin is a linear transforma- By hypothesis, 111: + yIl2 = IlT(x + y)l12, Ilxll2 = llTxl12, and Ilyll2 = I l T ~ l l ~ ,
tion, hence is orthogonal. so that 2(x, y) = 2(Tx, Ty) and (x, y) = (Tx, Ty).
Conversely, if T preserves inner products, then
Proof. We begin by showing that a motion T fixing 0 and each of the elements /Ix - yIl2 = (X - y, x - y) = (Tx - Ty, Tx - Ty) = IITx - Ty/12
in the standard basis must be the identity. If x = (x,, . . .,x,,), denote Tx by
(y,, ..., y.). Since TO = 0, IITxl/ = (ITx - TO11 = llx - 011 = /Ixli gives for all x,y E R". Therefore, T preserves distance, hence is a motion. M
Theorem 3.29. A function T: R" -+ Rnfixing the origin is n motion if and only Of course, [O(n, R) : SO(n, R)] = 2.
66 3. Symmetric Groups and G-Sets Some Geometry 67
Here are some examples of orientation-reversing motions. It is a standard Let us now consider the case n = 2. If we identify IW2 with the complex
result of linear algebra that if W is any subspace of R" and WL = {v E V: numbers C,then perpendicular unit vectors u, and u, have the form u, = eiB
(v, w) = 0 for all w E W), then dim W' = n - dim W. A liypevplane H in iW" is and u, = eim,where 9 = 8 & n/2. It follows that if
+
a translate of a subspace W of dimension n - 1: H = W v, for some vector
v,. If H is a hyperplane through the origin (that is, H = W is a subspace of
dimension n - I), then dim HL = 1, and so there is a nonzero vector a with
(a, h) = 0 for all h E H; multiplying by a scalar if necessary, we may assume is an orthogonal matrix, then its columns are the real and imaginary parts of
that a is a unit vector. Acl and A&,. Therefore, either
If I is a line in the plane, then the reflection in ( is the motion p: R2 -+ R2
which fixes every point on I and which interchanges all points x and x' cos 8 -sin(@ + n/2) cos 8 -sin 8
equidistant from L (as illustrated in Figure 3.3; thus, I behaves as a mirror). A = [ sin 8 cos(0 + n/2J = [sin H cos 0
More generally, define the vrflection in a hyperplane H as the motion that and det A = 1 (so that A corresponds to rotation about the origin by the
fixes every point of H and that interchanges points equidistant from H. If p angle 8) or
is to be a linear transformation, then H must be a line through the origin, for cos 8 -sin(@ - n/2) cos 0 sin O
the only points fixed by p lie on H.
A = [ sin 8 cos(8 - n/2J = [sin o c o s o
and det A = - 1 (so that A corresponds to reflection in the line I through the
origin having slope tan 0). In particular, the matrix
corresponds to the motion (x, y) r-, (x, -y) which is the reflection in the
x-axis.
With this background, we now pose the following problem. Let A be a
figure in the plane having its center of gravity at the origin. Define
Y(A) = {S E O(2, a):S(A) = A).
Of course, S(A) = {x E IW2: x = S(y) for some y E A). If A is a triangle with
Figure 3.3 vertices a, b, and c and if S is a motion, then S(A) is also a triangle, say, with
vertices Sa, Sb, and Sc; if S E Y(A),then S permutes X = (a, byc). It follows
\ \ %
order 2n which is generated by two elements S and T such that Let Ll be a figure in iW3 with its center of gravity at the origin, and define
Sn=l, ~ ~ = 1 and
, TST=S-'.
If Ll = Zn is the regular solid having n (congruent) faces, each of which has k
Proof. We may assume that the origin is the center of gravity of A and that edges, then Y(Zn)acts transitively on the set of n faces of En(this is essentially
one vertex of A lies on the x-axis. Observe that Y(A) is finite: as in the the definition of regularity), while the stabilizer of a face f (which is a regular
example of triangles, it can be imbedded in the group of all permutatons of k-gon) consists of the k rotations o f f about its center. By Theorem 3.19,
the vertices. Now each S E Y(A) also permutes the edges of A; indeed, regu- Y(C,) has order nk.
larity (that is, all edges having the same length) implies that Y(A) acts transi- It is a classical result that there are only five regular solids: the tetrahedron
tively on the n edges. Since the stabilizer of an edge has order 2 (the endpoints Z, with 4 triangular faces; the cube Z, with 6 square faces; the octahedron Z,
can be interchanged), Theorem 3.19 gives IY(A)I = 2n. If S is rotation by with 8 triangular faces; the dodecahedron Z,, with 12 pentagonal faces; the
(360/n)" and T is reflection in the x-axis, then it is easy to check that Y(A) = icosahedron Z2, with 20 triangular faces. The rotation groups of these solids
(S, T) and that S and T satisfy the displayed relations. Gi thus have orders 12,24,24, 60, and 60, respectively.
These considerations suggest investigation of the finite subgroups of the
Definition. The rlihedralgrordP3D,,,, for 2n 2 4, is a group of order 2n which orthogonal groups O(n, R). It can be shown that the finite subgroups of
is generated by two elements s and t such that 0(2, W) are isomorphic to either D,,, or Z,, and that the finite subgroups of
0(3, W) are isomorphic to either D2,1,Z,l, A,, S,, or A,.
s" = 1, t2 = 1, and tst = s-'.
Note that D,, is not abelian for all n 2 3, while D, is the 4-group V.
The next result explains the ubiquity of dihedral groups. 3.49. Prove that D, r V and D, E S,.
3.50. Prove that Dl, r S3 x Z,.
Theorem 3.32. If G is a finite group and if a, b E G have order 2, then (a, b) z
DZllfor some n. 3.51. Let G be a transitive subgroup of S,.
(i) If m = [G: G n V], then m16.
(ii) If m = 6, then G = S,; if 1n = 3, then G = A,; if m = 1, then G = V;if rn = 2,
ProoJ Since G is finite, the element ah has finite order n, say. If s = ab, then
then either G r Z, or G E D,.
asa = a(nb)a = ba = (ab)-' = s-', because both a and b have order 2.
It remains to show that 1 (a, b) 1 = 2n (of course, I (a, b) 1 = 2m for some m, 3.52. (i) (vcbn Dysk (11882)). Prove that 9(C,) z A, and that Y(C,) E S, E Y(C,).
but it is not obvious that nz = n). We daim that asi # 1 for all i 2 0. Other- (Hint. A, = (s, t), where s2 = t 3 = = 1; S4 = (s, t), where s2 = t3 =
wise, choose i 2 0 minimal with asi = 1. Now i # 0 (for a # 1) and i (st), = 1.)
1 = as = aab = b), so that i 2 2. But 1 = asi = aabsi-' = bsi-'; (ii) (Hamiltow (1856)). Prove that 9'(Cl2) E A , z Y(C2,). (Hint. A , = (s, t),
by b gives 1 = si-'b = ~ ' - ~ n b=b si-,a, and conjugating by where s2 = t3 = (st)5 = 1.)
(Because of this exercise, A, is also called the tetraltedralg~o~p, S, is also called
the oct~IterBYalg~o~~p,and A, is also called the icosahedralgro~tp.)
3.53. Let Tr(n, W) denote the set of all the translations of Wn. Show that Tr(n, R) is an
abelian normal subgroup of the group of motions M(n, R), and M(n, R)/Tr(n, W)
z O(n, W).
is a subgroup. Using Corollary 2.4, one need check only four cases: asinsx = 3.54. It can be shown that every S E SO(3, W) has 1 as an eigenvalue (there is thus a
s-islc = s ~ - i W ;sisk = si+X E H ; s'ask = a(asia)sk= s-'sk =
H ; asisk = asi+k nonzero vector v with Sv = v). Using this, show that the matrix of S (relative to
S k d i H. a suitable basis of R3) is
0
Elements of order 2 arise often enough to merit a name; they are called
inu6~lartons.
0 sin O cos 0
In earlier editions, I denoted D,,, by D,,. 3.55. Prove that the circle group T is isomorphic to SO(2, R).
3. Symmetric Groups and G-Sets Some Geometry
70 71
q(v) = A(v) z. +
The set of all affine maps under composition, denoted by Aff(2, R), is called
generate a subgroup of GL(2, C) isomorphic to D,.. the affime group ofthe plane.
3.57. What is the center Z(D,.)? (Hint.Every element of D has a factorization sit'.) Lemma 3.34. Let q be an affine map.
3.58. If A is an equilateral triangle in R' with its center of gravity at the origin, show (i) rp preserves all convex combinations.
that Y(A)is generated by
(ii) q preserves line segments: for all u, v, rp([u, v]) = [qu, qv].
+
(iii) The point tu (1 - t)v, for 0 I t I 1, is called the t-point of [u, v]. If z is
the t-point of [u, v], where 0 It 5 1, then qz is the t-point of [ q y qv]. In
3.59. How many bracelets are there having n beads each of which can be painted any ...
particular, preserves midpoints of line segments.
one of q colors? (Hint.Use Corollary 3.25; D,,,is the group that is acting.) (iv) q preserves triangles: if A = [u, v, w] is a triangle, then q(A) is the triangle
C(%Ju,V ~ 9Y~ 1 .
We now show how one can use groups to prove geometric theorems.
+
Proof. (i) Let rpx = Ax z, where 2 is a nonsingular linear transformation
Recall that if u, v E R2, then the line segment with endpoints u and v, de-
+
noted by [u, v], consists of all vectors tu (1 - t)v, where 0 2 t 5 1. If u, v, w and z E R2. If zitivi is a convex combination, then
are the vertices of a triangle A, then we will denote A by [u, v, w ] .
Proof. Denote the set of all convex combinations of v,, v,, v, by C. We first
+ +
show that C c A. Let c = tlvi t2v2 t,v, belong to C. If t, = 1, then
+
c = v, E A. If t3 # I, then q = t,/(l - t3)v1 t2/(l - t3)v2is a convex com- (ii) Immediate from (i), for [u, v] is the set of all convex combinations of u
and v.
bination of v, and v,, hence lies on the line segment [v,, v2] c A. Finally,
c = (1 - t,)q + t3v3 E A, for it is a convex combination of q and v,, and (iii) Immediate from (i).
hence it lies on the line segment joining these two points (which is /wholly- (iv) Immediate from (i) and Lemma 3.33.
inside of A). /
For the reverse inclusion, take 6 E A. It is clear that C contains t i e perime- Lemma 3.35. Points u, v, w in R2 are collinear if and only if ( u - w, v - w) is
ter of A (sucl~points lie on line segments, which consist of convex com- a linearly dependent set.
binations of two vertices). If 6 is an interior point, then it lies on a line
segment [u, w], where u and w lie on the perimeter (indeed, it' lies on many Proof. Suppose that u, v, w lie on a line 8, and let 8 consist of all vectors of the
such segments). Thus, 6 = tu + (1 - t)w for some 0 t 5 1. Write u = +
form ry z, where r E W and y, z E R2. There are thus numbers ri with u =
t,v, + + +
t2v, t3v3 and w = s,vl s2v2+ s,v,, where ti 2 0, si 2 0 and + +
r, y z, y = r2y z, and w = r,y + z. Therefore, u - w = (r, - r,)y and
x:=, ti = 1 = x:=,
si. It suffices to show that 6 = t ( x tivi) + (1 - t ) ( x sivi)=
[ttivi+ (1 - t)si]vi is a convex combination of v,, v,, 0,. But tti + (1 - t)si2
v - w = (r, - r3)y form a linearly dependent set.
Conversely, suppose that u - w = r(v - w), where r E R. It is easily seen
0, because each of its terms is nonnegative, while +
[tti (1 - t)si] = that u, v, w all lie on the line G consisting of all vectors of the form t(v- w) + w,
+
t(X ti) + (1 - t)(Csi) = t (1 - t) = 1. where t E R. El
an affine map q with qu = u', qv = v', and qw = w'. Thus, Aff(2, R) acts CHAPTER 4
transitively on the family of all triangles in W2.
The Sylow Theorems
PvooJ The vertices u, v, w of a triangle are not collinear, so that the vectors
u - w and v - w form a linearly independent set, hence comprise a basis of
R2; similarly, (u' - w', v' - w') is also a basis of W2. There thus exists a
nonsingular linear transformation A with A(u - w) = u' - w' and A(v - w) =
v' - w'. If z = w' - R(w), then define q by
It is easy to see that rp is an affine map which carries u, v, w to u', v', w',
respectively. It follows from Lemma 3.33 that (p(A) = A'. FZ
Theorem 3.37. For every triangle A, the medians meet in a cornrnon point which
is a +-point on each of the medians. I
I
Proof. It is easy to see that the theorem is true in the special case of an
equilateral triangle. E. By Lemma 3.36, there exists an affine map q with
q ( E ) = A. By Lemma 3.34, preserves collinearity, medians and f-points.
The order of a group G has consequences for its structure. A rough rule of
thumb is that the more complicated the prime factorization of /GI, the more
The reader is invited to prove other geometric theorems in this spirit, using
complicated the group. In particular, the fewer the number of distinct prime
the (easily established) fact that affine maps preserve parallel lines as well as
factors in /GI, the more tractible it is. We now study the "local" case when
conic sections (in particular, every ellipse is of the form q(A), where A is the
only one prime divides 1 GI.
unit circle, for these are the only bounded (compact) conic sections).
F. Klein's Erla~lgenPrograsfn(1872) uses groups to classify different geome-
tries on the plane (or more general spaces). If G 2 SR2)then a property P of a Definition. If p is a prime, then a p-group is a group in which every element
figure A in W2 is an invariant of G if q(A) has property P for all a, E G. For has order a power of p.
example, invariants of the group M(2, R) of all motions include collinearity,
length, angle, and area; the corresponding geometry is the usual geometry of Corollary 4.3 below gives a simple characterization of finite p-groups.
Euclid. Invariants of Aff(2, W) include collinearity, triangles, line segments,
and t-points of line segments, parallelism, conic sections; the corresponding Lemma 4.1. If G is a finite abelian group whose order is divisible by a prime p,
geometry is called affine geometry. Other groups may give other eometries. then G contains an element of order p.
invariants include connectedness, compactness, and dimensionality;
responding geometry is called topology.
/
#
-'L
For example, if G is the group of all homeomorphisms of the plane, then
the cor-
Proof: Write IGJ= pm, where m 2 1. We proceed by induction on m after
noting that the base step is clearly true. For the inductive step, choose x E G
of order t > 1. If pit, then Exercise 2.11 shows that xCtphas order p, and the
lemma is proved. We may, therefore, assume that the order of x is not divisi-
ble by p. Since G is abelian, (x) is a normal subgroup of G, and G/(x) is an
abelian group of order /Gilt = pmlt. Since plt, we must have m/t < m an
integer. By induction, G/(x) contains an element y* of order p. But the
natural map v: G -+ G/(x) is a surjection, and so there is y E G with v(y) =
y2*.By Exercise 2.14, the order of y is a multiple of p, and we have returned to
the first case. H
i
i3 p-Groups
75
74 4. The Sylow Theorems I
Corollary 4.3. A finite group G is a p-group if and only if / GI is a power of p.
We now remove the hypothesis that G is abelian.
-
Theorem 4.8. If G is a finite p-group and rs is the number of subgroups of G
having order ps, then rs 1 mod p.
Proof. We do an induction on n; the base step n = 1 is obviously true. Since
there are only n! permutations of n objects, it suffices to prove that there are
only finitely many n-tuples (i, ,.. ., in)with i, I
equation q = &,
i, I . .. < i, which satisfy the
(lli,). For any such n-tuple, we have i, 5 n/q, for
Proof. Let H be a subgroup of order ps, and let K,, ..., Kabe the subgroups
of G of order pStl which contain it; we claim that a E 1 mod p. Every sub-
group of G which normalizes H is contained in N = NG(H); in particular, But for each positive integer k 5 n/q, induction gives only finitely many
each Kj lies in N , for Lemma 4.6(ii) shows that H a Kj for all j. By the (n - 1)-typles (i,, . .. , i,,) of positive integers with q - (l/lz) = x'=, (l/i,). This
Correspondence Theorem, the number of subgroups of order p in NJH is completes the proof, for there are only finitely many such k.
eaual to the number of subgroups of N containing H which have order pstl.
1
By the lemma, a 1 mod p. Theorem 410. For every n 2 1, there are only finitely many finite groups
Now let K be a subgroup of order pstl, and let H,, . . . ,H, be its subgroups having exactly n conjugacy classes.
of order ps; we claim that b E 1 mod p. By the lemma, Hi a I< for all i. Since,
H,H, = K (for the Hi are maximal subgroups of K), the product formula Pro@$ Assume that G is a finite group having exactly n conjugacy classes. If
(Theorem 2.20) gives ID( = ps-', where D = H, n H,, and [K :D] = p2. By lZ(G)( = m, then the class equation is
Corollary 4.5, the group KID is abelian; moreover, KID is generated by two
subgroups of order p, namely, HiJD for i = 1,2, and so it is not cyclic. By
Exercise 2.68, KID z Z,x Z,.Therefore, K/D has p2 - 1 elements of order
p and hence has p + 1 = (p2 - 1)/(p - 1) subgroups of order p. The Corre- If i, = IGJ for 1 5 j 5 7 n and i, = IGI/[G: CG(x,)] = /CG(x,)l for m + 1 ij I
spondence Theorem gives p + 1 subgroups of K of order ps containing D.
Suppose there is some Hj with D $ Hj. Let E = H, n Hj; as above, there is a
n, then 1 = z;=, (I/$). By the lemma, there are only finitely many such n-
tuples, and so there is a maximum value for d l possible 4's occurring therein,
new list of p + 1 subgroups of X of order ps containing E, one of which is H,. say, M. It follows that a finite group G having exactly n conjugacy classes has
Indeed, H, = ED is the only subgroup on both lists. Therefore, there are p order at most M. But Exercise 1.41 shows that there are only finitely many
new subgroups and 1 + 2p subgroups counted so far. If some H, has not yet (nonisomorphic) groups of any given order.
been listed, repeat this procedure beginning with H, n H, to obtain p new
- - Eventually, all the Hi will be listed, and so the number of them is
subgroups.
b = 1 + mp for some m. Hence, b = 1 mod p.
Let H,, ..., firsbe all the subgroups of G of order ps, and-let K,, ...,K,,,, 4.1. Let H a G. If both H and G/H are p-groups, then G is a p-group.
be all the subgroups of order P"". For each Hi, let there be ;;;'Sobgroups of 4.2. If JGJ= pH,where p is prime, and if 0 5 k _< n, then G contains a normal sub-
order containing Hi; for each K,, let there be bj subgroups of'order p" group of order pk.
\
contained in Kj.
Mow 4.3. Let G be a finite p-group, and let H be a nontrivial normal subgroup of G. Prove
s
' rs+1 that H n Z(G) # 1.
C ai = 1 bj,
i=, j=, 4.4. Let G be a finite p-group; show that if H is a normal subgroup of G having order
p, then H s Z(G).
for either sum counts each Kj with multiplicity the number of H's it contains.
i
I
1
i The Sylow Theorems
4. The Sylow Theorems
--,
I
(ii) If there are r Sylow p-subgroups, then r is a divisor of I GI and r 1 mod p.'
-
P = Q).
(i) Every conjugate of P is also a maximal p-subgroup. Proof. Let X = {PI, ..., P,) be the family of all the Sylow p-subgroups of G,
(ii) If P is the only maximal p-subgroup of G, then P a G. where we have denoted P by P I . In Theorem 3.17, we saw that G acts on X
4.7. If p is a prime and G is a nonabelian group of order p3, then /Z(G)I = p, G/Z(G) by conjugation: there is a homomorphism J,: G -+ S, sending a I--+ where
Z, x Z,, and Z(G) = G', the commutator subgroup. $a(Pi) = aPia-'. Let Q be a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Restricting J, to Q shows
that Q acts on X ; by Corollary 3.21, every orbit of X under this action has
4.8. Prove that the number of normal subgroups of order ps of a finite p-group G is
congruent to 1 mod p. size dividing lQl; that is, every orbit has size some power of p. What does it
mean to say that one of these orbits has size I? There would be an i with
$a(Pi) = Pi for all a E Q; that is, ,Pi,-' = Pi for all a E Q. By Lemma 4.1 1(ii),
if a E Q, then a E Pi; that is, Q 5 Pi; since Q is a Sylow p-subgroup, Q = Pi.If
The Sylow Theorems Q = P = PI, we conclude that every P-orbit of X has size an "honest" power
of p save {PI1 which has size 1. Therefore, 1x1= r r 1 mod p.
The main results of this section are fundamental for understanding the struc- Suppose there were a Sylow p-subgroup Q that is not a conjugate of P; that
ture of a finite group. If pe is the largest power of p dividing (GI,then we shall
see that G contains a subgroup of order pe. Any two such subgroups are
isomorphic (indeed, they are conjugate), and the number of them can be
counted within a congruence.
-
is, Q 4 X . If (Pi) is a Q-orbit of size 1, then we have seen that Q = Pi, contra-
dicting Q $ X. Thus, every Q-orbit of X has size an honest power of p, and so
p divides 1x1; that is, r 0 mod p. The previous congruence is contradicted,
and so no such subgroup Q exists. Therefore, every Sylow p-subgroup Q is
conjugate to P.
Definition. If p is a prime, then a Sylow p-subgroup P of a group G is a \
Finally, the number r of conjugates of P is the index of its normalizer, and
maximal p-subgroup. so it is a divisor of (GI. El
Observe that every p-subgroup of 6 is contained in some Sylow p-sub- For example, IS4/ = 24 = 2). 3, and so a Sylow 2-subgroup of S4 has order
group; this is obvious when G is finite, and it follows from Zorn's lemma 8. It is easily seen that D, I S4 if one recalls the symmetries of a square. The
when G is infinite. (Although we have allowed infinite groups G, the most Sylow theorem says that all the subgroups of S, of order 8 are conjugate
important groups in this context are finite.) (hence isomorphic) and that the number r of them is an odd divisor of 24.
Since r. # 1, there are 3 such subgroups.
Lemma 4.11. Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of a finite group G.
We have seen, in Exercise 4.6, that if a finite group G has only one Sylow
(i) ING(P)/PIis prime to p. p-subgroup P, fo; some prime p, then P a G. We can now see that the con-
(ii) If a E G has order some power of p and aPa" = P, then a E P. verse is also true.
Proof. (i) If p divides ING(P)/PI,then Cauchy's theorem (Theorem 4.2) shows Corollary 4.13. A finite group 6 has a unique Sylow p-subgroup P, for some
that NG(P)/P contains some element P a of order p; hence, S* = (Pa) has prime p, $ and only $ P a G.
order p. By the Correspondence Theorem, there is a subgroup s 5 NG(P)I
G containing P with S/P z S*. Since both P and S* are p-groups, Exercise 4.1 Proof: If G has only one Sylow p-subgroup P, then P 4 G, for any conjugate
shows that S is a p-group, contradicting the maximality of P. of is also a Sylow p-subgroup. Conversely, if P is a normal Sylow p-
(ii) Replacing a by a suitable power of a if necessary, we may assume that subgroup of G, then it is unique, for all Sylow p-subgroups of G are conju-
a has order p. Since a normalizes P, we have a E NG(P).If a $ P, then the coset gate. f34
Pa E NG(P)/Phas order p, and this contradicts (i).
Lemma 4.16. If p is a prime not dividing an integer m, then for all n > 1, the
binomial coefficient ti:) is not divisibte by p.
4.9. (i) Let X be a finite G-set, and let H < G act transitively on X. Then G = IIG,
for each x E X.
(ii) Show that the Frattini argument follows from (i).
4.10. Let {Pi: i E I ) be a set of Sylow subgroups of a finite group G, one for each prime
Proof. Write the binomial coefficient as follows: divisor of jGj. Show that G is generated by U Pi.
4.11. Let P 5 G be a Sylow subgroup. If N,(P) <H 2 G, then H is equal to its own
normalizer; that is H = NG(H).
Since p is prime, each factor equal to p of the numerator (or of the denomina- 4.12. If a finite group G has a unique Sylow p-subgroup for each prime divisor p of
[GI,then G is the direct product of its Sylow subgroups.
tor) arises from a factor of pnm - i (or of p" - i). If i = 0, then the multiplicity
of p in p"m and in pn are the same because pjm. If 1 5 i 5 pn, then i = pl'j, 4.13. (i) Let G be a finite group and let P 5 G be a Sylow subgroup. If H G, then
where 0 5 12 < n and pjj. Now pk is the highest power of p dividing p" - i, for H n P is a Sylow subgroup of H and HPIH is a Sylow subgroup of GIH.
P" - i = - pl'j = Pk(P"-k- j) and pXpl'-' - j (because n - k > 0). A simi- (Hint. Compare orders.)
lar argument shows that the highest power of p dividing pnm - i is also pk. (ii) Let G be a finite group and let P 5 G be a Sylow subgroup. Give an example
Therefore, every factor of p upstairs is canceled by a factor of p downstairs, of a (necessarily non-normal) subgroup H of G with H n P not a Sylow
and hence the binomial coefficient has no factor equal to p. Eil subgroup of II.
Groups of Small Order
82 4. The Sylow Theorems 83
Thus, either tst = s or tst = s-'. In the first case, s and t commute, G is
4.14. Prove that a Sylow 2-subgroup of A , has exactly 5 conjugates.
\
\--
abelian, and Exercises 4.12 and 2.62(ii) give G E Z, x Z2 z B,,; in the sec-
4.15. (i) Prove that a Sylow 2-subgroup of S, is isomorphic to D,. ond case, G E D,,.
(ii) Prove that D, x H2 is isomorphic to a Sylow 2-subgroup of S,.
4.16. If Q is a normal p-subgroup of a finite group G, then Q 5 P for every Sylow We now generalize this result by replacing 2 by q.
p-subgroup P.
Theorem 4.20. Let (GI = pq, where p > q are primes. Then either G is cyclic or
Definition. An n x n matrix A over a commutative ring R is unitriarrgrrlar if it G = (a, b), where
has 0's below the diagonal and 1's on the diagonal. The set of all uni-
triangular 3 x 3 matrices over B, is denoted by UT(3, a,).
and mq = 1 mod p but rn f 1 mod p. If q/p - 1, then the second case cannot
4.17. (i) Show that IGL(3,EP)I = (p3 - l)(p3 - p)(p3- p2). occur.
(ii) If p is a prime, then UT(3, E,) is a Sylow p-subgroup of GL(3, a,).
(iii) Show that the center of UT(3, E,) consists of all matrices of the form Proof: By Cauchy's theorem, G contains an element b of order p; let S = <b).
Since S has order p, it has index q. It follows from Exercise 3.33 that S a G.
Cauchy's theorem shows that G contains an element a of order q; let
T = (a). Now T is a Sylow q-subgroup of G, so that the number c of its
+
conjugates is 1 kq for some k 2 0. As above, either c = 1 or c = p. If c = 1,
4.18. Show that a finite group G can have three Sylow p-subgroups A, B, and C such then T a G and G s S x T (by Exercise 4.12), and so G z Z, x Z,E B,,, by
that A n B = 1 and A n C # 1. (Hint. Take G = S3 x S,.) +
Exercise 2.62(ii). In case c = kq 1 = p, then qlp - I, and T is not a normal
subgroup of G. Since S CI G, aba-' = b" for some m; furthermore, we may
4.19. Let IG] = pnm, where pJm. If s 2 n and rs is the number of subgroups of G of
order ps, then r, = 1 mod p. +
assume that rn 1 mod p lest we return to the abelian case. The reader may
prove, by induction on j, that ajba-j = b"'. In particular, if j = q, then mq I
4.20. (i) Let a = (1 2 3 4 5), let P = (rr) < S,, and let N = Ns,(P). Show that 1 modp. H
JNI = 20 and N = (0, a), where a = (2 3 5 4).
(ii) If A is the group (under composition), Corollary 4.21. If p > q are primes, then every group G of order pq contains a
t
A={q:Z,-Z,:q(x)=ax+P,a,P~~~,a#O), normal subgroup of order p. Moreover, if q does not divide p - 1, then G must
be cyclic.
then Ns,(P) E A. (Hint. Show that A = {s, t ) , where s: x H x + 1, and
t: x I-+ 2x.)
For example, the composite numbers n 5 100 for which every group of
order n is cyclic are:
-
and an element t of order 2. If H = (s), then H has index 2 in G, and so H d
G. Therefore, tst = si for some i. Now s = t2st2 = t(tst)t = tsit = si2; hence,
i2 1 mod p and, because p is prime, Euclid's lemma gives i E & 1 mod p.
has an element a of order 4. Now (a) a G, for it has index 2, and G/(a) E B2.
If b E G and b # (a), then b2 E (a) (Exercise 2.16). If b2 = a or b2 = a3, then
-
4. The Sylow Theorems Groups of Small Order 85
84
P has order 4). Notice that G = KP, for P is a maximal subgroup because it
b has order 8, a contradiction; therefore, either has prime index. Now either P V or P z Z,.
,
b2=a2 or b2=1. -'-, In the first case, P = {1, x, y, z}, where x, y, and z are involutions. Not
every element of P commutes with k lest G be abelian; therefore, there exists
Furthermore, bab-' E (a), because (a) is normal, so that an involution in P, say x, with xkx # k. But xkx is a conjugate of k, hence has
bab-I = a or bab-' = a3 order 3; as G has only two elements of order 3, xkx = k-', and (x, k) D6 "
( E JS,). We claim that either y or z commutes with k. If y does not commute
(these are the only possibilities because a and bab-' have the same order). with k, then, as above, yky = k-', so that xkx = yky and z = xy commutes
The first case is ruled out, for G = (a, b) and G is abelian if a and b commute. with k. If a = zk, then G = (a, x), n has order 6, and xax = xzkx = zxkx =
The following case remain: 212-' = a-', so that G E Dl,.
In the second case, P = (x) z Z,.Now x and k do not commute, because
(i) a4 = 1, b2 = a', and bab-' = a3; and
G = (x, 12) is not abelian, and so xkx-' = k-'. But x2 does commute with k,
(ii) a4 = 1, b2 = 1, and bab-I = a3.
for x2kx-' = ~(xkx-')x-' = xlz-'x-' = k; hence, a = x212 has order 6. Since
Since a3 = a-', (i) describes Q and (ii) describes D,. x2 and 12 commute, a3 = ( ~ ~=kx6k3 ) ~= x2. Finally, (ax)2 = axax =
1zx3kx3= (kx-')kx-' = ( ~ - ' k - ' ) l ~ x -(because
~ xkx-' = 12-') = x W 2= x2. We
Lemma 4.23. If G has order 12 and G $ A,, then G contains an element of have shown that G s T in this case.
order 6; moreover, G has a normal Sylow 3-subgroup, hence has exactly two
eEements of order 3. One can prove this last result in the style of the proof of Theorem 4.22,
beginning by choosing an element of order 6. The reader may see that the
Pro06 If P is a Sylow 3-subgroup of G, then I Pl = 3 and so P = (b) for some proof just given is more efficient.
b of order 3. Since [G : P] = 4, there is a homomorphism $: G --+ S, whose Notice that T is almost a direct product: it contains subgroups P = (x)
kernel K is a subgroup of P; as I PI = 3, either K = 1 or K = P. If K = 1, then and K = (k) with PK = G, P n K = 1, but only P is normal.
$ is an injection and G is isomorphic to a subgroup of S, of order 12; by If n 2 1, define G(n) to be the number of nonisomorphic groups of order n.
Exercise 3.15, G EJ A,. Therefore, K = P and so P a G; it follows that P is No one knows a formula for 6(n), although it has been computed for n 100
the unique Sylow 3-subgroup, and so the only elements in G of order 3 are b and beyond. Here is the classification of all groups of order < 15 followed by
and b2. Now [G : CG(b)]is the number of conjugates of b. Since every conju- a table of values of O(n) for small n. Of course, 6(n) = 1 whenever n is prime.
gate of b has order 3, [G : C,(b)] 5 2 and ICG(b)l= 6 or 12; in either case,
CG(b)contains an element a of order 2. But n commutes with byand so ab has
order 6. ED Table of Groups of Small Order
Order n 5(n) Groups2
We now define a new group.
EXAMPLE
4.2. There is no simple group of order 36. 4.32. (i) Let p be a prime. By Exercise 4.17, P = UT(3, k,) is a Sylow p-subgroup of
GL(3, k,). If p is odd, prove that P is a nonabelian group of order p3 of
exponent p. (Compare Exercise 1.26.) If p = 2, show that UT(3, k,) 1Q.
A Sylow 3-subgroup P of such a group G has 4 conjugates, and so (ii) Let p be an odd prime. Prove that there are at most two nonabelian groups
[G: PI = 4. Representing G on the cosets of P gives a homomorphism of order p3. One is given in part (i) and has exponent p; the other has
$: G 4 S4 with ker $ 2 P; since G is simple, $ must be an injection and G is generators a and b satisfying the relations up2 = 1, bp = 1, and bab-' = al+p.
imbedded in S4. This contradicts 36 > 24, and so no such group G can exist. (This group will be shown to exist in Example 7.16.)
4.33. Give an example of two nonisomorphic groups G and H such that, for each
positive integer d, the number of elements in G of order d is equal to the number
EXERCISES
of elements in H of order d.
4.21. A, is a group of order 60 containing no subgroups of order 15 or of order 30. 4.34. If G is a group of order 8 having only one involution, then either G E Z,or
GEQ. ,
4.22. If G is the subgroup of GL(2, C) generated by
A=[: b] and B = [ -1 0 ' '1 4.35. If p and q are primes, then there is no simple group of order p2q.
4.36. Prove that there is no nonabelian simple group of order less than 60.
4.37. Prove that any simple group G of order 60 is isomorphic to A,. (Hint. If P and
then G z Q. (See Exercise 2.24.) Q are distinct Sylow 2-subgroups having a nontrivial element x in their intersec-
4.23. The division ring W of real quaternions is a four-dimensional vector space over tion, then C,(x) has index 5; otherwise, every two Sylow 2-subgroups intersect
R having a basis {l, i, j, k) with multiplication satisfying trivially and NG(P)has index 5.)
4.38. In Corollary 7.55, we shall prove that a group of squarefree order cannot be
simple. Use this result to prove that if IGI = p, .. .p,, where p, < p, < - .. < p,
ij = k, jk = i, ki = j , ji = -k, kj = -i, ik = -j are primes, then G contains a normal Sylow p,-subgroup.
(these equations eight determine the multiplication on all of W.) Show that the Definition. If n 2 3, a generalized quafernion group (or dicyclic group) is a
eight elements { & 1, & i, +j, ik) form a multiplicative group isomorphic to Q. group Q , of order 2" generated by elements a and b such that
4.24. Show that Q has a unique element of order 2, and that this element generates a 2 n - l = 1, bab-l = a-l, and b2 = a2r'-'.
Z(Q)-
4. The Sylow Theorems
4.39. Any two groups of order 2" generated by a pair of elements a and b for which CHAPTER 5
= b2 and aba = b are isomorphic.
4.40. If G is a group of order 2" which is generated by elements a and b such that
Normal Series
= b2 = (&)*,
a2n-2
.
t -
then G r Q,.
4.41. Prove that Q,, has a unique involution z, and that Z(Q,) = ( 2 ) .
4.42. Prove that Q , , / Z ( Q , )r D z n - l .
4.43. Let G IGL(2, C) be generated by
A =La
-
o w
o] and [
I? = -1 0l'] '
We begin this chapter with a brief history of the study of roots of polyno-
mials. Mathematicians of the Middle Ages, and probably those in Babylonia,
knew the quadratic fovrnrrla giving the roots of a quadratic polynomial
+ +
f(X) = x2 bX C. Setting X = x - $b transforms f(X) into a polynomial
g(x) with no x term:
g(x) = x2 + c - ib2.
Note that a number a is a root of g(x) if and only if a - $b is a root of
f(X). The roots of g(x) are f$JG, and so the roots of f(X) are
$(-b +d m ) .
Here is a derivation of the cubic formula1 (due to Scipione del Ferro,
' Negative coeflicients (and negative roots) were not accepted by mathematicians of the early
1500s. There are several types of cubics if one allows only positive coefiicients. About 1515,
Scipione del Ferro solved some instances of x3 + px = q, but he kept his solution secret. In 1535,
Tartaglia (Niccolb Fontana) was challenged by one of Scipione's students, and he rediscovered
the solution of x 3 $ px = q as well as the solution of x3 = px + q. Eventually Tartaglia told his
solutions to Cardano, and Cardano completed the remaining cases (this was no small task, for
all of this occurred before the invention of notation for variables, exponents, +, --, x, /, ,/-,
and =). A more complete account can be found in J.-P. Tignol, Galois' Theory of Equations.
We should not underestimate the importance of Cardano's formula. First of all, the physicist
R.P. Feynmann suggested that its arising at the beginning of the Renaissance and Reformation
must have contributed to the development of modern science. After all, it is a genuine example
of a solution unknown to the Greeks, and one component contributing to the Dark Ages was
the belief that contemporary man was less able than his classical Greek and Roman ancestors.
Second, it forced mathematicialls to take the complex numbers seriously. While complex roots
of quadratics were just ignored, the casus irreducibilis, arising from one of Cardano's cases,
describes real roots of cubics with imaginary numbers (see the next footnote). Complex numbers
could no longer be dismissed, and thus the cubic formula had great impact on the development
of mathematics.
Some Galois Theory
90 5. Normal Series 91
lm = s.
and so evaluating g(a) gives
Rewrite the first two equations as
(1) + +
p3 y3 (3py q)a r = 0. + +
Impose the condition that py = -q/3 (forcing the middle term of (1) to van-
ish). Thus,
p3 + y 3 = -7.. Adding and subtracting these equations gives
We also know that
pSY3= -q3/27,
and we proceed to find P3 and y3. Substituting,
These two equations show that we are done if k can be found. But
p3 - q3/27p3 = --I, + + +
(k2 q - r/1z)(k2 q r/k) = 41m = 4s gives
and so the quadratic formula yields
p3 = $[-r i.(r2 + 4q3/27)'I2]. a cubic in 1c2. The cubic formula allows one to solve for k2, and it is now easy
to determine I, m, and the roots of g(x).
Similarly,
Y3 = $[--I (r2 + 4q3/27)'I2].
If w = eZnil"s a primitive cube root of unity, there are now six cube roots
available: P, wp, w2p, y, wy, w2y; these may be paired to give product - q/3: Some Galois Theory
- 413 = PY = (UP)(w2y) = (w2B)(my).
Let us discuss the elements of Galois Theory, the cradle of group theory. We
+ +
'It follows that the roots of g(x) are P y, wp cozy, and w2P + my; this is are going to assume in this exposition that every field F is a subfield of an
the cuhicf i ~ n a u l a . ~ algebraically closed field C. What this means in practice is this. Iff (x) E F[x],
The quavticformula was discovered by Lodovici Ferrari, about 1545; we the ring of all polynomials with coefficients in F, and if f(x) has degree n 2 1,
present the derivation of this formula due to Descartes in 1637. A quartic then there are (not necessarily distinct) elements a,, . .. ,an in C (the roo0 of
f i x ) = x4+ aX3 + bX2 + CX + d can be transformed, by setting X =
J \ I
f(x)) and nonzero a E F so that
x - $a, into a polynomial g(x) with no xJ term:
g(x) = x4 + qx2 + rx + S; in C[x]. The intersection of any family of subfields of a field is itself a subfield;
moreover, a number a is a root of g(x) if and only if a - i a is a root of f(X). define the smaIkest srih$ieId of C containing a given subset X as the intersec-
tion of all those subfields of C containing X. For example, if a E C, the smallest
The roots of f ( x ) = ( x - l ) ( x - 2 ) ( x + 3) = x3 - 7x + 6 are obviously 1,2, and -3. However, subfield of C containing X = F u {a) is
the cubic formula gives
P+u=1$(-6+ ,/367%)+1$(-6-,/=).
92 5. Normal Series Some Galois Theory 93
F(a) is called the subfield obtained from F by adjoinirtg a. Similarly, one can If CT is a bijection, then a is an isornorpirisrn; an isomorphism a: E -+ E is
define F(a,, . . . , a,,), the subfield obtained from F by adjoining a,, . ..,a,,. In called an raartomorplrism.
particular, if f (x) E F [XIand f (x) = (x - a,)(x - a,). ..(x - a,) E C [x], then
F(a,, . . .,a,), the subfield obtained from F by adjoining all the roots of f(x), Lemma 5.1. Let f (x) E F[x], let E be its splitting field over F, and let 0: E -+ E
is called the splittingfield off (x) over F. Notice that the splitting field off&) be an automorphismfixing F (i.e., a(a) = a for all a E F). If a E E is a root of
does depend on F. For example, if f(x) = x2 + 1 E Q[x], then the splitting f (x), then a(a) is also a root off (x).
field of f(x) over Q is Q(i); on the other hand, if we regard f(x) E ~[x];then
its splitting field off (x) over IW is C. ProoJ Iff (x) =I x =C a(ai)a(a,i
aixi, then 0 = a (f (a))= ~ ( aiai) =I~ ~ a ( a ) ~ ,
It is now possible to give the precise definition we need. and so @(a)is a root of f(x).
Definition. Let f (x) E F [XIhave splitting field E over F. Then f (x) is solvable Lemma 5.2. Let F be a subfield of K, let (a,, . ..,a,,) c K, and let E =
by radicals if there is a chain of subfields F(a,, . . . ,a,,). If I<' is a field containing F as a subfield, and if 0: E -+ K' is a
homomorphism fixing F with a(ai) = ai for all i, then a is the identity.
in which E c K , and each K,,, is obtained from K iby adjoining a root of an Pro@$ The proof is by induction on n > 1. If n = 1, then E consists of all
element of K,; that is, K,,, = K,(P,+,),where Pi+, E Ki+, and some power of g(a,)/h(a,), where g(x), h(x) E F [XIand h(a,) # 0; clearly a fixes each such
Pi+, lies in Ki. element. The inductive step is clear once one realizes that F(a,, . .. , a,,) =
F*(aI,),where F* = F(a,, ..., a,-,).
When we say that there is a formula for the roots of f(x), we really mean
that f(x) is solvable by radicals. Let us illustrate this by considering the It is easy to see that if F is a subfield of a field E, then the set of all
quadratic, cubic, and quartic formulas. automorphisms of E which fix F forms a group under composition.
Iff (x) = x2 + bx + C,set F = Q(b, c). If /? = Jn, then P2 E F; define
K, = F(P), and note that K , is the splitting field of f(x) over F. Definition. If F is a subfield of E, then the Galois group, denoted by Gal(E/F),
If f(x) = x3 + qx + I, set F = Q(q, r). Define p, = d m , and de- is the group under composition of all those automorphisms of E which fix F.
fine K , = F (P, ); define P2 = IT, and define K, = K , (P,). Finally, Iff (x) E F [XIand E = F(a,, .. . , a,) is the splitting field off (x) over F, then
set K , = K2(w), where w is a cube root of unity. Notice that the cubic for- the Gwlois groadp off (x) is Gal(E/F).
mula implies that K, contains the splitting field E of f(x). On the other hand,
E need not equal K,; for example, if all the roots of f(x) are real, then E c W Theorem 5.3. Let f (x) E F [x] and let X = {a,, ...,a,,) be the set of its distinct
but I<, $ R. roots (in its splitting field E = &'(a,, . .. ,a,,) over F). Then the function
If f(x) = x4 + qx2 + rx + s, set F = Q(q, r, s). Using the notation in our q: Gal(E/F) + S, s S,, given by q(a) = ojX, is an imbedding; that is, O, is
discussion of the quartic, there is a cubic polynomial having k2 as a root. As completely determined by its action on X .
above, there is a chain of fields F = K O c K , c I<, c K, with k2 E K,. De-
fine I<, = K,(k), K , = &(A), where y = k2 - 41, and KG= I<,($), where Proof. If CJ E Gal(E/F), then Lemma 5.1 shows that o(X) c X; olX is a bijec-
6 = 1c2 - 4m. The discussion of the quartic formula shows that the splitting tion because a is an injection and X is finite. It is easy to see that 9 is a
field of f(x) is contained in KG. homomorphism; it is an injection, by Lemma 5.2.
Conversely, it is plain that iff (x) is solvable by radicals, then every root of
f(x) has some expression in the coefficients of f(x) involving the field opera- Not every permutation of the roots of a polynomial f(x) need arise from
tions and extractions of roots. some a E Gal(E/F). For example, let f(x) = (x2 - 2)(x2 - 3) E Q[x]. Then
Definitic~n.If E and E' are fields, then a hormomorghism is a function a: E -+ E'
E = O($, fi) and there is no CJ E Gal(E/O) with a(&) = fi.
such that, for all a, fi E E,
a(1) = 1, Definition. If F is a subfield of a field E, then E is a vector space over F (if
a E F and a E E, define scalar multiplication to be the given product aa of two
elements of E). The degree of E over F, denoted by [E : F], is the dimension
of E.
94 5. Normal Series Some Galois Theory 95
and there is some root a of f(x) not lying in K (of course, a E E, by definition
of splitting field). Now a is a root of some irreducible factor p(x) off (x); since
5.1. Show that every homomorphism of fields a: E -,K is an injection,
a $ K, degree p(x) = k > 1. By the generalized version of Lemma 5.4, there
5.2. Let p(x) E F[x] be an irreducible polynomial of degree n. If a is a root of p(x) (in is p E E and an isomorphism A,: K(a) -+ K(p) which extends A and with
a splitting field), prove that (1, a, a', ..., an-'} is a basis of F(a) (viewed as a &(a) = p. By Exercise 5.3, [E : K(a)] = d/k < d. Now E is the splitting field
vector space over F). Conclude that [F(a) : F] = n. (Hint. The rings F[x]/(p(x)) of f(x) over K(a), for it arises from K(a) by adjoining all the roots of f(x).
and F(a) are isomorphic via g(x) + (p(x))H g(a).) Since all the inductive hypotheses have been verified, we conclude that A,,
5.3. Let F c E c K be fields, where [K : El and [E : F] are finite. Prove that [K : F] = and hence A, can be extended to an automorphism of E. H
[K : El [E : F]. (Hint. If (a,, ..., a,,) is a basis of E over F and if (PI, .. . ,P,} is
a basis of K over E, then the set of rnn elements of the form aiPj is a basis of K \
Remark. As with the previous lemma, Lemma 5.5 has a more general version
over F.) having the same proof. It says that if f(x) E F[x], )then any two (abstract)
5.4. Let E be a splitting field over F of some f (x) E F [x], and let K be a splitting field splitting fields off (x) over F are isomorphic.
over E of some g(x) E E[X]. If CJ E Gal(K/F),then alE E Gal(E/F).(Hint. Lemmas
5.1 and 5.2.) Theorem 5.6. Let p be a prime, let F be a field containing a primitive pth root
5.5. Let f(x) = x" - a E F[x], let E be the splitting field of f(x) over F, and let a E E of unity, say, o , and let f(x) = x p - a E F[x].
be an nth root of a. Prove that there are subfields
(i) If a is a root off (x) (in some splitting field), then f(x) is irreducible if and
only if a $ Fa
with = Ki(Bi+'),Pff] E PCi, and p ( i ) prime for all i. (Hint. If n = st, then
(ii) The splitting field E of f(x) over F is F(a).
an= (aS)?.) (iii) Iff (x) is irreducible, then Gal(E/F) r Z,.
Lemma 5.4. Let p(x) E F[x] be irreducible, and let a and P be roots of p(x) in Proof. (i) If a E F, then f(x) is not irreducible, for it has x - a as a factor.
a splitting field of p(x) over F. Then there exists an isomorphism A*: F(a) -+ Conversely, assume that f(x) = g(x)h(x), where degree g(x) = Ic < p. Since
F(P) which fixes F and with A*(a) = P. the roots of f(x) are a, oa, 02a, ...,oP-la, every root of g(x) has the form o i a
for some i. If the constant term of g(x) is c, then c = +wrak for some r (for c
ProoJ By Exercise 5.2, every element of F(a) has a unique expression of the is, to sign, the product of the roots). As both c and o lie in F, it follows that
-,
form a, + a, a + . . + a,, at'-'. Define A* by
+
+
a k E F. But (k, p) = 1, because p is prime, and so 1 = ks tp for some integers
s and t. Thus
a=aks+t~=
(ak )s (ap t E F.
It is easy to see that A* is a field homomorphism; it is an isomorphism (ii) Immediate from the observation that the roots of f(x) are of the form
because its inverse can be constructed in the same manner. E4 LL)ia.
(iii) If a E Gal(E/F), then a(a) = wia for some i, by Lemma 5.1. Define
Remarlc. There is a generalization of this lemma having the same proof. cp: Gal(E/F) -+ Zp by (p(a) = [i], the congruence class of i mod p. It is easy to
Let A: F -+ F' be an isomorphism of fields, let p(x) = a, + a,x + + a,,xnE check that cp is a homomorphism; it is an injection, by Lemma 5.2. Since f (x)
F[x] be an irreducible polynomial, and let pl(x) = A(a,) + A(a,)x + .. . 4- is irreducible, by hypothesis, Lemma 5.4 shows that Gal(E/F) # 1. Therefore
A(a,,)xnE F'[x]. Finally, let a be a root of p(x) and let fi be a root of pl(x) (in cp is a surjection, for Z, has no proper subgroups.
appropriate splitti~lgfields). Then there is an isomorphism A*:'F(a) + F1(/3)
with A*(a) = /3 and with A*/F = A.
Theorem 5.7. Let f (x) E F [x], let E be the splitting field of f (x) over F, and
Lemma 5.5. Let f(x) E F[x], and let E be its splitting field over F. If K is an assume that f (x) has no repeated roots in E (i.e., f (x) has no factor of the form
"intermediate field," that is, F c K c E, and if A: K -+ K is an autornorphism (x - a)2 in E[x]). Then f(x) is irreducible if and only if Cal(E/F) acts transi-
fixing F, then there is an automorphism A*: E -+E with A"/ K = A. tively on the set X of all the roots off (x).
Proof. The proof is by induction on d = [E : F]. If d = 1, then E = K, every Remark. It can be shown that if F has characteristic 0 or if F is finite, then
root a,, . . .,a,, off (x) lies in I<, and we may take A* = A. If d > 1, then E f K every irreducible polynomial in F[x] has no repeated roots.
96 5. Normal Series Some Galois Theory 97
Proof. Note first that Lemma 5.1 shows that Gal(E/F) does act on X. If f(x) field over K,; moreover, it can be shown that there is such a tower of fields in
is irreducible, then Lemma 5.4 shows that Gal(E/F) acts transitively on X. which K , is a splitting field of some polynomial over F. Theorem 5.8 now
Conversely, assume that there is a factorization f(x) = g(x)h(x) in F[x]. In applies to show, for all i, that Hi+, = Gal(K,/Ki+,) a Gal(K,/K,) = Hi and
n
E[x], g(x) = fl (x - a,) and h(x) = (x - P,); since f(x) has no repeated
roots, a, # Pj for all i, j. But Gal(E/F) acts transitively on the roots of f(x), so
Hi+,/Hi r Gal(Ki+,/Ki); this last group is isomorphic to Z,,by Theorem
5.6, E3
there exists a E Gal(E/F) with a(a,) = Ply and this contradicts Lemma 5.1.
Remarks. 1. We have shown only that Gal(I<,/F) satisfies the conclusions
of the theorem. By Theorem 5.8, Gal(K,/E)aGal(K,/F) and
It is easy to see that if a , is a root of f(x), then the stabilizer of a, is Gal(K,/F)/Gal(I<,/E) r Gal(E/F); that is, Gal(E/F) is a quotient of
Gal(E/F(a,)) 5 Gal(E/F), and Gal(E/F(a,)) is the Galois group of Gal(K,/F). Theorem 5.15 will show that if a group satisfies the conclusions of
f (x)/(x - a,) over F(a,). Thus, f (x)/(x - a,) is irreducible (over F(a,)) if and Theorem 5.9, then so does any quotient group of it.
only if Gal(E/F(a,)) acts transitively on the remaining roots. We shall return 2. The hypothesis that F contains various roots of unity can be eliminated.
to this observation in a later chapter (Example 9.3) when we discuss multiple 3. If F has characteristic 0, then the converse of this theorem is also true; it,
transitivity. too, was proved by Galois (1831).
Theorem 5.8. Let F c K c E be fields, where K and E are splitting fields of Definition. A not*malseries of a group G is a sequence of subgroups
polynomials over F. Then Gal(E/K) a Gal(E/F) and
Gal ( E lF)/Gal(Elf<) E Gal (l</.F). in which Gi+, a G, for all i. The factor groaps of this normal series are the
groups Gi/Gi+, for i = 0, 1, ..., n - 1; the length of the normal series is the
ProaJ The function @: Gal(E/F) -+Gal(K/F), given by @(a)= a]K, is well number of strict inclusions; that is, the length is the number of nontrivial
defined (by Exercise 5.4, for I<is a splitting field), and it is easily seen to be a factor groups.
homomorphism. The kernel of CO consists of all those automorphisms which
fix K; that is, ker @ = Gal(E/l<), and so this subgroup is normal. We claim Note that the factor groups are the only quotient groups that can always
that 4D is a surjection. If ;l E Gal(K/F), that is, A is an automorphism of I< be formed from a normal series, for we saw in Exercise 2.45 that normality
which fixes F, then A can be extended to an automorphism A* of E (by may not be transitive.
Lemma 5.5, for E is a splitting field). Therefore, A* E Gal(E/F) and @(A*)=
/2*II< = 2. The first isomorphism theorem completes the proof. B D~finition.~A finite group G is soloable if it has a normal series whose factor
groups are cyclic of prime order.
We summarize this discussion in the next theorem.
In this terminology, Theorem 5.9 and its converse say that a polynomial is
Theorem 5.9 (GsRois, 1831). Let f (x) E FCx] be a polynomial of degree n, let F solvable by radicals if and only if its Galois group is a solvable group. P.
contain all pth roots of unity for every prime p dividing n!, and let E be the Ruffini (1799) and N.H. Abel (1824) proved the nonexistence of a formula
splitting field of f(x) over F. If f(x) is solvable by radicals, then there exist (analogous to the quadratic, cubic, and quartic formulas) for finding the roots
subgroups Gi 5 G = Cal(E/F) such that: of an arbitrary quintic, ending nearly three centuries of searching for a gen-
eralization of the work of Scipione, Tartaglia, Cardano, and Lodovici (actu-
(i) G = Go > G, > . - . > G , = 1; ally, neither the proof of Ruffini nor that of Abel is correct in all details, but
(ii) Gi+, a Gi for all i; and Abel's proof was accepted by his contemporaries and Ruffini's was not). In
(iii) Gi/Gi+, is cyclic of prirne order for all i. modern language, they proved that the Galois group of the general quintic is
S, (nowadays, we know that any irreducible quintic having exactly three
ProoJ Since f (x) is solvable by radicals, there are subfields F = I<, c K , c real roots [e.g., f(x) = x5 - 4x + 21 will serve); since S, is not a solvable
- c Kt with E c Kt and with Ki+, = Ki(Pi+,),where pi+, E Ki+, and some group, as we shall soon see, f(x) is not solvable by radicals. In 1829, Abel
power of Pi+, lies in Ki. By Exercise 5.5, we may assume that some prime proved that a polynomial whose Galois group is commutative is solvable by
power of Pi+, is in K,+,. If we define Hi = Gal(K,/K,), then (i) is obvious.
Since F contains roots of unity, Theorem 5.6 shows that Ki+, is a splitting We shall give another, equivalent, definition of solvable groups later in this chapter.
5. Normal Series The Jordan-Holder Theorem 99
98
5.7. A normal series is a composition series if and only if its factor groups are either
radicals; this is why abelian groups are so called (of course, Galois groups simple or trivial.
had not yet been invented). Galois7stheorem generalizes Abel's theorem, for
every abelian group is solvable. Expositions of Galois Theory can be found 5.8. Every finite group has a composition series.
in the books of Artin (1955), Birkhoff and Mac Lane (1977), Jacobson (1974), 5.9. (i) An abelian group has a composition series if and only if it is finite.
Kaplansky (1972), Rotman (1990), and van der Waerden (1948) listed in the (ii) Give an example of an infinite group which has a composition series.
Bibliography.
5.10. If G is a finite group having a normal series with factor groups H,,, H,, ...,H,,,
n
then IGl = 1 Hil.
The Jordan-Hiilder Theorem Exercise 5.10 shows that some information about G can be gleaned from a
normal series. Let us now consider two composition series of G = (x) z il,,
Not only does Galois Theory enrich the study of polynomials and fields, but (normality is automatic because G is abelian):
it also contributes a new idea, namely, normal series, to the study of groups.
Let us give a brief review of what we have learned so far. Our first results G 2 (x5) 2 (xlO) 2 1,
arose from examining a single subgroup via Lagrange's theorem. The second, G > (x2) 2 (x6) )_ 1.
deeper, results arose from examining properties of a family of subgroups via
the Sylow theorems; this family of subgroups consists of conjugates of a The factor groups of the first normal series are G/(xS) z B5, (x5)/(x10) r
single subgroup, and so all of them have the same order. Normal series will B2, and (xlO)/l 2 (xlO) E Z,; the factor groups of the second normal series
give results by allowing us to examine a family of subgroups of different are G/(x2) z b2, (x2)/<x6) Y b3, and (x6) z Z,.In this case, both com-
orders, thus providing an opening wedge for an inductive proof. position series have the same length and the factor groups can be "paired
isomorphically" after rearranging them. We give a name to this phenomenon,
Deffwittisn. A normal series
Defia'atnitiosa.Two normal series of a group G are eqldikralent if there is a bijection
G=Ho>H12...2H,=1 between their factor groups such that corresponding factor groups are
is a rejinemenlt of a normal series isomorphic.
G=Go>Gl~...~Gl,=l Of course, equivalent normal series have the same length. The two compo-
if Go, GI, . .., G, is a subsequence of H,, HI, ... , HI,. sition series for Z,, displayed above are equivalent; the amazing fact is that
this is true for every (possibly infinite) group that has a composition series!
A refinement is thus a normal series containing each of the terms of the The next technical result, a generalization of the second isomorphism theo-
original series. rem, will be used in proving this.
DeGnition. A composifiorrseries is a normal series Lemma 5.10 (Zlpssenbalps Lemma, 1934). Let A a A* and B a B* be four
subgroups of a grozip G. Then
G=Go2G1>.-.>Gl,=l
A(A* n B) a A(A* n B*),
in which, for all i, either G,,, is a maximal normal subgroup of,Gi or Gi+l =
B(B* n A) a B(B* n A*),
and there is an isomorphism
Every refinement of a composition series is also a coinposition series; it can
only repeat some of the original terms. _
A(A* n B*) B(B* n A*)
-
A(A* n 3 ) - B(B* n A) '
EXERCISES
Remark. Notice that the hypothesis and conclusion are unchanged by trans-
5.6. A normal series is a composition series if and only if it has maximal length; that
is, every refinement of it has the same length. posing the symbols A and B.
100 5. Normal Series ! The Jordan-Holder Theorem 101
Transposing the symbols A and B gives A(A* n B) a A(A* n B*) and an One should regard the Jordan-Holder theorem as a unique factorization
isomorphism of the corresponditlg quotient group to (B* n A*)/D. It follows theorem.
that the two quotient groups in the statement are isomorphic.
Coro6[Bary 5.13 (Fa~damental he or em of Arithmetic). The primes and their
Theorem 5.11 (Schreier ReBnernent Theorem, 1923). Every two normal series multiplicities occurring in the factorization of an integer ;rz > 2 are determined
of an arbitrary group G have refinements that are equivalent. by n.
Pros$ Let PYOOJLet n = pip,. . .p,, where the pi are (not necessarily distinct) primes. If
G=GoZG,Z...2G,,=1 G = (x) is cyclic of order n, then
> (xP1) ... 2 ( x P ~ - . . P t - l )
and
G = W o Z H 1 2 . . . ~ H , , =1 i G = (x) 2 (xPlP2) 2
is a normal series. The factor groups have prime orders p,, p,, .. . ,p,, respec-
21
be normal series. Insert a "copy" of the second series between each Gi and tively, so this is a composition series. The Jordan-Holder theorem now shows
+,
G, . More precisely, define G,, = Gi+,(Gi n Hj) for all 0 5 j 5 m. Thus that these numbers depend on n alone.
is a refinement of the second normal series (with mn terms). Finally, the PmoJ Since A,, is a simple group for n 2 5, the normal series S,, 2 A, 2 1 is
function pairing G,,j/Gi,j+,with Hi,j/Hi+,, is a bijection, and the Zassenhaus a composition series; its composition factors are Z,and A,,, and hence S,, is
lemma (with A = Gi+,, A* = Gi, B = Hj+,, and B* = H,) shows that corre- not solvable. El
sponding factor groups are isomorphic. Therefore, the two refinements are
equivalent. ! B
Theorem 5.12 (Jordan-Walder). Every two composition series of a grotip G are
equivalent. I 5.1 1. Let G and H be finite groups. If there are normal series of G and of H having the
same set of factor groups, then G and H have the same composition factors.
102 5. Normal Series Solvable Groups 103
5.12. (i) Exhibit a composition series for S,. xi H f(xi)f(Gi+,), is a surjection, for it is the composite of the surjections
(ii) Show that S,, is solvable for n 5 4. Gi 4 f (G,) and the natural map f (G,) -+ f (G,)/f (Gii1). Since Gi+, Iker rp, this
map 9 induces a surjection Gi/Gi+, -+ f(Gi)/f(Git1), namely, xiGitl H
5.13. Assume that G = H, x . -. x H,, = K x , x K,., where each Hiand K j is sirn-
f (xi)f (Gi+,). Now f (Gi)/f (Giil) is a quotient of the abelian group Gi/Gi,, ,
ple. Prove that in = n and there is a permutation n of { 1,2, . .., a) with KKii,1
H ifor all i. (Hint. Construct composition series for G.) and so it is abelian. Therefore, H has a solvable series, and hence it is a
solvable group. D l
5.14. Prove that the dihedral groups Dz,,
are solvable.
In the proof of Theorem 5.9, we showed only that Gal(K,/F) is solvable,
whereas we wanted to prove that Gal(E/F) is solvable. But Gal(E/F) is a
Solvable Groups quotient of Gal(K,/F), and so Theorem 5.16 completes the proof of Theorem
5.9.
Even though solvable groups arose in the context of Galois Theory, they
comprise a class of groups of purely group-theoretic interest as well. Let us Theorem 5.17. I f H a G and if both H and G/H are solvable, then G is solv-
now give another definition of solvability which is more convenient to work able.
with and which is easily seen to agree with the previous definition for finite
groups.
is a solvable series, then Here is an alternative proof. The composition factors of G must be simple
p-groups. But we remarked (after proving that finite p-groups have nontrivial
H = f(Go) 2 f(G1) 2 ... 2 f(Gt) = 1 centers) that there are no finite simple p-groups of order greater than p. It
is a normal series for H: if f (xi+,)E f (Gi+,) and f(xi) E f(Gi), then follows that G is solvable.
f (xi)f (xi+,)f (xi)-' = f ( ~ , x x;'
~ +) E~ f (G,), because G,,, 4 G,, and so Another approach to solvability is with commutator subgroups; that we
f (G,,,) 4 f (G,) for every i. The map (p: G, -+f (Gi)/f (Gi+,), defined by are dealing with abelian quotient groups suggests this approach at once.
104 5. Normal Series
1 Solvable Groups
that is, G"+') is the commutator subgroup of G"). The series Lemma 5-22. If G = Go 2 GI 2 2 GI, = 1 is a solvable series, then Gi 2
G=~'02 ' . ..
' G'" 2 ~ ' 2 2 G(') for all i.
is called the derived series of G. Proof. The proof is by induction on i 2 0. If i = 0, then Go = G = G(O).For
the inductive step, Theorem 2.23 gives Gi+' 2 GI, since Gi/Gi+, is abelian.
To see that the higher commutator subgroups are normal subgroups of G, The inductive hypothesis gives Gi 2 G"), so that GI 2 G")' = G(itl). There-
it is convenient to introduce a new kind of subgroup. fore, Gi+' 2 G('+'), as desired. El
Definition. An an~tomorpkismof a group G is an isomorphism cp: G -, G. A Theorem 5.23. A group G is solvable if and only if G(")= 1 for some n.
subgroup H of G is called charaeteuistic in G, denoted by H char G, if q(H) =
H for every automorphism q of G. Proof. Let G = Go 2 GI 2 . . . 2 GI, = 1 be a solvable series. By the lemma,
Gi 2 G(') for all i. In particular, 1 = G,, 2 G'"), and so G(")= 1.
If q(H) 5 H for every autornorphism p, then H char G: since both q and Conversely, if G") = 1, then the derived series is a normal series; since it
q-' are automorphisms of G, one has q(H) 5 H and qV'(H) 5 H; the latter has abelian factor groups, it is a solvable series for G.
gives the reverse inclusion H = qcp-'(H) 5 q(H) and so q(H) = H.
For each a E G, conjugation by a (i.e., x I--+ axa-') is an automorphism of Thus, the derived series of G is a normal series if and only if G is a solvable
G; it follows at once that every characteristic subgroup is a normal subgroup group.
(but there are normal subgroups which are not characteristic; see Exercise The following new proofs of Theorems 5.15,5.16, and 5.17 should be com-
5.28 below.) pleted by the reader; they are based on the new criterion for solvability just
proved.
by b, then the theorem has been proved. We may, therefore, assume that
5.28. Give an example of a group G containing a normal subgroup that is not a bl/Hl for every proper normal subgroup H. If H is a minimal normal sub-
characteristic subgroup. (Hiizt. Let G be abelian.)
group, however, then Theorem 5.24 says that H is an (elementary) abelian
p-group for some prime p. It may thus be assumed that b = pm,so that H is
Definition. A subgroup H of G isfully invariant if cp(H) 5 H for every homo-
a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Normality of H forces H to be unique (for all Sylow
morphism cp: G -+ G.
p-subgroups are conjugate). The problem has now been reduced to the fol-
Of course, every fully invariant subgroup is characteristic and hence lowing case.
normal.
/
'
Case 2. I GI = ap", where playG has a normal abelian Sylow p-subgroup H,
and H is the unique minimal normal subgroup in G.
5.29. Prove that the higher commutator subgroups are fully invariant.
5.30. Show that Z(G) may not be fully invariant. (Hint: Let G = Z,x S,.) (See Exer- Remark. We shall complete the proof here, but we note that this case follows
cise 5.25.) immediately from the Schur-Zassenhaus lemma to be proved in Chapter 7.
Existence. The group G/H is a solvable group of order a. If K/H is a minimal
normal subgroup of G/H, then JI<lHJ = q" for some prime q # p, and so
Two Theorems of P.Hall = pmqn;if Q is a Sylow q-subgroup of K, then K = HQ. Let N* = NG(Q)
/I</
and let N = N* n K = NK(Q).We claim that IN*/ = a.
The main results of this section are generalizations of the Sylow theorems The Frattini argument (Theorem 4.18) gives G = KN*. Since
that hold for (and, in fact, characterize) finite solvable groups.
Theorem 5.28 (P.Hall, 1928). If G is a solvable group of order ab, where we have IN* 1 = I GI 1 N 111K 1. But I<= HQ and Q INIK gives K = HN;
(a, b) = 1, then G contains a subgroup of order a. Moreover, any two subgroups ='[HW = IHI[NI/IH n Nl, so that
hence /I</
of order a are conjugate.
Proof. The proof is by induction on IGI; as usual, the base step is trivially
true.
Hence 1 N* 1 = a if H n N = 1. We show that H n N = 1 in two stages:
Case 1. G contains a normal subgroup H of order a'b', where a'la, b'lb, and (i) H n N < Z(K); and (ii) Z(I<)= 1.
b' < b. (i) Let x E H n N. Every k E I( = HQ has the form 12 = hs for h E H and
s E Q. Now x commutes with h, for H is abelian, and so it suffices to show
Existence. In this case, G/H is a solvable group of order (a/al)(b/b'), which is that x commutes with s. But (xsx-')s-' E Q, because x normalizes Q, and
strictly less than ab; by induction, G/H has a subgroup A/H of order a/al. x(sx-Is-') E H, because H is normal; therefore, xsx-Is-' E Q n H = 1.
Now A has order (a/al)1 HI = ab' < ab; since A is solvable, it has a subgroup (ii) By Lemma 5.20(ii), Z(IC) a G. If Z(K) f 1, then it contains a minimal
of order a, as desired. subgroup which must be a minimal normal subgroup of G. Hence H 5 Z(K),
for H is the unique minimal normal subgroup of G. But since K = HQ, it
Conjugacy. Let A and A' be subgroups of G of order a. Let us compute
follows that Q char K. Thus Q a G, by Lemma 5.20(ii), and so H s Q, a
k = IAH1. Since AH 5 G, Lagrange's theorem gives 1 AH1 = ap, where ala
cont~adiction.Therefore, Z(K) = 1, H n N = 1, and I N*l = a.
and /3l b. Since (a, b) = 1 and A 5 AH, we have slap, so that, a = a; since
H 5 AH, we have a'b'lap, so that b11/3.But the second isomorphism theorem Conjugacy. We keep the notation of the existence proof. Recall that N* =
(actually, the product formula) gives k(aa1b',so that p(bl.We conclude that NG(Q)has order a; let A be another subgroup of G of order a. Since IAI<Jis
(AH1= k = ab'. A similar calculation shows that IA'HI = ab' as well. Thus, divisible by a and by IK/ = p"qn, it follows that IAKI = ab = IGI, AK = G,
AHIH and AIH/H are subgroups of G/fI of order a/al. As / G/HI = (a/al)(b/b'),
these subgroups are conjugate, by induction, say by x H E G/H. It is quickly I G/K = AK/IC r A/(A n K),
checked that xAHx-' = A'H. Therefore, xAx-' and A' are subgroups of A'H and I A n KI = qn.By the Sylow theorem, A n K is conjugate to Q. As conju-
of order a, and so they are conjugate, by induction. This completes Case 1. gate subgroups have conjugate normalizers, by Exercise 3.9(i), N* = NG(Q)
is conjugate to NG(An K), and so a = 1 N* 1 = I NG(An K) 1. Since A n K a A,
If there is some proper normal subgroup of G whose order is not divisible
I
Central Series and Nilpotent Groups Notice that y2(G) = [yl(G), GI = [G, GI = G' = G"). It is easy to check
that yi+,(G) 5 yi(G). Moreover, Lemma 5.30(i) shows that [yi(G), G] = Y,+~(G)
The Sylow theorems show that knowledge of p-groups gives information gives yi(G)/yi+,(G)5 Z(G/yi+,(G)).
about arbitrary finite groups. Moreover, p-groups have a rich supply of nor-
mal subgroups, and this suggests that normal series might be a powerful tool Definition. The lower central series (or descending central series) of G is the
in their study. It turns out that the same methods giving theorems about series
p-groups also apply to a larger class, the nilpotent groups, which may be G = yl(G) 2 y2(G) 2 ...
regarded as generalized p-groups. (this need not be a normal series because it may not reach 1).
Definition. If H, I<5 G, then
There is another series of interest.
[H, K] = ([h, k]: h E H and k E K),
where [h, k] is the commutator hkh-'k-'. Definition. The higher centers Ci(G) are the characteristic subgroups of G
defined by induction:
An example was given, in Exercise 2.43, showing that the set of all commu-
tators need not be a subgroup; in order that [H, K] be a subgroup, therefore,
we must take the subgroup generated by the indicated commutators. It is that is, if vi: G -+ G/Ci(G) is the natural map, then iit'(G) is the inverse image
obvious that [H, K] = [K, HI, for [h, k]-' = [k, h]. The commutator sub- of the center.
group G' is equal to [G, GI and, more generally, the higher commutator
subgroup G('+') is equal to [G"), G")]. Of course, ['(G) = Z(G).
We say that a subgroup K rrormalizes H if K 5 NG(H);it is easy to see that
K normalizes H if and only if [H, K] < H.
Definition. The rrpper central series (or ascending central series) of G is
Definition. If H 5 G, the centralizer of H in G is
CG(H)= {x E G: x commutes with every h E H);
When no confusion can occur, we may abbreviate C1(G) by Ci and yi(G)
that is, CG(H)= {x E G: [x, h] = 1 for all h E H).
by Yi.
We say that a subgroup K eentralizcs H if K 5 C,(H); it is easy to see that
K centralizes H if and only if [H, K] = 1. Theorem 5.31. If G is a group, then there is an integer c with Cc(G)= G if and
If x, y E G and [x, y] E K, where K a G, then x and y "commute mod X"; only if y,+,(G) = 1. Moreover, in this case,
that is, xKyK = yKxK in GIK. yi+,(G) 5 re-'(6) for all i.
Lemma 5.30. Proof: Assume that Cc = G, and let us prove that the inclusion holds by
(i) If K a G and K 5 H 5 G, then 111,GI IK $ and only if H/K 5 Z(G/K). re.
induction on i. If i = 0, then y, = G = If yi+l < CC-i,then
(ii) If H, K 5 G and f : G -+ L is a homomorphism, then f([H, K]) =
Cf(H)Y f (K)1.
the last inclusion following from Lemma 5.30. We have shown that the inclu-
Pro05 (i) If h E H and g E G, then hKgK = gKhK if and only if [h, g]11 = K sion always holds; in particular, if i = c, then ye+, I C0 = 1.
if and only if [h, g] E K. Assume that y,+, = 1, and let us prove that Y,+,-~ I [ j by induction on j
(ii) Both sides are generated by all f([h, k]) = [f(h), f(k)]. g3 (this is the same inclusion as in the statement: set j = c - i). If j = 0, then
yCil = 1 = lo. If yc+,-j I_< jj, then the third isomorphism theorem gives a
Definition. Define characteristic subgroups yi(G) of G by induction: surjective homomorphism G/y,,-,-j -+ ~ / j j Now. [Y,-~,GI = so that
Lemma 5.30 gives +l-j 5 Z(G/y,+,-j). By Exercise 3.10 [if A 5 Z(G)
5. Normal Series Central Series and Nilpotent Groups
114 115
/
and f : G --+ H is surjective, then f ( A ) 5 Z(H)], we have Definition. A group G is nilpotent4 if there is an integer c such that y,+,(G) =
1; the least such c is called the class of the nilpotent group G.
Therefore, 5 5 [jt', as desired. We have shown that the inclusion Theorem 5.31 shows, for nilpotent groups, that the lower and upper cen-
always holds; in particular, if j = c, then G = y, 5 cc.
Bl tral series are normal series of the same length.
A group is nilpotent of class 1 if and only if it is abelian. By Theorem 5.31,
a nilpotent group G of class 2 is described by y,(G) = G' 5 Z(G) = ['(G).
The following result reflects another relationship between these two series. Every nonabelian group of order p3 is nilpotent of class 2, by Exercise 4.7.
Theorem 5.32 (Schur). If G is a group with G/Z(G) finite, then G' is also finite. Theweare 5.33. Every finite p-group is nilpotent.
Pvoof(0mstein). Let g,, . . ., g , be representatives of the cosets of Z(G) in G; Proo/: Recall Theorem 4.4. Every finite p-group has a nontrivial center. If, for
that is, each x E G has the form x = g,z for some i and some z E Z(G). For all some i, we have ci(G) < G, then Z(G/ci(G)) # 1 and so ci(G) < citl(G). Since
x, y E G, [x, y] = [giz, gjzl] = [g,, gj]. Hence, every commutator has the form G is finite, there must be an integer i with ci(G) = G; that is, G is nilpotent.
[gi, gj] for some i, j, so that G' has a finite number (< n2) of generators.
Each element g' E G' can be written as a word c, c,, where each ci is a
commutator (no exponents are needed, for [x, y]-' = [y, x]). It suffices to
This theorem is false without the finiteness hypothesis, for there exist infi-
Drove that if a factorization of g' is chosen so that t = t(gl) is minimal, then
nite p-groups that are not nilpotent (see Exercise 5.45 below); indeed, there is
t(gf) < n3 for all g' E G'.
an example of McLain (1954) of an infinite p-group G with Z(G) = 1, with
We Drove first, by induction on r 2 1, that if a, b E G, then [a, b]' =
G' = G (so that G is not even solvable), and with no characteristic subgroups
(aba-'b'-')" = (abj"(a"b-l)'u, where u is a product of I- - 1 commutators.
other than G and 1.
This is obvious when r = 1. Note, for the inductive step, that if x, y E G, then
xy = yxx-ly-lxy = yx[x-', y-'1; that is, xy = yxc for some commutator c.
Thus, if r > 1, then
(i) Every nilpotent group G is solvable.
(ii) If G # 1 is nilpotent, then Z(G) # 1.
(iii) S3 is a solvable group that is not nilpotent.
Proof. (i) An easy induction shows that G(') 5 yi(G) for all i. It follows that if
for some commutator c, as desired. yCtl(G) = 1, then G('+') = 1; that is, if G is nilpotent (of class 5 c), then G is
Since yx = x-'(xy)x, we have (yx)" = x-'(xy)"x = (xy)", because [G : Z(G)] solvable (with derived length < c 1). +
= n implies (ab)" E Z(G). Therefore, (a7'b-')D = ((ba)-')" = ((bay)-' =((ab)")-'. (ii) Assume that G # 1 is nilpotent of class c, so that y,,,(G) = 1 and
It follows that y,(G) # 1. By Theorem 5.31, 1 # y,(G) I cl(G) = Z(G).
'
[a, b]" is a product of n - 1 commutators. (iii) The group G = S3 is solvable and Z(S3) = 1. Bl
(4
Now xyx = (xyx-')x2, so that two x's can be brought together at the ex- Theurem 5.35. Every subgroup H of a nilpotent group G is nilpotent. Moreover,
pense of replacing y by a conjugate of y. Take an expressionb'ofan element if G is nilpotent of class c, then N is nilpotent of class 1_< c.
gf E Gf as a product of commutators c, ...c,, where t is minimal. If t 2 n3,
then there is some commutator c occurring m times, where rn > n (for there Proof. It is easily proved by induction that H 5 G implies yi(H) 5 yi(G)for all
are fewer than n2 distinct commutators). By our remark above, all such fac- i. Therefore, y,+,(G) = 1 forces y,,, (N) = 1.
tors can be brought together to c'" at the harmless expense of replacing
commutators by conjugates (which are still commutators); that is, the num- There is an analogue of the descending central series for Lie algebras, and Engel's theorem says
ber of commutator factors in the expression is unchanged. By (*), the length that if the descending central series of a Lie algebra L reaches 0, then L is isomorphic to a Lie
of the minimal expression for g' is shortened, and this is a contradiction. algebra whose elements are nilpotent matrices. This is the reason such Lie algebras are called
Therefore, t < n3, and so G' is finite. nilpotent, and the term for groups is taken from Lie algebras.
5. Normal Series Central Series and Nilpotent Groups
117
(ii) Prove that a group G is nilpotent if and only if it has a central series
G = GI 2 G, 2 2 G, = 1. Moreover, if G is nilpotent of class c, then
yi+,(G)< Gi+, < lc-'(G) for all i. / There are many commutator iderztities that are quite useful even though they
5.40. If G is a nilpotent group and H is a minimal normal subgroup of G, then are quite elementary.
H 5 Z(G).
Lemma 5.42. Let x, y E G and assume that both x and y commute with [x, y].
5.41. The dihedral group D,, is nilpotent if and only if n is a power of 2. Then:
5.42. Let G be a finite nilpotent group of order n. If mln, then G has a subgroup of (i) [x, Y]" = [xn, y] = [x, yn] for all n E Z;and
order m. for all n 2 0.
(ii) (xy)" = [y, X]"("-')/~X"~"
5.43. (i) If H and K are normal nilpotent subgroups of a finite group G, then HK is
a normal nilpotent subgroup. ProoJ (i) We first prove (i)for nonnegative n by induction on n 2 0; of course,
(ii) Every finite group G has a unique maximal normal nilpotent subgroup it is true when n = 0. For the inductive step, note that
F(G) (which is called the fitti~rgsubgrozsp of G).
(iii) Show that P ( G ) char G when G is finite.
= x [xn, y] yx-' y-l, by induction
5.44. (i) Show yi(UT(n, Z,))consists of all upper triangular matrices with 1's on the
main diagonal and 0's on the i - 1 superdiagonals just above the main =x ( x " y ~ - ~ ~ -y-l
~)~x-~
diagonal (Hint. If A is unitriangular, consider powers of A - E, where E is
the identity matrix.) = [xn+', y].
(ii) The group UT(n, Z,)of all n x n unitriangular matrices over Z, is a p-group Now x[x, y] = [x, y]x, by hypothesis, so that ~ y x - ' ~ -= ' yx-'y-lx;
that is nilpotent of class n - 1. that is, [x, y]-' = [y, x-']-' = [x-', y]. Therefore, if n 2 0, then [x, y]-n =
5.45. For each n 2 1, let GI,be a finite p-group of class 72. Define H to be the group of [x-', y]" = [x-", y], as desired.
all sequences (g,, g,, . ..), with g, E GI,for all n and with g,, = 1 for all large n; (ii) The second identity is also proved by induction on n 2 0.
that is, g, # 1 for only a finite number of g,. Show that H is an infinite p-group
(xy)"(xy)= [y, ~ ] ~ ' " - ~ " ~ x " y " x ~
which is not nilpotent.
5.47 (Jacobi identity). If x, y, z E G, denote [x, [y, 231 by [x, y, z]. Prove that
[x, y-1, z]"[y, z-I, xIZ[z, x-1, ylX= 1. Theorem 5.43. If G is a p-group having a unique subgroup of order p and more
5.48. (i) Let H, K, L be subgroups of G, and let [H, K, L] = ([h, k, I]: h E H, lc E I<, than one cyclic subgroup of index p, then G r Q, the quaternions.
1E L). Show that if [H, I<, L] = 1 = [K, L, HI, then [L, H, I<]= 1.
(ii) (Three sllabgroulps lemma). If N a G and [H, K, L] [I<, L, HI 5 N, then ProoJ If A is a subgroup of G of index p, then A a G, by Theorem 5.40. Thus,
[L, H, K] < N. if x E G, then Ax E G/A, a group of order p, and so xP E A. Let A = (a)
(iii) If H, K, and L are all normal subgroups of G, then [L, H, K] < and B = ( b ) be distinct subgroups of index p, and let D = A n B; note that
[H, K, L] [I<, L, HI. (Hint. Set N = [H, K, L] [K, L, HI.) D a G, for it is the intersection of normal subgroups. Our initial remarks
show that the subset
5.49. If G is a group with G = G', then G/Z(G) is centerless. (Hint. Use the three
subgroups lemma with H = C2(G)and K = L = G.) GP = {xP:x E G )
is contained in D. Since A and B are distinct maximal subgroups, it follows
5.50. Prove that [yi(G), yj(G)] < Y,+~(G)
for all i, j. (Hint. Use the three subgroups
that AB = G, and so the product formula gives [G : Dl = p2. Hence, G/D is
lemma.)
abelian and G' I D, by Theorem 2.23. As G = AB, each x E G is a product of
5.51. If H ti G and H n G' = 1, then H < Z(G) (and so H is abelian). a power of a and a power of b; but every element of D is simultaneously a
5. Normal Series p-Groups 121
120
5' r - 1 mod 2'. Since m 2 3, this congruence implies 5' EZ - 1 mod 4; but
power of a and a power of by and so it commutes with each x E G; that is,
5 = 1 mod 4 implies 5' = 1 mod 4, a contradiction. It follows that these two
DI Z(G). We have seen that
G' I D I Z(G), I cyclic subgroups generate their direct product, which is a subgroup of order
at least 2 x 2" 2 2 x 2"-' = 2'I-l = ~ ( 2 " ) . This subgroup is thus all of
U(Z2m).
so that the hypothesis of Lemma 5.42(i) holds. Hence, for every x, y E G,
[y, x]P = [yp, x]. But yP E D 5 Z(G), and so [y, xlP= 1. Now Lemma 5.42(ii)
Corollary 5.45. Let G be a group containing elements x and y such that x has
gives (xy)' = [y, ~ ] ~ ( ~ - ~If ) p~is~odd,
x ~ then
y ~ plp(p
. - 1)/2, and ( ~ y =) ~ order 2"' (where m 2 3), y2 = xZr,and yxyU1= x'. Then
xpyp. By Exercise 2.55, if G[p] = {x E G: x p = 1) and GP = {xp: x E G) (as
defined above), then both these subsets are subgroups and [G : G[p]] = 1 GPI.
Thus,
~ G [ ~ ] ~ = [ G : G P ] = [ G : D ] [ D : G ~ ~ ~ P ~ ~ I In the latter two cases, G contains at least two inuolutions.
and G[p] contains a subgroup E of order p2; but E must be elementary ProoJ Since y2 = xZrcommutes with x, we have
abelian, so that G[p], hence G, contains more than one subgroup of order p.
We conclude that p = 2.
When p = 2, we have D = (a2) = G2 5 Z(G), [G : Dl = 4, and since so that t2 = 1 mod 2", and the congruence class [t] is an element of order 2
[y, XI' = 1 for all x, y E G, in U(Z,,,,). If m 2 3, the lemma exhibits the only four such elements, and this
gives the first statement.
(xy)4 = [y, xI6x4y4= x4y4. +
One involution in G is x2"-I. Suppose t = 1 2"'-'. For any integer lc,
Hence ( G[2] / = [G : G4] = [G : Dl [D : G4] = 8, because D = (a2 ) and G4 = (xky)2 = xk(yxky-~)y2= X k + k ' + 2 r = x 2 ~
(a4). If G[2] had only one cyclic subgroup of order 4, then it would contain
more than one involution (for every element of G[2] has order either 1,2,
+ +
where s = k(1 2rn-2) 2'-'. Since m 2 3, 1 + 2'-2 is odd, and we can
solve the congruence
or 4); there are thus two cyclic subgroups (u) and (u) of order 4 in G[2].
If a4 # 1, we may take (u) 5 (a2) 5 Z(G), and so (u) (v) is an abelian I +
s = k(l 2n'-2) + 2'-l r 0 mod 2"-'.
subgroup of G. But (u) (v) contains at least two involutions: either u2 # v2 For this choice of k, we have ( x " ~ =) ~xZS= x2'" = 1, SO that xky is a second
or u2 # uv-'; this contradiction shows that a4 = 1. It follows that ID1 = 2 involution (lest y E (x)).
and IGl = 8. By Exercise 4.34, G z Q or G z Z,; but only Q has more than I
one subgroup of index 2. @I Suppose that t = -1
X k + k t +2' -
+2"-'. As above, for any integer iz, ( X ~ Y=) ~
- x ~ ~ ~ Rewrite
- ' + ~ the
~ .exponent
We do an exercise in congruences before giving the next theorem.
and so G/H would be a simple abelian group; hence G/H would be finite and
proper subgroup of G. But if G is not cyclic, then (x) is a proper subgroup of of prime order. But it is easy to see that Q has no subgroups of finite index (it
G for every x E G, and so G 5 H, which is absurd. has no finite homomorphic images).
Assume now that G is a 2-group. If G is abelian, then Theorem 2.19 shows
If an (infinite) group G has no maximal subgroups, one defines @(G)= G.
that G is cyclic; therefore, we may assume that G is not abelian. Let A be a
It is clear that @(G)char G, and so @(G)a G.
maximal normal abelian subgroup of G. Since A has a unique involution, A
is cyclic, by Theorem 2.19, say, A = (a). We claim that A has index 2. As- Definition. An element x E G is called a rrongenevator if it can be omitted from
sume, on the contrary, that 1 G/A/ 2 4. If G/A does not have exponent 2, then any generating set: if G = (x, Y), then G = (Y).
there is Ab E G/A with b2 4 A. Consider H = (a, b2) < (a, b) 5 G. If H is
abelian, then b2 centralizes A, contradicting Theorem 5.41(ii). As H is not Theorem 5.47. For every group G, the Frattini subgroup @(G)is the set of all
abelian, it must be generalized quaternion, by inducvon. We may thus as- nongerzerators.
sume that b2ab-2 = ad'. Now (a) a G gives babe' = a' for some i, so that
-
Proof. Let x be a nongenerator of G, and let M be a maximal subgroup of G.
If x iji M , then G = (x, M) = Mya contradiction. Therefore x E M , for all M y
and i2 - 1 mod 2", where 2' is the order of a. Note that e 2 2, for A prop- and so x E @(G).Conversely, if z E @(G),assume that G = (z, Y). If (Y) #
erly contains Z(G). But there is no such congruence: if e > 3, then Theorem G, then there exists a maximal subgroup M with (Y) 5 M. But z E Myand
5.44 shows that this congruence never holds; if e = 2, then - 1 is not a square so G = (z, Y) 5 M, a contradiction. Therefore, z is a nongenerator.
mod 4. It follows that G/A must have exponent 2. Since IG/AI > 4, G/A
Theorem 548.Let G be a finite group.
contains a copy of V Therefore, there are elements c and d with c, d, c-'d 6A
and with (a, c), (a, d), and (a, cV'd) proper subgroups of G. Now none of (i) (FrattiPni, 1885). @(G)is nilpotent.
these can be abelian, lest c, d, or c-'d centralize A, so that all three are (ii) If G is a finite p-group, then @(G)= G'Gp, where Gp is the subgroup of G
generalized quaternion. But there are equations cac-' = a-' = dad-', giving generated by all pth powers.
c-'d E Cc(A), a contradiction. We conclude that A = (a) must have index 2 (iii) If G is a finite p-group, then G/@(G)is a vector space over Z,.
in G.
Choose b E G with b2 E (a). Replacing a by another generator of A if ProoJ: (i) Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of @(G)for some p. Since @(G)a G,
necessary, we may assume, by Exercise 2.20, that there is some r 5 n - 2 with the Frattini argument (!) gives G = @(G)NG(P).But @(G) consists of non-
b2 = a2r. generators, and so G = N,(P); that is, P a G and hence P a @(G).Therefore,
@(G)is the direct product of its Sylow subgroups; by Theorem 5.39, Q(G) is
Now bab-' = a' for some t, because (a) a G. Since G has only one involu- nilpotent.
tion, Corollary 5.45 gives t = & 1. But t = 1 says that a and b commute, so (ii) If A4 is a maximal subgroup of G, where G is now a p-group, then
that G is abelian, hence cyclic. Therefore, we may assume that t = - 1 and Theorem 5.40 gives M 4 G and [G : A4-J = p. Thus, G/M is abelian, so that
G = (a, b), where G' I M; moreover, G' has exponent p, so that x p E M for all x E G. Therefore,
a2"-' = 1, bab-l = a-', b2 = a2'. G'GP 5 B?(G).
For the reverse inclusion, observe that G/G'Gp is an abelian group of expo-
To complete the proof, we need only show that r = n - 2. This follows from nent p, hence is elementary abelian, and hence is a vector space over Z,.
Theorem 5.44: since t = - 1, we have 2' 1 -2'mod 2"-', so that 2'" = Clearly Q(G/G'Gp) = 1. If H a G and H 5 @(G),then it is easy to check that
Omod2"-l,andr=n-2. Ed @(G)is the inverse image (under the natural map) of @(G/H) (for maximal
subgroups correspond). It follows that @(G)= G'Gp.
It is not unusual that the prime 2 behaves differently than odd primes. (iii) Since G'GP = @(G),the quotient group G/@(G) is an abelian group of
exponent p; that is, it is a vector space over Z,.
Definition. If G is a group, the its Frattini subgroup @(G)is defined as the
intersection of all the maximal subgroups of G. Theorem 5.49 (Gaschiitz, 1953). For every (possibly infinite) group G, one has
G' n Z(G) I @(G).
If G is finite, then G always has maximal subgroups; if G is infinite, it may
Proof. Denote G' n Z(G) by D. If D $ @(G),there is a maximal subgroup M
have no maximal subgroups. For example, let G = Q, the additive group of
of G with D $ M. Therefore, G = MD, so that each g E G has a factorization
rationals. Since G is abelian, a maximal subgroup H of G would be normal,
124 5. Normal Series
factor of G; in additive notation, one writes G = H @ K , and one calls H a We are going to show that every finite abelian group is a direct sum of
(direct) summand of G. cyclic groups; it now suffices to assume that G is p-primary.
There are two remarks greatly facilitating the study of abelian groups.
Definition. A set {x,, . . ., x,} of nonzero elements in an abelian group is
+ +
First, if a, b E G and n E Z, then n(a b) = na nb (in multiplicative nota-
independent if, whenever there are integers nz,, ... , m, with XI,, mixi = 0,
tion, (ab)" = anb",for a and b commute). Second, if X is a nonempty subset of
then each mixi = 0.
G, then (X) is the set of all linear combinations of elements in X having
coefficients in Z.(see Theorem 2.7: in additive notation, words on X become When an abelian group G has exponent p, for some prime p, then it is a
linear combinations). vector space over Z,,and the notion of independence just defined coincides
with the usual notion of linear independence: mixi = 0 implies plm,, so that
Definition. If G is an abelian p-group for some prime p, then G is also called the congruence class [in,] = 0 in Z,.Of course, if G has no elements of finite
a p-primcavy group. order (as is the case, for example, when G is a vector space over Q, R, or C),
then ?nixi= 0 implies mi = 0, and so the definition of independence coincides
When working wholly in the context of abelian groups, one uses the term with that of linear independence in this case as well.
p-primary; otherwise, the usage of p-group is preferred.
We have already proved, in Theorem 5.39, that every finite nilpotent group Lemma 6.2. If G is an abelian group, then a subset {x,, ..., x,) of nonzero
is the direct product of its Sylow subgroups; since every abelian group is elements of G is independent if and only if (x,, . . .,x,) = (x, ) @ .. . @ (x,).
nilpotent, the next theorem is an immediate consequence. However, we give
another proof here to put the reader in the abelian mode. The following Proof. Assume independence; if y E (xi) n ({x,: j f i)), then there are
theorem was attributed to Gauss by G.A. Miller (1901). integers m,, ..., m, with y = - mixi = jii mjxj, and so EL=,mkxk= 0. By
independence, mkxk= 0 for all k; in particular, mixi = 0 and so y = - mixi =
Theorem 6.1 (Primary Decomposition). Every finite abelian group G is a direct 0. Exercise 2.75(i) now shows that (x,, . . . ,x,) = (x,) @ ... @ (x,).
sum of p-primary groups. For the converse, assume that X mixi = 0. For each j, we have -mjx, =
Ex+ mkxkE (xj) n ((xk: k # j ) ) = 0. Therefore, each mjxj = 0 and {x,, .. .,
PuooJ Since G is finite, it has exponent n for some n: we have nx = 0 for all x,) is independent. R
x E G. For each prime divisor p of n, define
G, = (x E G: pex = Ofor some e). Here is a solution to a part of Exercise 2.78.
Now G, is a subgroup of G, for if pnx = 0 and pl"y = 0, where m 5 n, then Corollary 6.3. Every finite abelian group G of prime exponent p is an elemen-
pn(x - y) = 0 (because G is abelian). We claim that G = G,, and we use the tary abelian p-group.
criterion in Exercise 2.75(i).
Let n = p;l.. .,p: where the pi are distinct primes and ei > 0 for all i. Set Proof. As a vector space over Z,, G has a basis (x,,..., x,.}. Therefore, G =
ni = n/pfi, and observe that the gcd (n,, ..., n,) = 1 (no pj divides every n,). By (x,, .. .,x,), because a basis spans, and G = (x, ) @ -.- @ (x,), because a
Theorem VI.2 in Appendix VI, there are integers si with sini = 1, and so basis is independent. Bill
x = (sinix). But sinixE Gpi, because ~ , ' ~ s , n= , xsinx = 0. Therefore, G is
generated by the family of G,'s. Lemma 6.4. Let {x,, .. ., x,} be an independent subset of a p-primary abelian
Assume that x E G, n (U,+, G,). On the one hand, pex = 0 for some group G.
e 2 0; on the other hand, x = x,, where qegx, = 0 for exponents e,. If (i) If {z,, .. .,q.}c G, where pz, = xi for all i, then {z,, ...,z,} is independent.
n
m = qeq, then m and pe are relatively prime, and there are integers r and s
+
with 1 = rm + spe.Therefore, x = rmx spex = 0, and so G, n (u,+, G,) =
(ii) If k,, ..., k, are integers with kixi # 0 for all i, then {k,x,, ...,krxr) is also
independent.
0. \
Proof. An exercise for the reader.
Definition. The subgroups G, are called the p-pvirnouy comporrrrits of G.
DeP?nitiion.If G is an abelian group and in > 0 is an integer, then
Of course, G, is the Sylow p-subgroup of G, but the usage of p-primary
component is preferred when the works wholly in the context of abelian groups. mG = {mx: x E G}.
128 6. Finite Direct Products The Basis Theorem 129
It is easy to see that ntG is a subgroup of G; indeed, since G is abelian, the Ci be a cyclic summand of Gpi of largest order, say, pfi. It follows that G =
function p,: G -+G, defined by x I---+mx, is a homomorphism (called nrultipli- K @ (C, @ .. @ C,), where K is the direct sum of the remaining cyclic sum-
cation by RZ),and mG = im p,. We denote ker p , by G[mn]; that is, mands. But C, @ - -.@ C, is cyclic of order m = p?, by Exercise 2.62(ii).
Now repeat this construction: let K = H @ D, where D is cyclic of order n,
say. If there is a cyclic summand S, in D arising from Gpi, that is, if Gpi # Ci,
then S, has order pp pfi, so that p:lpfi, for all i, and n/m. This process ends
Theorem 6.5 (Basis Theorem).' Every finite abelian group G is a direct sum of in a finite number of steps.
primary cyclic groups.
Definition. If G has a decomposition as a direct sum G = C,, where Ci is
h.oof. By Theorem 6.1, we may assume that G is p-primary for some prime cyclic of order mi and m, Im2I.. .I m,, then one says that G has irrva~ia~r~tfactors
p. We prove the theorem by induction on n, where pnG = 0. If n = 1, then the (ln, , . . ., int).
theorem is Corollary 6.3.
Suppose that f t l G = 0. If H = pG, then pnH = 0, so that induction gives
H = xi=,(yi). Since yi E H = pG, there are zi E G with pzi = y,. By Lemma Theorem 4.7. I f p is an odd prime, the multiplicative group
,
6.2, { y , . ..,y,) is independent; by Lemma 6.4 (i), (z, , . . ., z, ) is independent, U(Z,,,) = ( [a] E Zpn:(a, p) = I),
and so L = (z,, . .. ,z,) is a direct sum: L = xi=,(2,).
Here is the motivation for the next step. Were the theorem true, then is cyclic of order (p - l)pJ1-'.
x
G = C,, where each C, is cyclic, and H = pG = PC,. In considering pG,
therefore, we have neglected all C, of order p, if any, for multiplication by p Remark. Theorem 5.44 computes this group for the prime 2.
destroys them. The construction of L has recaptured the C, of order greater ProoJ If n = 1, the result is Theorem 2.18, and so we may assume that n 2 2.
than p, and we must now revive the C, of order p. Let us denote U(Zp,) by G. By Exercise 2.23,/ GI = q(pn)= (p - l ) ~ " - ' .
For each i, let ki be the order of y,, so that kizi has order p. The linearly It is easy to see that B = {[b] E G: b z 1 mod p) is a subgroup of 6. Every
independent subset {k,z,, . . .,k,z,) of the vector space G[p] can be extended integer b has a unique expression in base p: if 1 < b < pn, then
to a basis: there are elements {x,, ...,x,) so that {k,z,, . ..,k,z,, x,, . .. ,x,)
is a basis of G[p]. If M = (x,, . . .,x,), then independence gives M = (xj). b = ao + a l p + + a,l-,p"-l, where 0 a, < p.
We now show that M consists of the resurrected summands of order p; that Since [b] E B if and only if a, = 1, it follows that IBJ = pn-l, and so B is
is, G = L @ M, and this will complete the proof.
(i) L n M = 0. If g E L n M, then g = 1
because g E My and so x x
bizi = ajxj. Now pg = 0,
pbizi = 0. By independence, pbizi = biyi = 0
p-primary. By the primary decomposition, there is a subgroup A of G with
IAI=p-1 andwithG=A@B.Ifwecanshow thateachofAand Bis
cyclic, then Exercise 2.62(ii) will show that G is cyclic.
for all i. It follows from Exercise 2.13 that bi = bjk, for some bj. Therefore, Consider f : G -+ U(Zp) defined by f([a]) = cls a (where [a] denotes the
0 = bikizi - ajxj, and so independence of (k,z,, ..., krzr, x,, . . . , x,)
x
gives each term 0; hence g = ajxj = 0.
x
(ii) L + M = G. If g E G, then pg E pG = H , and so pg = ciyi = pcizi.
congruence class of n mod p", and cls a denotes the congruence class of
a mod p). Clearly, f is a surjection and kerf = B, so that G/B z U(Zp) E
Zp-, . On the other hand, G/B = (A @ B)/B r A, and so A z Zp-, .
x x x
Hence, p(g - cizi) = 0 and g - cizi E G[p]. Therefore, g - cizi =
bikizi + ajxj, so that g = (c, + biki)zi + ajxj E L + M . E l
+
We shall show that B is cyclic by showing that [I p] is a generator. Let
us prove, by induction on m > 0, that
Corollary 6.6. Every finite abelian group G is a direct sum of cyclic groups: (1 + P ) ~ "= 1 mod pm+l and (1 + P)~'"$ 1 mod ptn+2.
G xi=,(xi), where xi has order mi, and
= + + +
If m = 0, then 1 p r 1 mod p and 1 p 1 mod p2. For the inductive
m,Im,I.-.lm,- step, the assumed congruence gives (1 + p)*m*l= ((1 + p)pm)p= (1 + kpnril)p 7
for some integer lc; the assumed incongruence gives pKk. The binomial theo-
rem gives (1 + kp"+')P = 1 + 12ptnC2 for some I. Hence, (1 + p)p"'" z
Proof. Let the primary decomposition of G be G = xi=,
Gpi. By the basis
theorem, we may assume that each Gpi is a direct sum of cyclic groups; let
1 mod p"t2 and (1 + p)""*' +
f lp1n+3
1 mod p ~ " ~ . It follows that (1 + p)"-' f
1 mod p", and so [I + p] has order pn-'. FB4
' The basis theorem was proved by E. Schering (1868) and, independently, by L. Kronecker
(1 870). Here is another proof of the basis theorem.
6. Finite Direct Products The Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups 131
130
Lemma 6.8. If G = (x,, . . . , x,,) and if a,, . . . , a,, are relatively prime integers, The Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups
then there is a generating set of G comprised of n elements one of which is
C;=, aixi. We have not yet answered a basic question about finite abelian groups: When
are two such groups G and H isomorphic? Since both G and H are direct
Proof. By Lemma VI.4 (in Appendix VI), there is a unimodular n x n matrix sums of cyclic groups, your first guess is that G z H if they have the same
A with integer entries (i.e., det A = 1) whose first row is a,, . . ., a,. Define number of summands of each kind; since H, z Z,@ H,, however, one had
Y = AX, where X is the column vector with entries x,, . . ., x,,. The entries better try to count primary cyclic summands of each kind. But this leads to a
y,, . . . ,yn of the column vector Y are linear combinations of the xi, hence are serious problem. Now can we count summands at all? To do so would re-
elements of G; moreover, y, = x:=,
aixi.Now X = A-'AX = A-' Y. Since A
is unimodular, all the entries of A-I are also integers. It follows that each xi
quire that the number of primary cyclic summands of any given kind is the
same for every decomposition of G. That is, we seek an analogue of the
is a Z-linear combination of the y's, and so G = (y,, . . ., y,,). fundamental theorem of arithmetic in which the analogue of a prime number
is a primary cyclic group.
Theorem 6.9 (Basis Theorem). Every finite abelian group G is a direct surn of
cyclic groups. Lemma 6.10. If a p-primary abelian group G has a decomposition G =
Ci
into a direct sum of cyclic groups, then the number of Ci having order 2 p"" is
Proof(E. Schenkman). Choose n smallest such that G can be generated by a
d(p"G/pnilG), the minimal number of generators of p"G/pnil~.
set with n elements. Among all generating sets (x, ,. . . ,x,,] of size n, choose
one containing an element x, of smallest order k;that is, no generating set of Proof. Let Bk be the direct sum of all Ci, if any, of order pk; say, there are
size n contains an element of order less than k. If H = (x,, ..., x,), then H is bk 2 0 such summands in 13,. Thus,
a proper subgroup of G (by the minimal choice of n), so that an induction on
161 gives H a direct sum of cyclic groups. We claim that G = (x,) @ H. It
sufficestoshowthat(x,)nH=O,for(x,)+H=(xl ,..., x , , ) = G . I f z ~ Now pnG= pnBU+,0...0 pnB,, because pnB, = . - -= pnB, = 0, and p " + ' ~=
( x l ) n H a n d z f 0, t h e n z = a , x , = C f = , a i x i , for a, ,... , ~ , , E and
Z O i
a, < k. If d is the gcd of a,, . .., a,,, define g = -(a,/d)x, +
Now the order of g is smaller than k , for dg = 0 and d 5 a, < k. But a,/d, .. .,
x7=, (ai/d)xi.
p'i1B,,+2@-..~p11t1~,. Therefore, p n G / p n + 1 G ~ p " B n + , @ ( p " B , + 2 / p n t 1 ~ , , + 2 ) @
. . @ (p"B,/pntl~,),and so Exercise 6.7 gives d(p"G/pnilG) = bn+, + b,,,, +
... + b,. DL!
an/d are relatively prime, so that the lemma gives a generating set of G of size
n one of whose elements is g; this contradicts the minimality of k. Definition. If G is a finite p-primary abelian group and n 2 0, then
6.1. Use the basis theorem to show that if G is a finite abelian group of order n, and The important thing to notice now is that Up(n, G) is a number depending
if k[n, then G contains a subgroup of order Ic. on G but not upon any particular decomposition of G into a direct sum of
6.2. Use the basis theorem to give a new proof of Theorem 2.19. cyclic groups.
6.3. A finite abelian group G is generated by its elements of largest order. Show, by Theorem 6.11. If G is a finite p-primary abelian group, then any two decompo-
considering D,, that this may not be true of nonabelian groups. sitions of G into direct sums of cyclic groups have the same number of summands
6.4. If G is a finite p-primary abelian group, and if x E G has largest order, then (x) of each kind. More precisely, for every n 2 0, the number of cyclic summands
is a direct summand of G. of order pnil is Up(n, G).
6.5. If G is an abelian group with invariant factors (m,, .. .,m,), then the order of G is
n miand the minimal exponent of G is m,. Proof. For any decomposition of G into a direct sum of cyclic groups, the
lemma shows that there are exactly Up(n, G) cyclic summands of order pnil.
6.6. If G is a finite p-primary group, then @(G)= pG. Conclude, from the Burnside The result follows, for U,(n, G) does not depend on the choice of decomposi-
basis theorem, that d(G),the minimal number of generators of G, is dim G/pG.
tion.
6.7. If G and H are elementary abelian p-groups, then d(G @ Hj = d(G) + d(H).
6.8. Let G be a direct sum of b cyclic groups of order pn'. If n < m, then ~ " G / ~ " +is' G
CoroPlary 6.12. If 6 and H are finite p-primary abelian groups, then G r H if
elementary and d(pnG/p"+l G) = b. and only if Up(n, G) = Up(n, H) for all rz 2 0.
132 6. Finite Direct Products Canonical Forms; Existence
ProoJ If q : G -, H is an isomorphism, then q(pt1G)= pnH for all n 2 0, and p-primary. For example, let
so q induces isomorphisms pnG/p"+'G z pnH/p"+'H for all n. Therefore,
Up(n, G) = U,(n, H) for all n.
Conversely, if G and H each have direct sum decompositions into cyclic The elementary divisors of G are (2,2, 2,4; 3, 9), while the invariant factors of
groups with the same number of summands of each kind, then it is easy to G are (2,2, 6, 36).
construct an isomorphism G -+ H. El
Theorem 6.13 (Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian group^).^ If G and H 6.1 1. (i) If p is a prime and e 2 1, then the number of nonisomorphic abelian groups
of order p" is 9 ( e ) , the number of partitions of e.
are finite abelian groups, then G E' W if and only if, for all primes p, they have
the same elementary divisors.
n ni
(ii) The number of nonisomorphic abelian groups of order n = pPi is
where the pi are distinct primes and the ei are positive integers.
9(ei),
(iii) How many abelian groups are there of order 864 = 2533?
Proof. The proof follows from two facts, whose easy proofs are left to the
reader: 6.12. (i) Let G = (a) x (b), where both (a) and (b) are cyclic of order p2. If H =
(pa) x (pb), compare Up(n,G) with Up(n,H) and Up(n, GIH).
(1) If q : G -+ H is a homomorphism, then q(Gp) 5 H, for all primes p; (ii) Let G and H be finite abelian groups. If, for each k, both G and H have the
(2) G z H if and only if G, E H, for all primes p. same number of elements of order k, then G r H. (Compare Exercise 4.33.)
6.13. If G is a finite abelian group and H < G, then G contains a subgroup isomorphic
Corollary 6.14. Let G be a finite abelian group. to GIH. (Compare Exercise 4.29.)
(i) If G has invariant factors (m,, .. ., m,) and invariant factors ( k , , .. ., k,),
then s = t and 12, = mi for all i. Remark. The best solution to this exercise uses character groups; see Theo-
(ii) Two finite abelian groups G and H are isomorphic if and only if they have rem 10.55.
the same invariant factors.
6.14. What are the elementary divisors of U(Z,,), the multiplicative group of all con-
Proof. (i) The hypothesis gives two direct sum decompositions: G = zj=,Ci gruence classes [a] mod n with (a, n) = l?
and G = z:=, Dj, where C, is cyclic of order mi, Dj is cyclic of order kcj,
m, lm21.. .I m,, and k, 1 k, 1.. . I k,. By Exercise 6.5, m, = I<,, for each is the mini-
6.15. Use the Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups to prove the Funda-
mental Theorem of Arithmetic. (Hint. If n = p,"'.. .p,"', then Exercise 2.62(ii)
mal exponent of G. By Exercise 6.10(i) below, the complementary summands gives ZlnZ r nf=,
Zlp7Z.)
x::
Ci and G = - . D,, are isomorphic, and the proof is completed by
induction on max(s, t ) .
(ii) This follows at once from (i).
Canonical Forms; Existence
If one arranges the elementary divisors of a p-primary group in ascending
order, then they coincide with the invariant factors of G. However, elemen- We digress from the study of groups to apply the results of the preceding two
tary divisors and invariant factors can differ for groups G which are not sections to Linear Algebra; we shall prove the existence and uniqueness of the
rational and Jordan canonical forms of a matrix. This material will not be
This theorem was proved in 1879 by G. Frobenius and L. Stickelberger. used until Chapter 8, but the reader will be pleased to see that the difficult
134 6. Finite Direct Products Canonical Forms; Existence 135
portion of a first course in Linear Algebra can be done more easily from a
more advanced viewpoint (it is assumed that the reader has already learned 6.16. A commutative ring R itself is an R-module (if r, s E R, define scalar multiplica-
much of this, and so our pace is not leisurely). This project is one of transla- tion rs to be the given product of two elements in R). Show that the submodules
tion, and so we first introduce a new vocabulary. The reader unfamiliar with of R are its ideals.
the rudiments of principal ideal domains can consult Appendix VI.
6.17. (i) The intersection of any family of submodules of an R-module V is itself a
Definition. Let R be a ring. An abelian group V is an R-rnodzde if there is a submodule.
function s: R x V -+ V (called scalar multiplication and denoted by (a, v) t-, (ii) If X is a subset of V, let (X) denote the submodule generated by X; that is,
av) such that, for every a, ,!I,1 E R and u, v E V : (X) is the intersection of all the submodules of V containing X. If X J; a,
show that (X) is the set of all R-linear combirtatioms of elements of X; that
(i) (ap)v = a(Pv); is,
+ +
(ii) (a p)v = av pv; (X) = {finite sums 2 rixi:ri E R and xi E X) .
(iii) a(u + v) = au + av; and In particular, the cyclic subrnodule generated by v, denoted by (v), is
(iv) l u = v. {rv: r E R).
When R is a field, an R-module is just a vector space. Thus, one may think 6.18. An R-module V is called finitely generated if there is a finite subset X wth
of an R-module as a vector space over a ring. Here we are concerned with v = (X).
(i) If R is a field, prove that an R-module V is finitely generated if and only if it
R-modules for R a principal ideal domain (we shall abbreviate "principal
is finite-dimensional.
ideal domain" to PID). Our favorite PID's are Z and k[x], the ring of all (ii) Prove that an abelian group (Z-module) G is finite if and only if G is finitely
polynomials in x with coefficients in a field k. generated and every element in G has finite order.
EXAMPLE 6.1. The terms abelian group and Z-module are synomyms. Every 6.19. Let VT be the 1c[x]-module of Example 6.2. Prove that W is a submodule if
abelian group is a Z-module, for axioms (i) through (iv) always hold for and only if W is a subspace of V for which T(W) I W (W is often called a
scalars in Z. T-invariant subspace of V ) .
EXAMPLE 6.2. Let k be a field and let R = k[x]. If V is a vector space over k
and T: V + V is a linear transformation, then V can be made into a k[x]- Definition. If V and W are R-modules, then their direct srm is the direct sum
module, denoted by VT, by defining f(x)v = f(T)v for all f(x) E Ic[x] and V @ W of abelian groups equipped with the scalar multiplication r(v, w) =
v E I/. In more detail, iff (x) = a, + alx+ a2x2+ . .. + at,xnE k[x], define (rv, rw).
abelian group" correctly into the language of R-modules: a "finite Z-module" nation v = ajwj; a fortiori, each u is a k[x]-linear combination of the w's,
is an abelian group of finite order. and so v T is a finitely generated k[x]-module. Also, every v E V is annihi-
We remark that Exercise 6.18(ii) is false if one drops the hypothesis that lated by some nonzero polynomial (this follows from the Cayley-Hamilton
the group G is abelian. The question (posed in 1902) whether a finitely gener- theorem or, more simply, from the observation that since dim(V) = n, the
ated group G of exponent e is finite became known as Burnside's problen~.~ n + 1 vectors v, Tv, T2v, . . ., Tt'v must be linearly dependent, and so there is
Burnside proved that if G 5 GL(n, @) is finitely generated and has exponent some nonzero polynomial in T that annihilates every vector v).
e, then G is finite. There is an "obvious" candidate for a counterexample, and Since VT is a finite k[x]-module, Theorem 6.15 shows that it is a direct
it was actually shown to be one, when e is a large odd number, by Adian and sum of cyclic submodules. By Exercise 6.19, these summands are cyclic
Novikov in 1968 (in 1975, Adian showed that the group is infinite for all odd T-invariant subspaces.
e 2 665). The proof is very long and intricate; a much simpler "geometric"
proof was found by A. Ol'shanskii in 1982. In 1994, S. Ivanov showed that Lemma 6.17. Let T: V -+ V be a linear transformation on a finite-dimensional
there are infinite finitely generated groups of exponent e = 2kw, where k 2 48 vector space T/.
and m 2 1 is any odd number.
(i) A subspace W is a cyclic T-invariant subspace of V if and only i j there is
a vector v E W and an integer s 2 1 so that (v, Tv, T ~ U..,., T"-'v) is a
Theorem 6.15. If V is a finite R-rnodzrle, where R is a PID, then there are
basis of W.
vl, ..., Vwith
v = (u, ) 0' ' ' 0(us). (ii) Moreover, if Tsv = Cf;; aiTiv, then ord(v) is generated by g(x) =
xs - 1;:;aixi.
Moreover, the cyclic summands may be chosen to satisfy either of the following
conditions. If ord(vi) = (r,), then either: Pro05 (i) Consider the sequence v, Tv, T ~ V. ., . in W; since V is finite-dimen-
(i) each ri is a power of some irreducible element in R; or sional, there is an integer s 2 1 and a linearly independent subset (v, Tv, T2v,
(ii) r11r2/...I rs. ..., T"-'u) which becomes linearly dependent when Tsv is adjoined. There-
fore, there are ai E k with TSv= Cf; ai Tiv. If w E W, then w = f (T)v for
Proof. The proofs of the corresponding group-theoretic theorems translate some f(x) E k[x], and an easy induction on degree f shows that w lies in the
routinely to proofs for modules. The decomposition of the first type arises subspace spanned by (v, Tv, T2v, ..., Ts-'v); it follows that the subset is a
from Corollary 6.12 (using the primary decomposition and elementary divi- basis of W.
sors), and the decomposition of the second type arises from Corollary 6.6 (ii) It is clear that g(x) E ord(v). If h(x) E ord(v), that is, if h(T)v = 0, then the
(using invariant factors). division algorithm gives q(x), r(x) E k[x] with h(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) and
either r(x) = 0 or degree r(x) idegree g(x) = s. Now r(x) E ord(v); hence
Corollary 6.16. Let T: V -+ V be a linear transformation on a finite-dimen- r(x) = z:=, /3,xj, t 5 s - 1, and I:=,
independence of (v, Tv, T2v, . . ., Ts-'v).
P,T~V= 0, contradicting the linear
sional vector space over a field k. Then V = W, 0... 0 Ws, where each K. =
(v,) is a cyclic T-invariant szlbspace. Moreover, the vectors v,, . .. , us can be
chosen with ord(vi) = (fi(x)), so that either: We remind the reader of the correspondence between linear transforma-
(i) each f;(x) is a power of an irreducible polynomial in k[x]; or tions and matrices. Let V be a vector space over a field 12 with an ordered
basis (u,, . . ., u,), 'and let T: V -+ V be a linear transformation. For each j,
(ii) f l ( ~ ) l f 2 ( ~ --lL(x)-
)1.
Tuj is a linear combination of the ui: there area, E k with
Proof. Regard V as a k[x]-module VT, as in Example 6.2. Since V is finite-
dimensional, it has a basis (w,, . . .,w,,); each vector v E V is a k-linear combi-
The rnnfrix of T relative to tire ordered basis (u,, .. ., u,) is defined to be
The restricter1 B~~rtisideProblena asks whether there is a function f(n, d) with IGi 5 f(n, d) for A = [a,]. Therefore, for each j, the coordinates of Tuj form the jth column
every finite group G having minimal exponent n and d generators. P. Hall and G. Higman (1956) of A.
proved that it suffices to find such a function for all prime powes n; A.L. Icostrikin (1959) found
such a function for all primes p; E.I. Zelmanov (1989) completed the proof by finding such a
function for all prime powers; see Vaughan-Lee (1993). lD@finili@n-If f (x) = x r + a,-,xr-' + ... + a, E k[x], where r 2 2, then the
138
if f(x) = x - a, then C(f ) is the 1 x 1 matrix [a]. Definition. A raiiorral canonical form is a matrix B that is the direct sum of
companion matrices C(f,),.... C(&) with f,(x)]f,(x)l.. .I&(x). The polyno-
ILernrna 6.18. Let T: W 4 W be a linear transformation on a finite-dimensional mials f,(x), f2(x), .... fq(x) are called the invariantfactors of B.
vector space W over k, and let W = W T = (v) be a cyclic k[x]-module. The
matrix of T relative to the basis {v, Tv, T2v, .... Ts-lv) of W is the s x s Theorem 6.19(ii) thus says that every matrix over a field k is similar to a
companion matrix C(g), where g(x) is the monic generator of ord(v). More- rational canonical form.
over, the characteristic polynomial of C(g) is &). Recall that the minirnumpolynomial of a matrix A is the monic polynomial
m(x) of smallest degree with m(A) = 0. The reader should look again at Exer-
ProoJ If 0 5 i < s- 1, then T(Tiv)= Tit'v, and T(Ts-'v) = T"V =zf~AaiTiv, cise 6.5 to realize that the characteristic polynomial of a rational canonical
form B is analogous to the order of a finite abelian group and the minimum
so that the matrix of T relative to the given basis is a companion matrix. The
Cayley-Hamilton theorem gives x(T) = 0, where ~ ( x is) the characteristic polynomial is analogous to the minimal exponent.
polynomial of C(g). Therefore ~ ( xE) ord(v) = (g(x)), so that g(x)l~(x).Hence In Chapter 8, we will study groups whose elements are nonsingular ma-
s = degree ~ ( x2) degree g(x) = s, and so ~ ( x= ) g(x). trices. Since the order of a group element is the same as the order of any of its
conjugates, the order of such a matrix is the order of its rational canonical
Definition. Let A be an r x r matrix and let B be an s x s matrix; their direct form. It is difficult to compute powers of companion matrices, and so we
szm is the (r + s) x (r + s) matrix introduce another canonical form (when the field of entries is large enough)
whose powers are easily calculated.
Note that the direct sum of A and B is similar to the direct sum of B and A.
Lemma 6.20 is very useful because the matrices Ki are "disjoint." For Canonical Forms; Uniqueness
example,
Our discussion is still incomplete, for we have not yet considered uniqueness;
can a matrix A be similar to several rational canonical forms? Can A be
similar to several Jordan canonical forms? We have used the module ana-
and logue of the basis theorem; we are now going to use the module analogue of
the fundamental theorem.
6.21. Prove the first isomorphism theorem for modules. (Hint. Since modules are
abelian groups, the reader need check only that the isomorphism in Theorem
If j + 1 < s, then Tuj = auj + uj+,; if j + 1 = s, then ( T - ar~)j+'= ( T - ME)"= 2.24 is an R-homomorphism.)
0, by the Cayley-Hamilton theorem (Lemma 6.18 identifies f (x) = (x - a)I 6.22. Every cyclic R-module V = (v) is R-isomorphic to R/ord(v). Conclude that two
as the characteristic polynomial of C(f), hence of T). Therefore Tu,-, = cyclic modules are R-isomorphic if and only if they have generators with the
aus-,. The matrix J is thus a Jordan block; it is similar to C(f) because both same order ideal.
represent the same linear transformation relative to different ordered bases
6.23. If R is a PID and a, b E R are relatively prime, then R/(ab) 2 R/(a) @ R/(b).
of W.
6. Finite Direct Products Canonical Forms; Uniqueness 143
142
Proof. If q : V T + W S is a k[x]-homomorphism, then q(f(x)v) = f(x)qv for Proof. The proof is essentially the same as that of Theorem 6.25, with com-
all v E V and all f(x) E k[x]. In particular, this equation holds for every con- panion matrices replaced by Jordan blocks.
stant "f(x),
. so that q is a k-linear transformation,
, - .and. for f(x) = x, so that
q(xv) = xqv. But xv = Tv and x(qv) = Sqv, as deared.
Note that the rational canonical form of a matrix A is absolutely unique,
The converse is easy: if equality q (f (x)v) = f (x)qv holds for every v E V
whereas the Jordan canonical form is unique only up to a permutation of the
whenever f (x) constant or f (x) = x, then it holds for every polynomial.
Jordan blocks occurring in it.
This discussion of canonical forms has the disadvantage of not showing
Theorem 6.24. If A and B are n x n matrices over a field k, then A and B are how to compute the invariant factors of any particular matrix, and a Linear
similar if and only if the corresponding k[x]-modules they,determine are k[x]- Algebra course should include a discussion of the Smith casronicalformwhich
isomorphic. provides an algorithm for displaying them; see Cohn (1982). Let A be an
n x n matrix over a field k. Using elementary row and column operations
Proof. Construct the modules determined by the matrices: let V be the vector over the ring k[x], one can put the matrix xE - A into diagonal form (d,(x),
space of all column vectors of n-tuples of elements in k; define T, S: V -+ V by ..., d,,(x)), where each di(x) is a monic polynomial or 0, and d,(x)ld,(x)(. . .
Tv = Av and Sv = Bv. As usual, write V T to denote V made into a k[x]- Id,(x). The invariant factors of A turn out to be those di(x) which are neither
module by xv = T(v) = Av, and write vSto denote V made into a module by constant nor 0.
xu = S(v) = Bv. There are shorter proofs of Theorems 6.25 and 6.26, involving matrix com-
If A and B are similar, then there is a nonsingular matrix P with PAP-' = pu tations; for example, see Albert (194 1).
B. Now P defines an invertible linear transformation q: V 4 V by qv = Pv.
We claim that q is a k[x]-isomorphism. By Lemma 6.23, it suffices to show
that q T = Sq, and this follows from the given matrix equation P T = SP.
Conversely, assume that there is a k[x]-isomorphism q : VT.+ V S . By 6.24. If A is a companion matrix, then its characteristic and minimum polynomials
Lemma 6.23, q T = Sq; since rp is a bijection, qTq-' = S. If P is the matrix are equal.
of q relative to the standard basis of i/, this gives PAP-' = B, and so A and
6.25. (i) Give an example of two nonisomorphic finite abelian groups having the
B are similar. El
same order and the same minimal exponent.
(ii) Give an example of two complex n x n matrices which have the same char-
Theorem 6.25. Two n x n matrices A and B over a field k are similar if and acteristic polynomials and the same minimum polynomials, yet which are
only if they have the same invariant factors. Moreover, a matrix is similar to not similar.
exactly one rational canonical form.
144 6. Finite Direct Products The Krull-Schmidt Theorem 145
6.26. If b and b' are nonzero elements of a field k, then It is easy to see that if G is a direct product, then the maps Aixi are normal
endomorphisms of G.
are similar.
Lemma 6.27.
6.27. Let A and B be n x 11 matrices with entries in a field Ic. If fc is a subfield of a field (i) If q~ and are normal endomorphisms of a group G, then so is their
K, then A and B are similar over k if and only if they are similar over K. (Hint. composite rp 0 $.
A rational canonical form for A over k is also a rational canonical form for A (ii) If rp is a normal endomorphism of G and if H 4 G, then q(H) o G.
over K.) (iii) If rp is a normal autornorphism of a group G, then ip-' is also normal.
6.28 (Jordan Decompositions). Let k be an algebraically closed field.
+
(i) Every matrix A over k can be written A = D N, where D is diagonalizable Proof. The proofs are routine calculations.
(i.e., similar to a diagonal matrix), N is nilpotent, and DN = ND. (It may be
shown that D and N are unique.) Here is a new way to combine endomorphisms of a group; unfortunately,
(ii) Every nonsingular matrix A over k can be written A = DU, where D is the new function is not always an endomorphism.
diagonalizable, U is ztnipotent (i.e., U - E is nilpotent), and DU = UD. (It
may be shown that D and U are unique.) (Hint: Define U = E + ND-I.) Definition. If rp and $ are endomorphisms of a group G, then rp + $: G 4 G
is the function defined by x I+ rp(x)$(x).
= Gi+l(Hn Gi) = Gi+,(Hn ~i.1) k Gi+,, This chain stops because G has ACC; let t be the smallest integer for which
I<, = I<,+,= K, +,
= .- . We claim that t = 0, which will prove the result. If
and so GZ= Gz+, = ..-. A similar argument holds for ascending chains. 2 1, then there is x E K, x $ K t - , ; that is, <pi(x)= 1 and qi-'(x) f 1.
(ii) If G = H x Kythen every normal subgroup of H is also a normal Since is a surjection, there is g E G with x = q(g). Hence, 1 = qt(x) =
subgroup of G. heref fore, every (ascending or descending) chain of normal qr+l(g)yso that E K,+, = Kt. Therefore, 1 = qt(g) = qt-l(q(g)) = rpt-l(x)y
subgroups of H is a chain of normal subgroups of G, hence must stop. a contradiction. *bus, is an injection.
Lemma 6*30*If has either chain condition, then G is a direct product of a ~ ~ G ~An ie n~~ o im o~r p ~~ i s.m if there is a positive integer
of G is
finite number of indecomposable groups.
k such that q k = 0, where 0 denotes the endomorphism which sends every
Proo$ Call a group good if it satisfies the conclusion of this lemma; call it bad element of G into 1.
otherwise. An indecomposable group is good and, if both A and B are good
groups, then so is A x B. Therefore, a bad group G is a direct product, say, Theorem 6-32 (Fitting's Lemma, 1934). Let G have both chain conditions and
G = U x V, with both U and V proper subgroups, and with U or V bad. let 9 be a normal endomorphism of G. Then G = K x H, where K and H are
Suppose there is a bad group G. Define Ho = G. By induction, for every n, each invariant under q (i.e., rp(K) I K and q(H) 5 qIK is nilpotent, and
there are bad subgroups Ho, H I , . .., H, such that each Hi is a proper bad 9 I H is a surjection.
The Krull-Schmidt Theorem
148 6. Finite Direct Products 149
Corollary 6.33. If G is an indecomposable group having both chain conditions, are two decompositions of G into indecomposable factors, then s = t and there
then every normal endomorphisrn q of G is either nilpotent or an automorphism. is a reindexing so that Hi E K i for all i. Moreover, given any r between 1 and
s, the reindexing may be chosen so that
ProoJ By Fitting's lemma, G = K x H with q l K nilpotent and q l H sur- G = H1 x x H, x K,+, x x K,.
jective. Since G is indecomposable, either G = I< or G = H. In the first case,
U, is nilpotent. In the second case, U, is surjective and, by Lemma 6.31, (p is an
Remark. The last conclusion is stronger than saying that the factors are
0
automorphism. E l determined up to isomorphism; one can replace factors of one decomposition
by suitable factors from the other.
Lemma 6.34. Let G be an indecomposable group with both chain conditions,
and let q and $ be normal nilpotent endomorphisms of G. If q + $ is an ProoJ We shall give the proof when r = 1; the reader may complete the proof
endomorphism of G, then it is nilpotent. for general r by inducton. Given the first decomposition, we must find a
reindexing of the K's so that Hi E K i for all i and G = H , x K , x .-.x K t .
+
Proof. We have already observed that if U, $ is an endomorphism, then it Let 71,: G -,Hi and A,: Hi c,G be the projections and inclusions from the first
is normal, and so Corollary 6.33 says that it is either nilpotent or an auto- decomposition, a n d let oj: G + K j and pj: K j c,G be the projections and
morphism. If U, + II, is an automorphism, then Lemma 6.27 (iii) says that its inclusions from the second decomposition. The maps Aini and pjoj are normal
inverse y is also normal. For each x E G, x = ( q + $)yx = qy(x)$y(x), SO endomorphisms of G.
that if we define A = q y and p = $y, then 1, = A + p. In particular, x-' = By Lemma 6.28, every partial sum pjoj is a normal endomorphism of G.
A(x-')p(xml) and, taking inverses, x = p(x)A(x);that is, A + p = p + A. The Hence, every partial sum of
equation A(A + p) = ( A + p)A (which holds because A + p = lG)implies that
Ap = pa. If follows that the set of all endomorphisms of G obtained from A
and p forms an algebraic system4 in which the binomial theorem holds: for
every integer m > 0,
( A + p Y = CI
(9 qiirn-i.
is a normal endomorphism of H I . Since lH1= rr, A, is not nilpotent, Lemma
6.29 and Corollary 6.35 give an index j with an automorphism. We
reindex so that n , p , o , A, is an automorphism of H I ; let y be its inverse.
We claim that 0-,A,: H , -, K , is an isomorphism. The definition of y gives
This algebraic system (called a setnirirlg) is not a commutative ring because additive inverses (yn,pl)(O-lLl)= I,,. To compute the composite in the reverse order, let
need not exist.
150 6. Finite Direct Products Operator Groups
8 = o,A, yn,p,: K, -+ K,, and note that O2 = 13: 6.35. (i) Give an example of a subgroup that is not subnormal.
(ii) Give an example of a subnormal subgroup that is not a normal subgroup.
(iii) If G has a composition series and if H is subnormal in G, then G has a
(the term in brackets is lH1).Now lH1= I,, 0 lH1= yn,p, o, A,yn,p, o, A, = composition series one of whose terms is H.
yn,p, OG,~.,;it follows that I3 # 0 (lest l H 1= 0). Were 8 nilpotent, then 6' = 9 (iv) A group G has a composition series if and only if it has both chain condi-
would force 8 = 0. Therefore, 8 is an automorphism of K,, and so O2 = 9 tions on subnormal subgroups.
gives I3 = 1 (multiply each side by 8-I). It follows that oil.,: H, -+ K, is an
isomorphism (with inverse yn, pi).
Now o, sends K, x . - -x Kt into 1 while o,A, restricts to an isomorphism
on H,. Therefore Operator Groups
HI n(K, x ... x K,) = 1.
There is a generalization of modules that allows us to extend some of our
If we define G* = (H,, K, x x Kt) IGythen earlier theorems in a straightforward way. We present new results having old
proofs.
If x E G, then x = k,k,.. .kt, where kj E Kj. Since n,p, is an isomorphism, the Definition. Let Q be a set and let G be a group. Then Q is a set of operators
map p: G -+ G, defined by x H n,p, (k,)k, .. .k,, is an injection with image on G and G is an $2-gronq if there is a function Q x G -+ G, denoted by
G*. By Lemma 6.31, fl is a surjection; that is, G = G* = H, x K, x . .. x Kt. (o, g) I-+ og, such that
Finally, = (og)(oh)
K , x ... x K, z G/H, r H, x x H,,
for all o E Q and g, h E G.
so that the remaining uniqueness assertions follow by induction on maxjs, t ) .
Definition. If G and H are Q-groups, then a function 9 : G -+ H is an $2-map if
9 is a homomorphism such that cp(wg) = o q ( g ) for all o E Q and g E G.
If G is an a-group, then a subgroup H 5 G is an admissale subg~oupif
o h E H for all o E Q and h E H.
6.29. Show that the following groups are indecomposable: Z; Z,,; Q; S,,; I),,,;Q,;
simple groups; nonabelian groups of order p3; A*; the group T of order 12 (see EXAMPLE 6.3. If Q = @, then an Q-group is just a group, every homomor-
Theorem 4.24). phism is an Q-map, and every subgroup is admissible.
6.30. Assuming the Basis Theorem, use the ICrull-Schmidt theorem to prove the EXAMPLE 6.4. If G is an abelian group and Q is a ring, then every Q-module
Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups. is an a-group, every Q-homomorphism is an Q-map, and every submodule is
6.31. If G has both chain conditions, then there is no proper subgroup H of G with admissible.
G r H, and there is no proper normal subgroup K of G with GIK r G'.
EXAMPLE 6.5. If Q is the set of all conjugations of a group G, then G is an
6.32. Assume that G has both chain conditions. If there is a group H with G x G r SZ-group whose admissible subgroups are the normal subgroups. An R-map
H x H, then G r H. (Hint.Use Lemma 6.29(ii).) of G to itself is a normal endomorphism. An Q-isomorphism between Q-
6.33.5 Let G have both chain conditions. If G E A x B and G r A x C, then B z C. groups is called a central isomorpbtism.
6.34. Let G be the additive group of Z[x]. Prove that G x Z r G x Z x Z, but that EXAMPLE 6.6. If Q is the set of all automorphisms of a group G, then G is an
Z*ZxZ. SZ-group whose admissible subgroups are the characteristic subgroups.
EXAMPLE 6.7. If Q is the set of all endomorphisms of a group G, then G is an
Definition. A subgroup H I G is subnormal if there is a normal series
a-group whose admissible subgroups are the fully invariant subgroups.
All the elementary results of Chapter 2 (and their proofs!) carry over for
R. Hirshon (Atner. Math. Monthly 76 (1969), pp. 1037-1039) proves that if A is finite and B and Q-groups. For example, the intersection of admissible subgroups is admissi-
C are arbitrary groups, then A x B r A x C implies B r C. ble and, if H and I( are admissible subgroups at least one of which is normal,
152 6. Finite Direct Products Operator Groups 153
then HK is admissible. If H is a normal admissible subgroup of an R-group (v,, . . . , v,,) depends only on V. For i 2 0, define subspaces V, of V by =
G, then the quotient group G/H is an R-group (where one defines w(gH) = ( v ~ +... ~ ,, v,,), the subspace spanned by ( v , + ~..,., v,,). Then V = Vo 2 Vl 2
(wg)H). The kernel of an R-map is an admissible normal subgroup, and the . 2 T/, = 0 is an Q-composition series for V (where R = I ) because the fac-
first, hence the second and third, isomorphism theorems hold, as does the tor spaces are all isomorphic to 12, hence are R-simple. Therefore, the dimen-
correspondence theorem. The direct product of R-groups H and I< becomes sion of V is well defined, for it is the length of an R-composition series of V.
an R-group if one defines o(h, k) = (oh, wk). Here are two more applications. Any two chief composition series of a
group have centrally isomorphic factor groups (Q = conjugations), and any
Defioition. An R-group G is Q-simple if has no admissible subgroups other two characteristic series in which the factor groups are products of isomor-
than 1 and G. phic simple groups have isomorphic factor groups (Q = automorphisms).
An admissible normal subgroup H of an 0-group G is maximal such if and Theorem 6.38 (Fitting's Lemma). Let G be an Q-group having both chain
only if G/H is R-simple. conditions on admissible subgroups, and let q be an R-endomorphism of G.
If $2is a ring, then an R-module V with no submodules other than 0 and V Then G = H x K, where H and K are admissible subgroups, cpl H is nilpotent,
is an R-simple group. In particular, when 52 is a field, a one-dimensional and cp 1 K is a surjec: lm.
Q-module is R-simple. If R is the set of all conjugations of G, then R-simple
groups are just simple groups in the usual sense. If 0 is the set of all automor- Here is an application. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over a
phisms of a finite group G, then G is a-simple (or characteristically simple) if field k and let T: V -+ V be a linear transformation. Then V = U @ W, where
and only if it is a direct product of isomorphic simple groups (Theorem 5.26). U and W are T-invariant, TI U is nilpotent, and TI W is nonsingular. We have
We call attention to three generalizations of results from groups to R- talten Q = lc and observed that TI W surjective implies TI W nonsingular. The
groups (the proofs are routine adaptations of the proofs we have given for matrix interpretation of Fitting's lemma thus says that every n x n matrix
groups). over a field k is similar to the direct sum of a nilpotent matrix and a non-
singular matrix.
Definition. Let G be an R-groups. An Q-series for G is a normal series An Q-group G is Q-indecornposobIe if it is not the direct product of non-
trivial admissible subgroups.
with each Gi admissible; an Q-composition series is an R-series whose factor . Theorem 6.39 (IIgruBB-ScQnmid&). Let G be an Q-group having both chain condi-
groups are Q-simple. tions on admissible subgroups. If
Extensions and Cohomology Since K,, = I , we have Kt,-, = Q,, but something more interesting happens
at the next stage; K,-Z/K,,i = Q .-,,
so that Kt,-, is an extension of Kt,-, by
Q,-,. If we could solve the extension problem, then we could recapture K,,-,
-, -,
from K,, and Q,, ; that is, from Q,, and Q,,-, . Once we have Kt,-,, we can
attack K,,-, i n a similar manner, for Kt,-,/I<,,-, = Q,,-,. Thus, a solution of
the extension problem would allow us to recapture K t , - , from Q,, Q,,-,, and
Qn-2. Climbing up the composition series to KO= G, we could recapture
G from Q,,, ..., Q,. The group G is thus a "product" of the Qi, and the
Jordan-Holder theorem says that the simple groups Qi in this "factorization"
of G are uniquely determined by G. We could thus survey all finite groups if
we knew all finite simple groups and if we could solve the extension problem.
In particular, we could survey all finite solvable groups if we could solve the
extension problem.
A solution of theextension problem consists of determining from K and Q
all the groups G Is? which G/K zs Q. But what does "determining" a group
A group G having a normal subgroup K can be "factored" into K and G/K. mean? We gave two answers to this question at the end of Chapter 1 when
The study of extensions involves the inverse question: Given K a G and G/K, we considered "knowing" a group. One answer is that a multiplication table
to what extent can one recapture G? for a group G can be constructed; a second answer is that the isomorphism
class of G can be characterized. In 1926,O. Schreier determined all extensions
in the first sense (see Theorem 7.34). On the other hand, no solution is known
in the second sense. For example, given K and Q, Schreier's solution does not
The Extension Problem allow us to compute the number of nonisomorphic extensions of K by Q
(though it does give an upper bound).
Definition. If K and Q are groups, then an exferrsion of K by Q is a group G
having a normal subgroup K , z K with GIK, z Q.
EXERCISES
As a mnemonic device, K denotes kernel and Q denotes quotient. We think 7.1. If K and Q are finite, then every extension G of K by Q has order II<IIQI. If G has
of G as a "product" of K and Q. n
a normal series with factor groups Q,,, ..., Q,, then IGI = IQil.
7.2. (i) Show that A, is an extension of V by Z 3 .
EXAMPLE 7.1. Both Z6 and S, are extensions of Z, by H,. However, Z,is an (ii) Find all the extensions of Z , by V.
extension of b, by Z,, but S, is not such an extension (for S, has no normal
7.3. If p is prime, every nonabelian group of order p3 is an extension of Z , by Z , x Z,.
subgroup of order 2). (Hint.Exercise 4.7.)
EXAMPLE 7.2. For any groups K and Q, the direct product K x Q is an 7.4. Give an example of an extension of K by Q that does not contain a subgroup
extension of K by Q as well as an extension of Q by K. isomorphic to Q.
7.5. If (a, b) = 1 and K and Q are abelian groups of orders a and b, respectively, then
The extension problem (formulated by 0. Holder) is to find all exten- there is only one (to isomorphism) abelian extension of K by Q.
sions of a given group K by a given group Q. We can better understand the
7.6. Which of the following properties, when enjoyed by both IC and Q, is also enjoyed
Jordan-Holder theorem in light of this problem. Let a group G have a com- by every extension of K by Q? (i) finite; (ii) p-group; (iii) abelian; (iv) cyclic; (v)
"position series solvable; (vi) nilpotent; (vii) ACC; (viii) DCC; (ix)periodic (every element has finite
G=K,>K1~..->K,-,~Kn=1 order); (x) torsioir-free (every element other than 1 has infinite order).
Automorphism Groups
156 7. Extensions and Cohomology 157
-
We conclude that nonisomorphic groups can have isomorphic automor-
Automorphism Groups phism groups.
The coming construction is essential for the discussion of the extension prob- EXAMPLE 7.4. If G is an elementary abelian group of order pH,then Aut(G)
lem; it is also of intrinsic interest.
Gun7 PI.
Definition. The automorphism group of a group G, denoted by Aut(G), is the This follows from Exercise 2.78: G is a vector space over Z, and every
set of all the automorphisms of G under the operation of composition. automorphism is a nonsingular linear transformation.
(ii) Inn(G) a Aut(G) and G/Z(G) r Inn(G). .-, The function a I-+ a-I is now an automorphism of G, so that G has exponent
2; that is, G is a vector space over Z,. If JGJz 2, then dim G 2 2 and there
ProoJ (i) If a E G, let ya denote conjugation by a. Define q : NG(H)-+ Aut(H)
exists a nonsingular linear transformation q : G -+G other than 1.
by a H yal H (note that yal H E Aut(H) because a E NG(H));q is easily seen to
Recall that if R is a ring, then U ( R )denotes its group of units:
be a homomorphism. The following statements are equivalent: a E ker q ;
y,lH is the identity on H; aha-' = h for all h E H; a E CG(H). By the first U(R) = (r E R: there is s E R with sr = 1 = rs].
isomorphism theorem, CG(H)a NG(H)and NG(H)/CG(H)s im q 5 Aut(H).
(ii) If H = G, then NG(G)= G, CG(G)= Z(G), and im q = Inn(G). There- Lemma 7.2. If G is a cyclic group of order n, then Aut(G) z U(Z,).
=
fore, G/Z(G) Inn(G) is a special case of the isomorphism just established.
Proof. Let G = (a). If q E Aut(G), then q(a) = ak for some k; moreover, a'
To see that Inn(G) a Aut(G), take ya E Inn(G) and q E Aut(G). Then
qyoq-' = yqa E Inn(G), as the reader can check. E l must be a generator of G, so that (kc, n) = 1, by Exercise 2.20, and [k] E U(Z,).
It is routine to show that 69: Aut(G) + U(Zn), defined by O(q) = [k], is an
Definitiom. The group Aut(G)/Inn(G) is called the outer automovgrhism group
isomorphism.
of G.
Theorem 7.3.
7.3. Aut(V) r S3 z Aut(S3).
EXAMPLE (i) Aut(Z2)= 1; Aut(Z,) r Z,; if m 2 3, then Aut(Z,,) z Z, x Z,,-,.
(ii) If p is an odd prime, then Aut(Z,,) r Z,, where I = (p - l)pm-l.
The 4-group V consists of 3 involutions and 1, and so every q E Aut(V) (iii) If n = pi' ...p,e', where the pi are distinct primes and the ei > 0, then Aut(Z,)
permutes the 3 involutions: if X = V - {1), then the map q H (PIX is a Hi
r Aut(Z,), where q, = pri.
homomorphism Aut(V) 4 S, z S,. The reader can painlessly check that this
map is an isomorphism. Proof. (i) U(Z2) = 1 and U(Z,) = {[I], [- 11) E Z,. If m 2 3, then the result
The symmetric group S, consists of 3 involutions, 2 elements of order 3, is Theorem 5.44.
and the identity, and every q E Aut(S,) must permute the involutions: if Y = (ii) This is Theorem 6.7.
{(l 2), (1 3), (2 3)), then the map q r ql Y is a homomorphism Aut(S,) -+ (iii) If a ring R = R, x x R, is a direct product of rings (addition and
S, z S,; this map is easily seen to be an isomorphism. multiplication are coordinatewise), then it is easy to see that U(R) is the direct
158 7. Extensions and Cohomology
for some Ic. We shall show that if n # 6, then [&I # I TI I for k # 1. Assuming
product of groups U(R,) x ... x U(R,); moreover, the primary decomposi- this, then @(TI)= TI, and Lemma 7.4 completes the proof.
tion of the cyclic group Z,= Z,, x -.. x Z, is also a decomposition of Z, as Now I T, I = n(n - 1)/2. To count T,, observe first that there are
a direct product of rings. !El
Theorem 7.1 suggests the following class of groups: k-tuples of disjoint transpositions. Since disjoint transpositions commute and
there are k! orderings obtained from any k-tuple, we have
Definitio~.A group G is complete if it is centerless and every automorphism
of G is inner.
The question whether I T1I = I T,I leads to the question whether there is some
k > 1 such that
It follows from Theorem 7.1 (ii) that Aut(G) r G for every complete group.
We are now going to see that almost every symmetric group is complete. (4:) (n - 2)(n - 3)-*.(n- 2k + 1) = k!2k-1.
Since the right side of (*) is positive, we must have n 2 2k. Therefore, for
Lemma '7.4. An automorphism cp of S, preserves transpositions (cp(z) is a trans- fixed n,
position whenever z is) if and only if cp is inner. +
left side 2 (2k - 2)(2k - 3)-..(2k - 2k 1) = (2k - 2)!.
An easy induction shows that if k 2 4, then (2k - 2)! > /~!2~-',and so (*) can
P r o d If cp is inner, then it preserves the cycle structure of every permutation, hold only if k = 2 or Ic = 3. When k = 2, the right side is 4, and it easy to see
by Theorem 3.5. that equality never holds; we may assume, therefore, that k = 3. Since n 2 2k,
We prove, by induction on t 2 2, that there exist conjugations y,, .. .,y, we must have n 2 6. If n > 6, then the left side of (*) 2 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 = 120,
such that y;l.. .y;'cp fixes (1 2), . . .,(1 t). If n E S,, we will denote q(n) by nv while the right side is 24. We have shown that if n # 6, then ITI I # I T,I for all
in this proof. By hypothesis, (1 2)' = (i j) for some i, j; define y, to be conju- k > 1, as desired. @I
gation by (1 i)(2 j) (if i = 1 or j = 2, then interpret (1 i) or (2 j) as the iden-
tity). By Lemma 3.4, the quick way of computing conjugates in S,,, we see that Corollary 7.6. If 8 is an outer automorphism of S,, and if z E S, is a transposi-
(1 2)9 = (1 2)72, and so y,lq fixes (1 2). tion, then 8(z) is a product of three disjoint transpositions.
Let y,, .. ., y, be given by the inductive hypothesis, so that $ = y;' .. . y;'q
fixes (1 2), . ..,(1 t). Since $ preserves transpositions, (1 t + I)$ = (1 k). Now Proof. If n = 6, then we saw in the proof of the theorem that (*) does not hold
+
(1 2) and (1 k) cannot be disjoint, lest [(I 2)(1 t I)]$ = (1 2)$(1 t 1)" + if k # 3. (When k = 3, both sides of (*) equal 24.) Ll%f
+
(1 2)(1 k) have order 2, while (1 2)(1 t 1) has order 3. Thus, (1 t l)$ = +
+
(1 k) or (1 t + I)$ = (2 k). If lc 5 t, then (1 t 1)" ((1 2), ..., (1 t)), and Corollary 7.9. If n # 2 or n # 6, then Aut(S,) z S,,.
+
hence it is fixed by $; this contradicts J, being injective, for either (1 t I)*
= (I b) = (1 k)* or (1 t + 1)' = (2 k) = (2 k)$. Hence, k > t + 1. Define y,,, Proof. If G is complete, then Aut(G) r G.
to be conjugation by (k t + 1). Now y,,, fixes (1 2), . .. , (1 t) and (1 t + l)Yt+l
= (1 t + I)$, so that y3, +
.- y i l q fixes (1 2), ...,(1 t I) and the induction We now show that S6 is a genuine exception. Recall that a subgroup P;( _<
is complete. It follows that y,' . . y;lrp fixes (1 2), . .. , (1 n). But these trans- S, is transitive if, for every pair x, y E X, there exists a E I< with a(x) = y. In
positions generate S,, by Exercise 2.9(i), and so y i l ...yilcp is the identity. Theorem 3.14, we saw that if H 5 G, then the family X of all left cosets of H
Therefore, q = y2 . .y, E Inn(S,). is a G-set (where pa: gH I-+ agH for each a E G); indeed, X is a transitive
G-set: given gH and g'H, then p,(gH) = g'H, where a = g'g-I.
Theorem 7.5. If n # 2 or n # 6, then S, is complete.
Lemma 7.8. There exists a transitive subgroup K 5 S6 of order 120 which
Remark. S, z Z2 is not complete because it has a center; we shall see in contains no transpositions.
Theorem 7.9 that S, is not complete.
Proof. If cr is a 5-cycle, then P = <a) is a Sylow 5-subgroup of S,. The Sylow
Proof. Let T, denote the conjugacy class in S,, consisting of all products of k theorem says that if r is the number of conjugates of P, then r = 1 mod 5 and
disjoint transpositions. By Exercise 1.16, a permutation in S,, is an involution r is a divisor of 120; it follows easily that r = 6. The representation of S, on
if and only if it lies in some T,. It follows that if 8 E Aut(S,), then 8(T1) = T,
160 7. Extensions and Cohomology Automorphism Groups 161
X, the set of all left cosets of N = h 5 ( P ) ,is a homomorphism p: S, -+ Sx r Definition. A synthernel is asproduct of 3 disjoint transpositions. A pentad is
S,. Now X is a transitive &-set, by Exercise 4.1 1, and so lker pl I IS,//r = a family of 5 synthemes, no two of which have a common transposition.
(S,1/6, by Exercise 3.44(iii). Since the only normal subgroups of S, are S,, A , ,
and 1, it follows that ker p = 1 and p is an injection. Therefore, im p r S, is If two synthemes have a common transposition, say, (a b)(c d)(e f ) and
a transitive subgroup of S, of order 120. (a b)(c e)(d f), then they commute. It is easy to see that the converse holds:
For notational convenience, let us write K < S, instead of im p 5 Sx. two commuting synthemes share a transposition.
Now K contains an element a of order 5 which must be a 5-cycle; say, a =
(1 2 3 4 5). If K contains a transposition (i j), then transitivity of K provides Lemma 7.111. S, contains exactly 6 pentads. They are:
p E K with p(j) = 6, and so p(i j)P-' = (Pi pj) = (1 6) for some 1 # 6 (of
course, E = Pi). Conjugating (1 6) E K by the powers of a shows that K con-
tains (16), (2 6), (3 6), (4 6), and (5 6). But these transpositions generate s,,
by Exercise 2.9(i), and this contradicts K (zS,) being a proper subgroup of
s6.
The "obvious" copy of S, in S, consists of all the permutations fixing 6;
plainly, it is not transitive, and it does contain transpositions.
Theorem 7.9 (KHGQder,8895). There exists an outer automorphisrn of S6. ProoJ There aqe exactly 15 synthemes, and each lies in at most two pentads.
There are thus at most 6 pentads, for 2 x 15 = 30 = 6 x 5; there are exactly
HProo$. Let K be a transitive subgroup of S, of order 120, and let Y be the 6 pentads, for they are displayed above. f.3
family of its left cosets: Y = {a, K, ...,a,K). If 0: S, -+ S, is the representa-
tion of S6 on the left cosets of K , then lcer 0 < K is a normal subgroup of S6. Theorem 4.12. If (a,, .. .,a,) is a pentad in some ordering, then there is a
But A, is the only proper normal subgroup of S6, so that ker 0 = 1 and 0 is unique outer automorphism 8 of S6 with 0: (1 i) ai for i = 2, 3,4, 5,6. More-
an injection. Since S6 is finite, 0 must be a bijection, and so 0 E Aut(S,), for over, every outer automorphism of S6 has this form.
S, z S,. Were 0 inner, then it would preserve the cycle structure of every
permutation in S6. In particular, 0(,,,, defined by 0(,,,: aiK ++ (1 2)aiK for ProoJ Let X = ((1 2), (1 3), (1 4), (1 5), (1 6)). If 0 is an outer automor-
all i, is a transposition, and hence 0 fixes aiK for four different i. But if 0(,,, phism of S6, then Corollary 7.6 shows that each 0((1 i)) is a syntheme. Since
fixes even one left coset, say aiK = (1 2)aiK, then a,l(l 2)ai is a transposi- (1 i) and (1 j) do not commute for i # j, it follows that 0((1 i)) and 0((1 j))
tion in K. This contradiction shows that 8 is an outer automorphism, fBl do not commute; hence, Q(X)is a pentad. Let us count the number of possible
functions from X to pentads arising from outer automorphisms. Given an
outer automorphism 0, there are 6 choices of pentad for 0(X); given such a
Theorem 7.16). Aut(S,)/Inn(S,) r Z,,and so IAut(S6)I = 1440. pentad P, there are 5! = 120 bijections X -,P. Hence, there are at most 720
bijections from X to pentads which can possibly arise as restrictions of outer
ProoJ Let T, be the class of all transpositions in S,, and let T, be the class of automorphisms. But there are exactly 720 outer automorphisms, by Theo-
all products of 3 disjoint transpositions. If 0 and $ are outer automorphisms rem 7.10, and no two of them can restrict to the same bijection because X
of S,, then both interchange T, and T,, by Corollary 7.6, and so O-l$(T,) = gznerates S6. The statements of the theorem follow. Bl
TI. Therefore, 0-l$ E Inn(S,), by Lemma 7.4, and Aut(S,)/Inn(S,) has
order 2. fBl Since every element in S, is a product of transpositions, the information in
the theorem allows one to evaluate Q(P)for every /?E S6.
This last theorem shows that there is essentially only one outer auto-
morphism 0 of s,; given an outer automorphism 0, then every other such Co~oIIary7.83. There is an outer automorphism of S6 which has order 2.
has the form y0 for some inner automorphism y. It follows that S, has exactly
720 outer automorphisms, for they comprise the other coset of Inn(S6) in A syntheme is a partition of a set X into subsets Pi with lPil = iPjl for all i, j (this term is due to
Aut(S,). J.J. Sylvester).
162 -1. Extensiotls and Cohomology
Automorphism Groups
ProoJ Define" E h t ( S 6 ) by
Thus, z fixes everything in I. If P E A, then for every g E G,
Py,P-' = t(Py,/l-') (because /3ygP-' EI and z fixes I)
= z(P)y,.(P)-' (because z fixes I).
Hence z(P)P-' E CA(I)= 1, and z(P) = P. Therefore, z = 1, a = T,, and A is
complete.
by a; that is, L,(x) = ax for all a E K. As in the Cayley theorem (Theorem q E Aut(Z(K)), then it is easy to see that @: B x Z(K) -+B x Z(K), defined
3.12), K is isomorphic to K' = {La:a E K), which is a subgroup of SK. Simi- (bycpz), is an automorphism of K; (?, must be outer, for conjugation
by (b, z) I-+
larly, if R,: K -+K denotes right translation by a, that is, R,: x I-+ xu-', then by (/I,c) E B x Z(K) z K sends (b, z) into (j,c)(b, z)(/I-', cV1)= (/Ib/I-l, 2).
Kr = {R,: a E K} is also a subgroup of SKisomorphic to K. But K has no outer automorphisms, so that Aut(Z(K)) = 1 and, by Example
Theorem 7.19. The stabilizer A of a series of normal subgroups G = Go 2 G , 7.15. Prove that Aut(D,) z D,, but that AutfD,,) $ Dl,.
2 . . . 2 G, = 1 is a nilpotent group of class I r - 1. 7.16. Is Aut(A,) z S,? Is Aut(A,) r S,?
Proof. Regard both G and A as subgroups of Hol(G). For all i, if x E Gi and 7.17. If G = B x K and B < L < G, then L = B x (LnK).
a E A, then a(x) = gi+,x for some gi+, E Gi+,, and so a(x)x-% Gi+,. In com- 7.18. If H a G, prove that
mutator notation, [A, GI < Gi+,. By Lemma 7.18, [yj(A), Gi] < Gi+jfor all i
( y E Aut(G): y fixes H pointwise and y(g)H = gH for all g E G)
and j. In particular, for i = 0 and j = r, we have [y,(A), GI < G, = 1; that is,
for all x E G and a E ?,(A), we have a(x)x-I = 1. Therefore, y,(A) = 1 and A is is an abelian subgroup of Aut(G).
nilpotent of class I r - 1. 7.19. (i) Prove that the alternating groups A,, are never complete.
(ii) Show that if G is a complete group with G # G', then G is not the commuta-
For example, let (v,, . . ., u,,) be a basis of a vector space V over a field Ic, tor subgroup of any group containing it. Conclude that S,,, for n # 2,6, is
and define KC/;:_,
= (vi, ...,on). Hence, never a commutator subgroup.
7.20. If G is a complete group, then Hol(G) = G' x Gr. Conclude, for n # 2 and n # 6,
is a series of normal subgroups of the (additive abelian) group K If A 5 that Hol(S,,)z S, x S,.
GL(V) is the group of automorphisms stabilizing this series, then A is a 7.21. Prove that every automorphism of a group G is the restriction of an inner
nilpotent group of class I n - 1. If each a E A n GL(V) is regarded as a automorphism of Hol(G).
matrix (relative to the given. basis), then it is easy to see that A n GL(V) =
7.22. Let G be a group and let f E S,. Prove that f E Hol(G) if and only if f(xy-'z) =
UT(n, k), the group of all unitriangular matrices. Therefore, UT(n, k) is also
f (x)f (y)-'f (2) for all x, y, z E G.
nilpotent of class I n - 1. Compare this with Exercise 5.44.
If G = Go 2 G, > ,-.> G, = 1 is any (not necessarily normal) series of a
group G (i.e., Gi need not be a normal subgroup of Gi-,), then P. Hall (1958)
proved that the stabilizer of this series is always nilpotent of class < $r(r - 1). Semidirect Products
Definition. Let K be a (not necessarily normal) subgroup of a group G. Then
a subgroup Q I G is a coinplement of I< in G if K n Q = 1 and KQ = G.
7.7. If G is a finite nonabelian p-group, then p2 / IAut(~)l.
7.8. If G is a finite abelian group, then Aut(G) is abelian if and only if G is cyclic. A subgroup K of a group G need not have a complement and, even if it
7.9. (i) If G is a finite abelian group with I GI > 2, then Aut(G) has even order.
does, a complement need not be unique. In S,, for example, every subgroup
(ii) If G is not abelian, then Aut(G) is not cyclic. (Hint. Show that Inn(G) is not of order 2 serves as a complement to A,. On the other hand,.if they exist,
cyclic.) complements are unique to isomorphism, for
(iii) There is no finite'group G with Aut(G) cyclic of odd order > 1.
7.10. Show that IGL(2, p)l = (p2 - l)(p2- p). (Hint. How many ordered bases are in
a two-dimensional vector space over Z,?)
A group G is the direct product of two normal subgroups K and Q if
KnQ=landKQ=G.
7.11. If G is a finite group and Aut(G) acts transitively on G# = G - {I), then G is an
elementary abelian group. Definition. A group G is a semidirect product of K by Q, denoted by G =
7.12. If H and K are finite groups whose orders are relatively prime, then Aut(H x K) K x Q, if K a G and K has a complement Q, z Q. One also says that G
r Aut(H) x Aut(K). Show that this may fail if (/HI, IKI) > 1. (Hint. Take H = splits over K.
Z, = K.)
7.13. Prove that Aut(Q) r S,. (Hint. Inn(Q) r V and it equals its own centralizer in We do not assume that a complement Q, is a normal subgroup; indeed, if
Aut(Q); use Theorem 7.1 with G = Aut(Q) and H = Inn(Q).) Q, is a normal subgroup, then G is the direct product K x Q,.
In what follows, we denote elements of K by letters a, b, c in the first half
7.14. (i) Show that Hol(Z,) r Z2, Hol(Z,) r S,, Hol(Z,) 2 D,, and Hol(Z,) r D12.
(ii) If P is a Sylow 5-subgroup of S,, then Hol(Z,) r Ns5(P).(Hint. See Exercise of the alphabet, and we denote elements of Q by letters x, y, z at the end of
4.20.) the alphabet.
168 7. Extensions and Cohomology Semidirect Products
169
Before we give examples of semidirect products, let us give several different EXAMPLE 7.10. Let G be a solvable group of order mn, where (myn) = 1. If G
descriptions of them. contains a normal subgroup of order In, then G is a semidirect product of K
by a subgroup Q of order n.
Lemma 7.20. If K is a normal subgroup of a group G, then the following
statements are equivalent: This follows from P. Hall's theorem (Theorem 5.28).
-
P m J (i) (ii) Let Q be a complement of K in G . Let g E G. Since G = KQ,
there exist a E K and x E Q with 4 = ax. If g = by is a second such factoriza-
semidirect product if and only if it is a direct product. But G is not a direct
product. Indeed, it is easy to see that no primary cyclic group is a semidirect
product.
tion, then xy-I = a-'b E K n Q = 1. Hence b = a and y = x.
(ii) =E- (iii) Each g E G has a unique expression g = ax, where a E K and 7.13. Both S3 and Z,are semidirect products of Z3 by Z,.
EXAMPLE
x E Q. If Kg E GIK, then Kg = Kax = Kx; define s: G/K -+ G by s(Kg) = x.
Example 7.13 is a bit jarring at first, for it says, in contrast to direct prod-
The routine verification that s is a well defined homomorphism with vs =
uct, that a semidirect product of K by Q is not determined to isomorphism
lG1,is left as an exercise for the reader.
by the two subgroups. When we reflect on this, however, we see that a semi-
(111)=E- (iv) Define n: G -+ G by n = sv. If x = n(g), then n(x) = n(n(g)) =
direct product should depend on "how" K is normal in G.
svsv(g) = sv(g) = n(g) = x (because vs = I,/,). If a E K, then n(a) = sv(a) =
1, for K = ker v. For the reverse inclusion, assume that 1 = n(g) = sv(g) =
Lemma 7.21. If G is a semidirect product of K by Q, then there is a homomor-
s(Kg). Now s is an injection, by set theory, so that Kg = 1 and so g E K. phisin 6: Q -+ Aut(K), defined by 6, = y,l K; that is, for all x E Q and a E K,
(iv) --- (i) Define Q = im n. If g E Q, then n(g) = g; if g E K, then n(g) = 1;
a fortiori, if g E K n Q, then g = 1. If g E G, then gn(gd') E K = ker n, for %,(a) = xax-'.
n(gn(gd')) = 1. Since n(g) E Q, we have g = [gn(g-')]n(g) E KQ. Therefore, Moreover, for all x, y, 1 E Q and a E K ,
Q is a complement of K in G and G is a semidirect product of K by Q. RI
EXAMPLE
7.7. S, is a semidirect product of A, by Z,.
Proof. Normality of K gives y,(K) = K for all x E Q. The rest is routine.
Take Q = ((1 2)) to be a complement of A,.
Remark. It follows that K is a group with operators Q.
7.8. D2, is a semidirect product of Z, by Z2.
EXAMPLE )
he object of our study is to recapture G from K and Q. It is now clear that
G also involves a homomorphism 6: Q -+ Aut(K).
If D,,,= (a, x), where (a) s Zrf and (x) z Z,, then (a) is normal and
(x) is a complement of (a). Definition. Let Q and K be groups, and let 6: Q Aut(K) be a homomor-
phism. A semidirect product G of K by Q realizes 6 if, for all x E Q and a E K,
EXAMPLE 7.9. For any group K, Hol(K) is a semidirect product of K zby
Aut(K).
In this language, Lemma 7.21 says that every semidirect product G of K by
This is contained in Lemma 7.16. Q determines some 6 which it realizes. Intuitively, "realizing 6" is a way of
Semidirect Products 171
170 7. Extensions and Cohomology
Pro05 Define OX(a)= xax-I (as in Lemma 7.21). By Lemma 7.20 (ii), each
describing how K is normal in G. For example, if 9 is the trivial map, that is, K and x E Q. Since multiplica-
g E G has a unique expression g = ax with a E
8, = 1, for every x E G, then a = BX(a)= xax-' for every a E K, and so K 5 tion in G satisfies
CG(Q). (ax)(by) = a(xbx-l)xy = abxxy,
Definition. Given groups Q and K and a homomorphism 9: Q -+ Aut(K), it is easy to see that the map K x, Q -+ G, defined by (a, x) I+ ax, is an
.
define G = K x, Q to be the set of all ordered pairs (a, x) E K x Q equipped
with the operation
isomorphism.
(a, x)(b, Y)= (flOX(b),xy). We now illustrate how this construction can be used.
7.26. If M is the group of all motions of R", then M is a semidirect product of Tr(n, R)
Theorem 7.24. Given groups D and Q, a firzite Q-set 92, atzd a D-set A, then tfze
by 0 ( t z , R).
wreath product D ? Q is isomorphic to the subgroup
7.27. If K and Q are solvable, then K x, Q is also solvable.
7.28. Show that K x,Q is the direct product I< x Q if and only if 8: Q -, Aut(K) is
trivial (that is, 8, = 1 for all x E Q). and hence A x R is a (D 2 Q)-set.
7.29. If p and q are distinct primes, construct all semidirect products of Z, by Z,, and
compare your results to Theorem 4.20. (The condition q l p - 1 in that theorem
Pro05 We show first that K* = (U,., D,*) is the direct product n,,,
It is easy to see that D,*centralizes D,*, for all o' # w, and so D,* a K* for
D.:
should now be more understandable.) every o . Each dz E D: fixes all (A, a ' ) E A x R with o' # w, while each ele-
ment of ( U, D:,) fixes all (A, w) for all A E A. It follows that if d: E
D,* n (U,.#, D:.), then d: = 1.
Wreath Products If q E Q and co E Sn, then a routine computation gives
q*d* "-1 = d*
04 rjw
Let D and Q be groups, let Q be a finite Q-set, and let {D,: o E R) be a family
for each o E Q. Hence q*K*q*-I < I<* for each q E Q, so that K* a W
of isomorphic copies of D indexed by R.
(because W = (I<*, Q*)); it follows that W = K*Q*. T o see that W is a
semidirect product of K* by Q*, it suffices to show that K* n Q* = 1. Now
Definition. Let D and Q be groups, let R be a finite Q-set, and let K =
dz(A, a')= (dA, w') or (A, a'); in either case, d: fixes the second coordinate. If
e n Do, where D, z D for all o E R. Then the wreath product of D by Q,
q* E- Q*, then q*(A, w') = (A, qo') and q* fixes the first coordinate. Therefore,
denoted by D 2 Q (or by D wr Q), is the semidirect product of K by Q, where
any g E K* n Q* fixes every (A, w') and hence is the identity.
Q acts on K by q . (d,) = (d,,) for q E Q and (d,) E Ha.,
Do. The normal
It is now a simple matter to check that the map D 2 Q -+ W, given by
subgroup K of D Z Q is called the base of the wreath product.
(d,)q r--, (d:)q*, is an isomorphism. El
The notation D 2 Q is deficient, for it does not display the Q-set R; perhaps Call the subgroup W of SAX, the pernzrrtstion versiort of D Q; when we
one should write D Z,Q. wish to view D 2 Q acting on A x R, then we will think of it as W.
If D is finite, then 1K1 = I ~ l l ~ifl Q
; is also finite, then ID 2 QI = 1.K x QI =
IKIIQI = IDI'R'IQI.
If A is a D-set, then A x R can be made into a (D Z Q)-set. Given d E D and
o E Q, define a permutation d,* of A x R as follows: for each (A, a ' ) E A x R,
.,
Theorem '7.25. Let D and Q be groups, let R be a firzite Q-set, let A be a D-set,
and let W < SA be the perlnzitatiolz version of D 2 Q.
r D(A) x (D Z Q,).
It follows that I y,,,,I = JD(A)II lQ,l and
Cw : y,,,)1= l ~ l ' ~ Ql/l~(.l,l
ll lnll"i-llQ,l = [D : CQ : Q,l. Figure 7.1
'kltaeo~em'7.26. Wreath product is associative: if both Q and A are finite, if T If cp E Aut(T), then cp fixes vertex 0 (it is the only vertex adjacent to 5 vertices),
is a group, and if A is a T-set, then T 1 (D Z Q) G (T Z D) 1 Q. cp permutes the "inner ring" R = (1, 2, 3, 4, 51, and, for each i, either cp(n,) =
.;
Proof. The permutation versions of both T Z (D Z Q) and ( T Z D) Z Q are sub-
groups of S A X A X we claim that they coincide. The group T Z (D Z Q) is gener-
ated by all tf*,,,,(for t E T and (A, a)E A x Q) and all f * (for f E D 2 Q). Note
aPi and cp(b,) = bqi or cp(a,) = bpi and cp(bi) = a,,. It is now easy to see that
IAut(T)I = 2, >< 5!. Regard S , as acting on R and regard S, as acting on
A = (a, b). Identify the outer ring of all vertices (a,, b,: i E R) with A x R by
writing ai as (a, i) and bi as (b, i). If q E S5, then q permutes the inner ring:
that ts,,,: (8,2 , w') I-+ (td', A', a ' ) if (A', o f ) = (A,w), and fixes it otherwise; q*(ai) = a,, and q*(b,) = b,,; that is, @(a, i) = (a, qi) and q*(b, i) = (b, qi). If
also, f *: (6',;1', w') H (8,f(X, of)). Specializing f * to d,* and to q*, we see d E S2 and i E Q, then d:(a, i) = (da, i), d:(b, i) = (db, i), while d t fixes (a, j)
that T Z (D 2 Q) is generated by all tT,,,,, dz, and q**, where dz: (8,A', w') t-, and (b, j) for j # i. For example, if d interchanges a and b, then dT(ai) = bi and
(8,dX, w') if a'= w, and fixes it otherwise, and q**: (a', A', w') t-, (8,A', qw'). dT(bi) = a,, while dT fixes aj and bj for all j # i. Thus, both q* and d: corre-
A similar analysis of ( T 2 D) 2 Q shows that it is generated by all q**, d,: spond to automorphisms of T.In Exercise 7.30 below, you will show that
and (t,):, where (t,):: (6', A', o f )I+ (tat, A', w') if w' = w and X = A, and fixes Aut(T) S, ? S,.
it otherwise. Since (t,): = tf*,,,,, the two wreath products coincide. A special case of the wreath product construction has R = Q regarded as a
Q-set acting on itself by left multiplication. In this case, we write W = D 1, Q,
The best way to understand wreath products is by considering graphs. and we call W the regisbar wre~thproditct.Thus, the base is the direct product
of 1 Ql copies of D, indexed by the elements of Q, and q E Q sends a I Q I-tuple
Definition. A graph r is a nonempty set V, called vertices, together with an
-
adjace~tcyrelation on V, denoted by v u, that is symmetric (v u implies - (d,) EnxEQ Dx into (d,). Note that ID ?, Q] = J D ] I ~ ~It~ Qis ]easy
. to see that
- +
u v for all u, v E V) and irreflexive (v v for all v E V).
the formation of regular wreath products is not associative when all groups
arefinite,for ITl,(D Z,Q)l # I(Tl,D)?,QI.
If Q is an infinite set and (D,:co E R) is a family of groups, then there are
One can draw pictures of finite graphs; regard the vertices as points and two direct product constructions. The first, sometimes called the coinplete
join each adjacent pair of vertices with a line segment or edge. Notice that
our graphs are nondirected; that is, one can traverse an edge in either direc-
direct product, consists of all "vectors" (d,) in the cartesian product nwEQ
with "coordinatewise" multiplication: (d,)(dk) = (d,dL). The second, called
D,
tion; moreover, there are no "loops"; every edge has two distinct endpoints. the restricted direct product, is the subgroup of the first consisting of all those
An aastomorplzism of a graph with vertices V is a bijection cp: V -+ V such (d,) with only finitely many coordinates d, # 1. Both versions coincide when
that u, v E V are adjacent if and only if ~ ( uand
) cp(v) are adjacent. It is plain the index set is finite. The wreath product using the complete direct prod-
that the set of all automorphisms of a graph T,denoted by Aut(T), is a group uct is called the co~npletewreath grodi[~ct;the wreath product using the re-
under composition. stricted direct product is called the restricted wreath prodrrct. We shall see
For example, consider the following graph I?: a use for the complete wreath product at the end of the next section. The
Wreath Products
176 7. Extensions and Cohomology
and so the order of a Sylow p-subgroup of the symmetric group S,. is p"").
7.30. Prove that Aut(T) z S, 1 S, where r is the graph in Figure 7.1. (Hint. Every
Theorem 19.27 (Kaloujnine, 1948). If p is a prime, then a Sylow p-subgroup of cp E Aut(T) is completely determined by its behavior on the outer ring consisting
S,,, is an iterated regular wreath product Wn = Z, 2, Z, 2;. - 2, Z, of n copies of of all vertices of the form ai or b,.)
Z,,where +, = Wn 2, Z,. 7.31. Prove that 72, 2 Z, r D,. (Hint. Z,2 Z, has several involutions.)
Proof: The proof is by induction on n, the case n = 1 holding because a Sylow 7.32. If both D and Q are solvable, then D 2 Q is solvable.
p-subgroup of S, has order p. Assume that n > 1. Let A be a set with pn 7.33. Definitiolra. Let D be a (multiplicative) group. A monomial matrix p over D is a
elements and let D be a Sylow p-subgroup of S,; thus, A is a D-set. Let permutation matrix P whose nonzero entries have been replaced by elements of
0 = (0, 1, . ..,p - I), and let Q = (q) be a cyclic group of order p acting on D; we say that P is the support of p. If Q is a group of n x n permutation
SZ by qi = i + 1 mod p. The permutation version of the wreath product P = matrices, then
D 2, b, is a subgroup of SAX.; of course, lA x a/ = p"tl. By induction, D is a M(D, Q) = (all monomial matrices p over D with support in Q).
wreath product of n copies of Z, and so P is a wreath product of n + 1 copies
of Z,.To see that P is a Sylow p-subgroup, it suffices to see that its order is (i) Prove that M(D, Q) is a group under matrix multiplication.
pP("+'), where p(n + 1) = pn + pn-I + .-.+ p + 1. Now ]Dl = pp("),so that (ii) Prove that the subgroup Q r M(1, Q) IM(D, Q).
/PI = ID 2, Z,( = ( p ~ ( n ) =
) ~pp~ p ( n ) f l = pp(n+l)s (iii) Prove that the diagonal M(D, 1) is isomorphic to the direct product
D x - .- x D (n times).
(iv) Prove that M(D, 1) a M(D, Q) and that M(D, Q) is a semidirect product of
Theorem 7.27 may be used to compute the Sylow p-subgroup of Srnfor any
M(D71) by MUyQ).
m (not necessarily a power of p). First write m in base p: (v) Prove that M(D, Q) r D 2 Q.
m=ao+a,p+a2p2+...a,p', where O < a i < p - l . 7.34. (i) Fix a group Q and a finite Q-set Q. For all groups D and A and all homomor-
Partition X = {I, 2, . ..,m) into a, singletons, a, p-subsets, a, p2-subsets, . . ., phisms f : D -+ A, there is a homomorphism M(f ): M (D, Q) 4 M (A, Q) such
and a, $-subsets. On each of these pi-subsets Y, construct a Sylow p-sub- that M(1,) = and, whenever g: A -,B, then M(gf) = M(g)M(f).
group of S,. Since disjoint permutations commute, the direct product of all (Hint. Just replace every nonzero entry x of a monomial matrix over D by
f(x).) (In categorical language, this exercise shows that wreath product is a
these Sylow subgroups is a subgroup of Sx of order pN, where N = a, +
functor.)
a2jr(2) + - . + a, p(t) (recall that ,u(i) = pi-' + pi-2 + - . . + p + 1). But pN is
7. Extensions and Cohomology , Factor Sets 179
If one chooses a lifting l(x) for each x E Q, then the set of all such is a
+
xa = 6,(a) = l(x) a - l(x)
transversal of ker n.In this case, the function l: Q -+ G is also called a right for all x E Q and a E K.
transversal (thus, both 1and its image I(Q) are called right transversals).
Using these terms, Theorem 7.28 says that when K is abelian, every exten-
Theorem 7.28. Let G be an extension of K by Q, and let 1: Q -+ G be a transver- sion G of K by Q determines a homomorphism 6: Q --+ Aut(K), and G realizes
sal. the data. The intuitive meaning of 0 is that it describes how K is a normal
If K is abelian, then there is a homomorphism 8: Q -r Aut(K) with subgroup of G. For example, if the abelian group K is a subgroup of the
center Z(G), then 6 is the trivial homomorphism with Ox = 1 for all x E Q (for
180 7. Extensions and Cohomology_ Factor Sets -GI-'-
+
then a = xa = l(x) a - l(x), and a commutes with all l(x), hence with all + +
Prooj: The definition of f gives l(x) l(y) = f(x, y) l(xy). In particular,
g = b + l(x) for b E K). The extension problem is now posed more precisely + +
l(1) l(y) = f(1, y) l(y); since we are assuming that l(1) = 0, we have
as follows: find all the extensions G which realize given data (Q, K, 8). Our f(1, y) = 0. A similar calculation shows that f(x, 1) = 0. The cocycle identity
aim is to write a multiplication table (rather, an addition table!) for all such G. follows from associativity:
Let a: G --+ Q be a surjective homomorphism with kernel K, and choose a
transversal I: Q --+ G with l(1) = 0. Once this transversal has been chosen,
every element g E G has a unique expression of the form on the other hand,
(after all, l(x) is a representative of a coset of K in G, and G is the disjoint = x f (y, 2) + f (xy, z) + 4xyz).
union of these cosets). There is a formula: for all x, y E Q, The cocycle identity follows. El
A more interesting result is that the converse of Theorem 7.29 is true when
because both l(x) + l(y) and l(xy) represent the same coset of K. K is abelian.
Definition. If n: G -+ Q is a surjective homomorphism with kernel K, and if Tileorem 7.30. Given data (Q, I<, 0), a firnction f : Q x Q -+ IC is a factor set if
1: Q -+ G is a transversal with l(1) = 0, then the function f : Q x Q --+ K, de- and only if it satisfies the cocycle identity
fined by (1) above, is called a factor set (or cocycle). (Of course, the factor set
f depends on the transversal 1.)
as well as f(1, y) = 0 = f(x, 1) for all x, y, z E Q. More precisely, there is an
Consider the special case of a semidirect product G. Theorem 7.23 shows extension G realizing the data and a transversal I: Q -+ G such that f is the
that G z K x, Q, so that we may assume that G consists of all ordered pairs corresponding factor set.
(a, x) E K x Q and that multiplication is given by
Pro@$ Necessity is Theorem 7.29:To prove sufficiency, let G be the set of all
ordered pairs (a, x) E K x Q equipped with the operation
In additive notation, this becomes
!(a, x) + (b, y) = (a + xb, XY). (note that if j'is identically 0, then this is the semidirect product K x, Q).
The proof that G is a group is similar to the proof of Theorem 7.22. The
If I: Q -+ G is the transversal defined by l(x) = (0, x), then 1 is a homomor- cocycle identity is needed to prove associativity; the identity is (0, 1); inverses
phism-l(xy) = l(x) + l(y)-and so the factor set determined by this 1 is identi- are given by
cally zero. Thus, one may think of a factor set as a "measure" of G's deviation -(a, X)= (-x-'a - x-'f(x, x-'), x-').
from being a semidirect product, for it describes the obstruction to the trans-
versal 1being a homomorphism. Define n: G --+ Q by (a, x) I--+ x. It is easy to see that n is a surjective homo-
morphism with kernel {(a, 1): k E I<>.If we identify K with ker n via a I--+
Theorem 7.29. Let n: G 4 Q be a surjective homomorphism with kernel K, let (a, l), then K a G and G is an extension of K by Q.
I: Q --+ G be a transversal with l(1) = 0, and let f : Q x Q --+ K be the corre- Does G realize the data? We must show, for every transversal 1: Q -+G,
sponding factor set. Then: +
that xu = l(x) a - l(x) for all x E Q and a E I<. Now we must have l(x) =
(b, x) for some b E K. Therefore,
(i) for all x, y E Q,
f (1, Y) = 0 = f (x, 1); l(x) + a - l(x) = (b, x) + (a, 1) - (b, x)
(ii) the cocyele identity holds for every x, y, z E Q: = (b + xa, x) + (-x-'b - x-lf(x, x-l), x-')
Since K is abelian, the last term simplifies to (xa, 1). As any element of K, we follows.
identify xa with (xa, l), and so G does realize the data.
Finally, define a transversal I: Q -+ K by l(x) = (0, x) for all x E Q. The l'(x) + UY)= CMx) + Wl + C ~ ( Y+) I(y)l
factor set F corresponding to this transversal satisfies F(x, y) = l(x) + l(y) - = h(x) + xh(y) + l(x) + l(y) (G realizes the data)
l(xy). But a straightforward calculation shows that F(x, y) = (f(x, y), I), and
so f is a factor set, as desired. = h(x) + W Y ) + f(x9 Y)+ Q ~Y)
= h(x) + xh(y) + f(x, y) - h(xy) + ll(xy).
Notation. Denote the extension G constructed in the proof of Theorem 7.30
by G,; it realizes (Q, K, 6) and it has f as a factor set (arising from the
+ +
Therefore, f '(x, y) = h(x) xh(y) f (x, y) - h(xy). The desired formula fol-
lows because each term lies in the abelian group I<. Bi
trailsversal l(x) = (0, x)).
DefiHlition. Given data (Q, X , 0), a cobounhry is a function g: Q x Q -+ K for
, 6) is the set of all factor sets f:Q x Q -+ K.
Definition. Z 2 ( ~K, which there exists h: Q -,Ii: with h(1) = 0 such that
Proof. For each x E Q, both l(x) and ll(x)are representatives of the same coset
of K in G; there is thus an element h(x) E K with
fl\
B-C
B
.
Since l'(1) = 0 = 1(1), we have h(1) = 0. The main formula is derived as commutes if and only if h = gf.
184 7. Extensions and Cohomology
Factor Sets 185
Theorem 7.32. Two extensions G and G' realizing data (Q, K, 0) are equivalent
if and only if there exists an isomorphism y making the following diagram if x E Q, then x = n(E(x)) = nly(l(x));that is, yl: Q -, G' is a lifting. Applying y
commute: to the equation l(x) i- l ( y ) = f(x, y) + l(xy) shows that yf is the factor set
determined by the lifting yl. But yf(x, y) = f(x, y) for all x, y E Q, because
f(x, y) E K. Therefore yf = f ; that is, f is a factor set of G'. But f ' is also
a factor set of G' (arising from another lifting), and so Lemma 7.31 gives
f ' - f E B ~that
; is, G and G' are equivalent. Eil
Since l(1) = 0, we have y(a) = y(a + l(1)) = a + h(1) + l'(1) = a, for all a E K,
because h(1) = 0; that is, y fixes K pointwise. Also, x = n(a + l(x)), while
nly(a + l(x)) = nl(a + h(x) + ll(x)) = zl(l'(x)) = X. We have shown that the
diagram commutes. It remains to show that y is a homomorphism. Now
Y ([a i- 4x)l + rb + K Y ) ~=) Y (a + xb + f(x, Y ) + K ~ Y ) )
The map 0: A -+ n,, 2,(where 2,z Z ( K )for all g E G) defined by O: cp H
(LJ-'~I(s)), has kernel (cp E A: gmlq(g)= 1 for all g E G). Thus, cp E ker O if
=a + xb + f(x, y) + h(xy) + ll(xy), and only if ~ ( g=) g for all g E G; that is, q = 1,. Therefore, A is imbedded ,
while
n
in the abelian group Z,, and hence A is abelian. B
+ 4 ~ )+) ~ ( +b 4 ~ )=) [a + h(x) + l'(x)l + Cb + h(y) + l'(y)l The next theorem summarizes the results of this section.
=a + h(x) + xb + xh(y) + fl(x, y) + ll(xy). Theorem '7.341 (Schreier, 1926). There is a bijection from H2(Q, I<, 0) to the set
The element ll(xy) is common to both expressions, and (2) shows that the 2 of all equivalence classes of extensions realizing data (Q, K, 0) taking tlze
remaining elements of the abelian group K are equal; thus, y is a homomor- identity 0 to the class of the semidirect product.
phism.
Conversely, assume that there exists an homomorphism y as in the state- ProoJ Denote the equivalence class of an extension G realizing the data
ment. Commutativity of the diagram gives y(a) = a for all a E K. Moreover, (Q, K, 0) by [GI. Define cp: H2(QyK , 0) 4 E by (p(f + B2(Q,K, 0)) = [Gf],
where Gf is the extension constructed in Theorem 7.30 from a factor set f.
186 7. Extensions and Cohomology Factor Sets 187
First, cp is well defined, for iff and g are factor sets with f + B' = g + B2, then coordinate of z. Now the action of Q on K is given by z4(o)= ~(qco) for q E Q
f ' - g E BZ,Gf and G, are equivalent, and [GI] = [G,]. Conversely, q is and o E a. It follows that the coth coordinate of z q s the q-loth coordinate
+ +
an injection: if cp(f B2) = cp(g B2), then [G,] = [G,], f - g E B ~ and , of z. Thus,
+ +
f B2 = g B2. Now cp is a surjection: if [GI E E and f is a factor set (074) (0) = a(o)z(q-I a ) ,
(arising from some choice of transversal), then [GI = [Gf] and [GI =
cp( f + B2). The last part of the theorem follows from Exercise 7.39(ii) below: and multiplication in the wreath product is
an extension is a semidirect product if and only if it has a factor set in B ~ . H
By Exercise 1.44, there is a unique group structure on E making cp an Theorem 4.37 (lCaloujniwe and I<rrssner, 1951). If D and Q are groups with Q
isomorphism, namely, [Gf] + [G,] = [Gf +J. finite, then the regular wreath product D ?, Q contains an isomorphic copy of
every extension of D by Q.
Corollary 7.35. H2(e, K, 8) = 0 if and only if every extension G realizing data
(Q, K, 8) is a semidirect product. Remark. The group D may not be abelian.
Pro05 If G is an extension of D by Q, then there is a surjective homomor-
Deffnitiow. If both Q and K are abelian and 8: Q -+ Aut(K) is trivial, then
phism G -,Q with kernel D, which we denote by a F-+ n. Choose a transversal
Ext(Q, K) is the set of all equivalence classes of abelian extensions G of K
1: Q -P 4;.
by Q. For a E G, define a,: Q -,D by
Corolllary 7.36. If both Q and K are abelian and 8: Q -+ Aut(K) is trivial, then aa(x) = ~ ( x ) - ~ a l ( F x ) .
EX~(Q, K) 5 H ~ ( QK,, 8). If a, b E G, then
-
ProoJ Iff: Q x Q -+ K is a factor set, then the corresponding extension Gf is CJ-,(x)cJ-f(x)
= a,(x)ab(a-'x)
--
abelian if and only iff (x, y) = f (y, x) for all x, y E Q: since 0 is trivial, = l(~)~~al(a'x)l(a'x)-~bl(b~~a~~x)
Define q :G -,D 2, Q by
cp(4 = 5) (%7
It is easy to see that the set S2(Q,K, 6 ) of all such "symmetric" factor sets = (a,,5)(%7 6)
(P(~)cp(b)
forms a subgroup of Z2(Q, K, 0), and = (%4,
nb)
= (aab, 2).
Finally, cp is injective. If a E ker cp, then a = 1 and aa(x) = 1 for all x E Q. The
first equation gives a E D s h e second equation gives aa(x)= ~(x)-~al(?x) =
The groups H2(Q, K, 8) and Ext(Q, K) (when Q is abelian and 0 is trivial) 1 for every x E Q. Since a-I = 1, we have l(x)-laE(x) = 1, and so a = 1.
are studied and computed in Homological Algebra and, in particular, in
Cohomology of Grcllps. Remark. Here is a way to view the proof just given. The lifting 1 determines
Here is an interesting use of the cocycle identity. Given a Q-set il, the a factor set f : Q x Q D (which determines the extension G to isomor-
and q E Q acts on (d,) E n, ., n,,,
wreath product D 2 Q is the semidirect product K x Q, where K = n,,,
D, by q(d,) = (dqo).NOWa formal description
D,
-+
semidirect products (i.e., if A E % and S < A, then S E %; if A, B E %', then Theorem 7.39. If PC is an abelian normal Hall subgroup of a finite group G (i.e.,
A >a, B E %' for all 8), then %? is closed under extensions. ((K1,[G : I<]) = I), then K has a complement.
Pro05 Assume that G is an extension of D by Q, where both D, Q E %. Since ProoJ Let I I< 1 = m, let Q = GIK, and let 1 Q 1 = n, so that (myn) = 1. It suffices
%?is closed under semidirect products, it is closed under finite direct products; to prove, by Corollary 7.35, that every factor set f : Q x Q -+ K is a cobound-
hence, n,,, (nu,,
D, E %? Since %' is closed under semidirect products, the wreath
product D 2, Q = D,) x Q E %?; since %' is closed under subgroups, the
ary. Define a : Q 4 K by
a(x) = C
f(x, u);
Y ~ Q
theorem gives G E Gk: !#I
a is well defined since Q is finite and K is abelian. Sum the cocycle identity
One may remove the finiteness hypothesis from Theorem 7.37 by using the
complete wreath product.
over all z E Q to obtain
7.37. If H is a subgroup of a group G and if U is a right transversal of H in G, then (as z ranges over all of Q, so does yz). Since (myn) = 1, there are integers s and
U-' = (u-': u E U ) is a left transversal of H in G. Conclude, for H a G, that t with sm + tn = 1. Define h: Q 4 IC by h(x) = ta(x). Then h(1) = 0 and
both U and U-' are transversals of H in G.
7.38. Prove that an extension G of K by Q is a semidirect product if and only if there
is a transversal I: Q -, G that is a homomorphism. But sf(x, y) E K, so that msf(x, y) = 0. Therefore, f is a coboundary. Bl
7.39. (i) Prove that any two semidirect pro2ucts realizing data (Q, K, 8 ) are equiva-
If I< 5 G has complements Q and Q', then Q z Q' (each is isomorphic to
lent.
(ii) Prove that an extension G realizing data (Q, K, 8) is a semidirect product if
GIK). One can say more if the orders of K and Q are relatively prime.
and only if it has a factor set f E B2.
Theorem 13.40. If K is an abelian normal Hall subgroup of a finite group G,
7.40. Let p be an odd prime. Give an example of two extensions G and G' realizing then any two complements of I< are conjugate.
(K, Q, 0) = (Z, Z,,8) with G E G' but with G and G' not equivalent. (Hint.Let
K = (a) be cyclic of order p, and let G = (g) and G' = (h) be cyclic of order
ProoJ Denote IPCl by m and I GIKI by n, so that (myn) = 1. Let Q, and Q, be
p2.Define i: K -+ G by i(a) = pg, and define it: K -, G' by it(a)= 2ph. Show that
there is no isomorphism y: G -t G' making the diagram commute.)
subgroups of G of order n. As we observed above, each of these subgroups is
a complement of K. By Exercise 7.38, there are transversals li: GIK -+ G, for
i = 1, 2, with l,(G/IC) = Qiand with each li a homomorphism. It follows that
Remark. It is plain that JH2(K,Q, 8)Jis an upper bound for the number of the factor sets A determined by li are identically zero. If h(x) is defined by
nonisomorphic extensions G of K by Q realizing 8. This last exercise shows l , ( x ) = h(x) + E2(x),then
that this bound need not be attained. After all, every extension of Z, by Z,
has order P 2 , hence is abelian, so that either G r ZP2or G 2 Z, x Z,; but it
can be shown that (H2(Z,, Z,,8)( = (Ext(Z,, Z,)I = p.
Summing over all y E G/IC gives the equation in K :
0 = xa, - a, + nh(x),
Theorems of Schur-Zassenhaus and Gaschiitz where a, = ~,,,,, h(y). Let sm + tn = 1 and define b, = ta,. Since K has
;exponent m,
We now apply Corollary 7.35 of Schreier's theorem. h(x) = h(x) - smh(x) = -tnh(x) = xta, - ta, = xb, - b,
Recall that a Hall subgroup of a finite group (when it exists) is a subgroup
whose order and index are relatively prime. Also recall Exercise 7.24: If for all x E GIK. We claim that -b, + Q, + b, = Q,. If l,(x) E Q,, then
(GI = mn, where (myn) = 1, and if K 5 G has order mythen a subgroup Q 5 G -bo + l,(x) + b, = -bo + xb, + l,(x) = -h(x) + l,(x) = l,(x) - l,(x) -I-
is a complement of K if and only if ( QI = n. ( ) = (x).
190 7. Extensions and Cohornology Theorems of Schur-Zassenhaus and Gaschiitz 191
We now remove the hypothesis that K be abelian. Q,I<'/K1 z Q,/(Q, n K 1 )z Q, (because Q, n Kt 5 Q, n K = 1), so that
lQ,K1/l<'j = n. Now K' < K, because K is solvable. If K' = 1, then K is
Theorem 7.41 (Schor-Zassenhaus Lemma, 1937).3A normal Hall subgroup K abelian and the result is Theorem 7.40; otherwise, IG/KII < IGI, and induc-
of a finite group G has a complement (and so G is a semidirect product of K by tion on I GI shows that the subgroups Q,K1/K' and Q, K'/K1 are conjugate in
GIIC). G/Kt. Thus, there is i
j E G/K1with g(Q, K'/Kt)g-' = Q2K'/Kt; that is, gQ,g-I
5 Q2K1(where K'g = $7). But K' < K gives jQ, K'I < /GI, and so the sub-
ProoJ Let 1K1 = m and let I GI = mn, where (m, n) = 1. We prove, by induc- groups gQ,g-' and Q, of order n are conjugate in Q2K1,hence are conjugate
tion on m > 1, that G contains a subgroup of order n. The base step is in G.
trivially true. If K contains a proper subgroup T which is also normal in G, Assume now that G/IC is solvable. We do an induction on 1 GI that any two
then KIT a G/T and (G/T)/(K/T) r G/K has order n; that is, KIT is a nor- complements of K are conjugate. Let M/K be a minimal normal subgroup of
mal Hall subgroup of G/T If I KIT1 = m', then m' < m and [GIT :KIT] I = n. G/K. Since K 5 M, the Dedekind law (~xercise2.49) gives
The inductive hypothesis gives a subgroup NIT 5 G/T of order n. Now I N J
= n 1 Tl and (n, I TI) = 1 (for I TI divides m), so that T is a normal Hall sub- (4 M = MnG=MnQiI<=(MnQi)K for i = 1,2;
group of N (with / T / < m and with index [N: T ] = n). By induction, N and note also that M n Qi a Qi. Now solvability of G/K gives M/K a p-group for
hence G contains a subgroup of order n. some prime p, by Theorem 5.24. If M = G, then G/K is a p-group (indeed,
We may now assume that K is a minimal normal subgroup of G. If p is a since MIK is a minimal normal subgroup of G/K, we must have / M/K I = p).
prime dividing m and if P is a Sylow p-subgroup of K, then the Frattini Therefore, Q, and Q, (zG/I<) are Sylow p-subgroups of G, and hence are
argument (Theorem 4.18) gives G = KNG(P). By the second isomorphism conjugate, by the Sylow theorem.
theorem, We may assume, therefore, that M < G. Now M n Qi is a complement of
G/I< = I<NG(P)/KZ NG(P)/(Kn NG(P))= NG(P)/NK(P), I< in M, for i = 1 , 2 (because M = (M n Qi)K, by (*), and (M n Q,) n K 5
Qi n K = 1). By induction, there is x E M 5 G with M n Q, = x(M n Q,)x"
so that / N,(P)Jn = I N,(P)I I G/KI = ING(P)I.If NG(P)is a proper subgroup of = M n xQ,x-'. Replacing Q, by its conjugate xQ2x-' if necessary, we may
G, then I NG(P)I< m, and induction shows that NG(P)contains a subgroup of assume that
order n. We may assume, therefore, that N,(P) = G; that is, P a G. MnQ, =MnQ,.
Since I<> P and K is a minimal normal subgroup of G, we have K = P.
Lemma 5.20(ii) now applies: Z(P) char P and P a G imply Z(P) a G. Mini- If J = n/r n Q, =M n Q,, then J a Qi for i = 1,2, and so
mality applies again, and Z(P) = P (Z(P) $. 1 because P is a finite p-group).
But now P = K is abelian, and the proof follows from Theorem 7.39. BI
Two applications of the Dedekind law give
It follows that if a finite group G has a normal Sylow p-subgroup P, for
some prime p, then P has a complement and G is a semidirect product of P
by G/P. and
We can prove part of the generalization of Theorem 7.41 for K nonabelian. J[NG(J) n I<]n Qi = J([NG(J)n K] n Qi) = J
Theorem 7.42. Let K be a normal Hall subgroup of a finite group G. If either (because (NG(J)n K) n Qi I K n Qi = 1). Therefore, Q,/J and Q,/J are com- '
I<or G/K is solvable, then any two complements of I<in G are conjugate. plements of J(NG(J)n K)/J in NG(J)/J. By induction, there is y E N,(J)/J
with Q,/J = y(Q,/J)y-'; it follows that Q, = yQ2y-', where Jy = 7, as
Remark. The Feit-Thompson theorem says that every group of odd order desired. El
is solvable. Since 1 KI and IG/I<I are relatively prime, at least one of them
has odd order, and so complements of normal Hall subgroups are always The proof of the following theorem is a variation on the proof of Theorem
conjugate. - 7.39. Recall Exercise 4.16; a normal p-subgroup K of a finite group G is
contained in every Sylow p-subgroup P of G.
Proof. Let I K I = m, let IG/KI = n, and let Q, and Q, be complements of K in
G; of course, Q1 z GIK z Q2. Theorem 7.43 (Gipsehiitz, 1952). Let K be a normal abelian p-subgroup of a
Assume first that K is solvable. By Lemma 5.20(ii), K' a G; moreover, finite group G, and let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Then K has a cornplement
Schur (1904) proved this in the special case Q cyclic. in G if and o~zlyif K lzas a cornplement in P.
192 7. Extensions and Cohomology Transfer and Burnside's Theorem 193
ghi = lgixi.
a is well defined because G/IC is finite and K is abelian. Summing the cocycle
identity gives Moreover, a is a permutatiorz of (1, . . . , n}.
Some other such theorems are quoted at the end of this section.
194 7. Extensions and Cohomology Transfer and Burnside's Theorem
ProoJ Since the left cosets of Q partition G, there is a unique left coset 4Q The uniqueness assertion of Lemma 7.44 and the definition of j give
containing ghi; the first statement follows by defining ai = j. Assume that
ci = ak = j. Then ghi = I,xi and gh, = I,x,; thus ghix;' = ghkxil, hi1hk =
xr1xkE Q, hiQ = hkQ, and i = k. Therefore, a is an injection of a finite set to Factors may be rearranged in the abelian group Q/Q1:thus
itself, hence is a permutation.
This lemma will be used in two cases. The first has li = hi for all i; that is,
n yiQ' n z S , , i x , i ~ i ~ ' n xaiQ',
= =
because a-'aa S,, and so the inverse of each zi occurs and cancels zi.
E
Finally, n xaiQ1 n xiQ1 since a
the transversals coincide. In this case,
= E We have shown that is indepen-
S,. V
dent of the choice of transversal.
Let g, g' E G and let {El, . . .,1,} be a left transversal of Q in G. Thus, gli =
where a E S,, and xi E Q. The second case has two transversals, but we set luixiand glEi = Eriyi,where xi, yi E Q. Then
g = 1. Now
hj = lajyj,
where a E St,and yj E Q.
gives IAut(Q)I = (p2 - U(p2 - P) = P(P + I)(P - 02-Now NG(Q)/CG(Q)G finite. By the lemma, G' n Z(G) is finitely generated. As G' n Z(G) I Z(G) is
Aut(Q), so that 1 N/CI is a divisor of IAut(Q)j, and I N/CJ # 1 lest Burnside's abelian, it is finite if it has finite exponent (this is not true for nonabelian
theorem apply, Since Q 5 C, p does not divide I N/CI; since p is the smallest groups). Let V: G -+Z(G) be the transfer. If a E GI, then V(a) = 1; if a E Z(G),
+
prime divisor of /GI, IN/CI must divide p 1. But this is impossible if p is then V(a) = an, where n = [G : Z(G)] (Theorem 7.47). Therefore, G' n Z(G)
+
odd, for the smallest prime divisor of I N/CI is > p 2. (We have shown that has exponent n, and hence is finite. As G' is an extension of one finite group
if p is odd, then p3 must divide 1 GI.) Moreover, if p = 2, then IAut(Q)I = 6 and by another finite group, it, too, is finite.
IN/CI = 3, so that /GI is divisible by 22 x 3 = 12. H
The reader should be aware of two theorems of Griin whose proofs involve
The simple group A , has order 60, and 60 is divisible by 12 but not by 8. the transfer; if G is a finite group and P is a Sylow subgroup, then one may
There is an infinite class of simple groups, the Suzuki groups, whose orders often compute P n G' (see Robinson (1982, pp. 283-256)).
are not divisible by 3, hence not by 12 (their orders are divisible by 8). The We state some other theorems guaranteeing p-nilpotence.
magnificent result of Feit and Thompson says that every simple nonabelian
group G has even order, and so I GI is divisible by either 8 or 12. Theorem (Tate, 11964). Let G be a finite group, and let P I G be a Sylow
In Chapter 5, we gave an elementary but ingenious proof of a theorem of p-subgroup of G. If N a G and N n P 2 (D(P), then N is p-nilpoterzt.
Schur (Theorem 5.32). We now give a straightforward proof of this theorem
using the transfer; indeed, it was Schur who invented the transfer in order to ProoJ The original proof is short, using the 5-term exact sequence in co-
give the forthcoming proof of Theorem 7.57. homology of groups; a longer proof using the transfer is in Huppert (1967),
It is not generally true (see Theorem 11.48) that a subgroup of a finitely p.431. Ell
generated group G is itself finitely generated.
Call a subgroup H of a group G p-local, for some prime p, if there is some
Lemma 7.56. If G is a finitely generated group and H is a subgroup of G of nontrivial p-subgroup Q of G with H = NG(Q).
finite index, then H is finitely generated.
Theorem (Frobenikas). A group G is p-nilpotent if and only if euery p-local
Proo$ Let G = (g,, . . . , g,) and let t,, ... , tn be right coset representatives of
subgroup H of G is p-nilpotent.
H with I , = I; thus, G = U;=, Ht,. Enlarging the generating set if necessary,
we may assume that if g, is a generator, then g,' = g, for some k.
ProoJ See [Aschbacher, p. 203). Pi!
For all i, j, there is h(i, j) E H with tigj = h(i, j)t,,i,j,. We claim that N is
generated by all the h(i, j). If a E H, then a = gilgi2...giS;no exponents are
needed since the inverse of a generator is also a generator. Now If p is a prime and P is a Sylow p-subgroup of a group G, define E(P) =
{x E Z(P): x P = 1). If pd(P) is the largest order of an elementary abelian sub-
group of P, then the Tho~npnro~i sasbgrorsp J(P) is defined as the subgroup of G
= h(1, i,)tltgi2...gis some 1' generated by all the elementary abelian p-subgroups of G of order pd(P).
. .- gis
/
Theorem 7.57 (Schur). If Z(G) has finite index in a group G, then G' is finite. 7.45. Let Q be a subgroup of finite index 11 in a group G, and let { y l , . . . , y,) be a right
transversal of Q in G. For a E G, yia = piy,, for pi E Q and z E S,. Prove that
Pro05 As in the proof of Theorem 5.32, G' has a finite number of generators. R: G - - Q/Q1,defined by X(a) = piQ1,is the transfer; that is, R(a) = V(a) for
Now G'/(G1 n Z(G)) GIZ(G)/Z(G)5 G/Z(G), so that G'/(G1 n Z(G)) is all a E G. (Hint. Exercise 7.37.)
Projective Representations and the Schur Multiplier 20 1
200 7. Extensions and Cohomology
7.47. (i) Let q and p be primes such that q E 1 mod pe. Show that the multiplicative HPJ.oo$ Recall that B arises from the equation: for all x E Q and a E K,
group Z," contains a cyclic subgroup isomorphic to Z,,. (Hint: Theorem
2.18.)
(ii) Let G = C, x ... x C,, where Ci is cyclic of order pPi for (not necessarily where I(x) is a lifting of x. Assume that 0 is trivial. Every g E G has the form
distinct) primes pi. Use Dirichlet's theorem (see the remark following Exer- g = b + l(x) for some b E K and x E Q. If a E K , then a commutes with l(x) for
cise 7.46) to show that there are n distinct primes qi with qi = 1 mod pfi for all x E Q; since I< is abelian, a commutes with g, and so n E Z(G). Conversely,
i = 1, ..., n.
if G is a central extension, each a E K commutes with every l(x) and so
(iii) If G is a finite abelian group, then G can be imbedded in Z i for some
n
m. (Hint. Let m = qi, and use Theorem 7.3 (iii).) (This proof is due to
G. McCormick.)
$,(a) = a for all x E Q and a E K.
Theorem 9.59. There is a bijection from the set of all equivalence classes of
7.48. (i) If V: G -, QIQ' is the transfer, then G' 5 ker V and V induces a homomor- central extensions realizing data (Q, K , 0), where 6 is trivial, to H2(Q, K).
phism v: GIG' -+ QIQ', namely, G'a H V(a).
(ii) Prove that the transfer is transitive: if P < Q < G are subgroups of finite
A.oo$ Thzorem 7,34 specializes to this result once we take account of the
index, and if T: G -+ QIQ', U:G -,PIP', and V: Q + PIP' are transfers, then
8 = VT. lemma. El ,/'
/'
7.49. If Q has index iz in G, and if K 5 G satisfies G = KQ and Q I CG(K), then Definition. If Q is a group, then its Schur m t s b ~ l i e r(or
. nzultiplicator) is the
V(a) = anQ' for all a E G. (Hint. There is a transversal of Q contained in I<; if abelian group .
a E K and g E K, then g-larg E Q I CG(K),and this implies a' E C,(I<)~-' = M(Q) = H2(Q, C x 1,
CG(gfGl-') = CG(K1.1
where C x denotes the multiplicative group of nonzero complex numbers.
7.50. If G is a finite group of order mn, where (nz, n) = 1, and if Q I Z(G) is a Hall
subgroup of order my then K = ker V is a normal complement of Q (where Since C x is written multiplicatively, it is more convenient to write
V: G -, Q/Q' is the transfer), and G = K x Q.
M(Q) = H2(Q, C x ) multiplicatively as well. Thus, with 8 trivial, a function
7.51. Let G be a torsion-free group having a cyclic subgroup of finite index. Prove f : Q x Q -,C x is a factor set if and only if, for all x, y E Q:
that G is cyclic.
f ( l , Y) = 1 = f(x, 1);
7.52. If p and q are primes, prove that every group of order p2qZis solvable. f (x, y)f (xy,z)-lf(x, yz)f(x, Y)-l = 1;
7.53. If G is a nonabelian group with /GI < 100 and IGI # 60, then G is solvable. (See a function g: Q x Q -+C is a coboundary if and only if there is a function
Exercise 4.36.) (The next order of a nonabelian simple group is 168.)
Projective Representations and the Schur Multiplier 203
202 7. Extensions and Cohomology
h: Q -+C with h(1) = 1 such that complex matrices modulo its center, the normal subgroup Z(n, C) of all non-
zero scalar matrices.
g(xY Y)= h(y)h(xy)-'h(x).
Two factor sets f and g are equivalent if and only if fg-I is a coboundary. Just as GL(n, C) consists of automorphisms of a vector space, we shall see
in Chapter 9 that PGL(n, C) consists of automorphisms of a projective space.
Definition. If G is a finite group, its minimal exponent, denoted by exp(G), is An important example of a central extension is provided by GL(n, C), which
the least positive integer e for which xe = 1 for all x E G. is a central extension of C x by PGL(n, C). Note that Z(n, C) r C x .
"Ordinary" representations of Q are homomorphisms Q -+ GL(n, C); they
have been well studied and contain valuable information about Q. The ques-
Theorem 7.60. If Q is a finite group, then M(Q) is a finite abelian group and
tion whether a given irreducible representation cp of a normal subgroup H a
exp(M(Q)) divides 1 QI.
Q can be extended to a representation of Q leads, in a natural way, to a
projective representation of Q. If x E Q, one can define a new representation
Remark. The first paragraph of the proof is just a repetition, in multiplicative cpx: H -, GL(n, @) by cpX(h)= ~(xhx-');this makes sense because x11x-' E H
notation, of a portion of the proof given in Theorem 7.39. for all 12 E H. To make it easier to extend cp, let us assume (as would be the
Pro05 Iff: Q x Q --+ C is a factor set, define a: Q --+ @ " by case were cp extendable to G) that the representations cp and cpx are all similar;
that is, there is a nonsingular matrix Px with cp(x1zx-') = Pxcp(lz)P;' for all
h E H (of course, we may choose PI to be the identity matrix E). Now choose
a transversal T of H in Q, so that each x E Q has a unique expression of the
Note that a(1) = 1. Now multiply the cocycle identity form x = th for t E T and h E H. The obvious candidate for an extension
f (Y7 z)f (xy, z)-'f (x, yzlf (x, Y)-' = 1 0 : Q 3 GL(n, C) of cp is @(th)= P,cp(h); it is clear that cD is a well defined
function that extends cp. If h' E H and x = th E Q (where t E T and 12 E H),
over all z E Q to obtain then
cp(xlifx-' ) = q(thhlh-It-')
where 12 = IQI (as z rangesrbver all of Q, so does yz). But this equation says
that (f B2(Q, C " ))" = 1; that is, M(Q)" = 1. Thus, the minimal exponent of
M(Q) divides n when Q is finite.
For each x E Q, define h: Q --+ C x by choosing h(1) = 1 and h(x) to be
some nth root of G(x)-': h(x)" = a(x)-'. Define g: Q x Q --+ C x by g(x, y) =
f(x, y)h(y)h(xy)-'h(x). Clearly, f and g are equivalent, for they differ by a It follows that if x, y E Q, then
coboundary. On the other hand,
T: -
Definition. A projective representation of a group Q is a homomorphism
Q PGL(n, C) = GL(n, @)/Z(n,@), the group of all nonsingular n x n
homomorphism Q -, PGL(n, C), namely, x t-, @(x)Z(n,C).
It will be more convenient for the coming computations to think of projec-
204 7. Extensions and Cohomology Projective Representations and the Schur Multiplier 205
tive representations z: Q -+ PGL(n, C) not as homomorphisms whose values We say that U has the projective lbt$tirzg property if every projective repre-
are cosets mod Z(n, 6 ) but, as they have just occurred above, as matrix- sentation of Q can be lifted to U .
valgedfianctiorrs T satisfying the equation
By Theorem 7.30, the elements of the central extension U may be viewed
as ordered pairs (a, x) E K x Q, where K = ker v. With this understanding, z
for all x, y E Q, where f,: Q x Q -+ C x is a function. Of course, one can al- ) all (a, x) E U . As
can be lifted to U if and only if nz"(a,x) = -cv(a,x) = ~ ( xfor
ways obtain this latter form by arbitrarily choosing (matrix) representatives usual, we replace z by a matrix-valued function T ; the equation nZ((a, x)) =
of the cosets z(x) in PGL(n, C); that is, if n: GL(n, C) 4 PGL(n, C) is the z(x) in PGL(n, C) is now replaced by a matrix equaton in GL(n, C):
natural map, choose T(x) with nT(x) = z(x). We always choose the identity
matrix E as the representative of ~ ( 1 )that
; is, T(1) = E.
for some function p: U -, C ", where U = K x Q.
7:Q --+ PGL corresponds to a matrix-valued function T with T(x)T(y) = If a = b = 1 in (4), then
h(x, y)T(xy), then r can be lifted to U if and only if [A] G im 6; that is, there
is y E K* with 6(y) = [ y o el = [A].
If [A] E im 6, then, for all x, y E Q, there is rp E I<* and h: Q 4 C x with Finally, setting b = 1 and x = 1 gives ~ ( ay), = y(a)p(y). Hence
(3) Y O 4%Y)= A(x, y)h(y)h(xy)-lh(x).
As in Theorem 7.30, regard the elements of U as ordered pairs (a, x) E IC x Q. and so rp 0 e(x, y)A(x, y)-' is a factor set. Therefore, [f,] = [y o el = 6(y),
Define z": U -+ GL(n, C) by as desired.
?(a, x) = y(a)h(x)T(x).
Several properties of character groups, proved in Chapter 10, will be used
We compute: in the next proof. A (multiplicative) abelian group D is called divisible if every
element d E D has an nth root in D; that is, for every n > 0, there exsts x E D
with x n = d. For example, C x is a divisible group.
Definition. If Q is a group, then a cover (or representation group) of Q is a It should not be surprising that calculations of the multiplier are best done
central extension U of K by Q (for some abelian group K) with the projective using techniques of Homological Algebra, Cohomology of Groups, and Rep-
lifting property and with K I U'. resentation Theory; for example, see Huppert (1967,§V.25) and Karpilovsky
(1987). Indeed, the proofs given above fit into a general scheme (e.g., the
The following lemma will be used in proving the existence of covers. It transgression homomorphism 6 arises in the "five-term exact sequence" as
follows from the preceding two lemmas that if a cover U of a finite group Q the map H1(K, C " ) -+H ~ ( Qa), " )). When Q is finite, we mention that M(Q)
exists, where U is a central extension of K by Q, then K r M(Q). has been calculated in many cases; sometimes it is 1; sometimes it is not.
EXAMPLE
7.17. Covers U of a finite group Q need not be unique.
Lemma 7.65. If Q is a finite group, then the subgroup B2(Q, C ') has a finite
complement M 2 M(Q) in Z 2(Q, C " ). If Y is the Cgroup, consider the central extensions U of K E 2, by V,
where U z D, or U z Q, the quaternions. In each case, K = Z(U) = U', so
Proof. We first show that B ~ ( QC, " ) is a divisible group. If f E B2(Q, C x),
that U is a central extension with K I U'. It follows from Lemma 7.64 that
then there is h: Q -+ C x with h(1) = 1 and, for all x, y E Q, M(V) # 1. We shall see in Chapter 11 that M(V) = if2; it will then follow
from Lemma 7.63 that both D, and Q are (nonisomorphic) covers of V.
-
For n > 0 and each x E Q, let k(x) be an nth root of h(x) with 141) = 1. Then
g: Q x Q C x , defined by g(x, y) = k(y)k(xy)-'k(x), is a coboundary with
g" = f. By Corollary 10.24, B2(Q, a) " ) has a complement M in Z2(Q, C " ).
The following discussion comparing two central extensions of a group Q
will be completed in Chapter 11 when we show that covers of perfect groups,
in particular, covers of simple groups, are unique. Consider the commutative
But M z Z2(Q, C " )/B2(Q, @ ") = M(Q), which is finite, by Theorem 7.60. diagram
Theorem 7.66 (Schur, 1904). Every finite group Q has a cover U which is a
central extension of M(Q) by Q.
satisfies the cocycle identity: for all x, y, z E Q. p*: L* -+ K* given by $ F+ 11o p, v;here 11:L -+ C x is in L*.
The diagram gives two transgressions: denote them by 6 ': K* -+ M ( Q ) and
by aV:L* -+ M(Q).
and the last term is 1 because every f E M is a factor set. Similarly, s(1, y) = Lemma 7.67. Consider the cornnzutative diagram
1 = s(x, 1)for all x, y E Q because, for example, s(1, y): f r f(1, y) = 1. There-
fore, s E Z2(Q, M*). Let U be the corresponding central extension of M* by Q.
To see that U is a cover of Q, it suffices,by Lemmas 7.61 and 7.62, to prove that
the transgression 6: M** 4 M(Q) is an isomorphism. If [f ] E M(Q), then
f E Z2(Q, a) ); since Z 2 = B2 x Myf has a unique expression f = bf ', where
b~ B2(Q, ex),f r ~ M , a n d [ f ] = [bf'] = [ f t ] . N o w p ( f ' ) ~ C Xmakessense
for all p E M* (since f ' E M), and it is easy to check that q : M** 4 6 " , given
by q:p r p(f '), is a homomorphism. By definition, 6(q) = [q 0 s]. The whose rows are central extensions. Then 6 'j?* = 6 '.
composite q o s: Q x Q -+M* 4 C x sends (x, y) r S(X,y) F+ q(s(x, y)) =
S(X,y) (f ') = f '(x, y); that is, q o s = f ' and 6(q) = [q o s] = [f '1 = [f 1. Proof: Let e: Q x Q -+ K be a factor set of the top extension; we may
Therefore, 6 is surjective. But IM**I = IM(Q)I, since M r M(Q) is finite, and assume that U consists of all (a, x) E K x Q with multiplication (a, x)(b, y) =
so 6 must be an isomorphism. El (abe(x, y), xy) and with v(a, x) = x. Similarly, let f : Q x Q -+ L be a factor set
210 7. Extensions and Cohomology Derivations 21 1
of the bottom extension, so that V consists of all (c, x) E L x Q with (c, x)(d, y) Theorem 7.69. If every Sylow subgroup of a finite group Q is cyclic, then
= (cdf (x, y), xy) and with p(c, x) = x. M(Q) = 1.
Now a((1, x)) = (h(x), 1(x)) E V, and x = v(1, x) = pa((1, x)) = p((h(x), 1(x))
= E(x); hence, x = I(x), and a(1, x) = (h(x),x). Note also that (a, x) = (a, 1)(1, x) Proof. For such a group, exp(Q) = 1 Ql. By Theorem 7.68, exp(M(Q)) = 1, and
for all a E I<and x E Q. soM(Q) = 1. E 3
For all x, y E Q,
Corollary 7.768.
(i) For every n 2 1, M(Z,,) = 1.
(ii) If Q has squarefree order, then M(Q) = 1.
Therefore, Derivations
P O 4x9 Y)= f(x7 y)h(y)h(xy)-lh(x);
We again consider general data (Q, K, 8) consisting of a group Q, an (addi-
that is,
tive) abelian group K, and a not necessarily trivial homomorphism 0: Q -+
CP 0 el = CfI E w e ) -
Aut(I<) giving an action of Q on K.
It follows easily, for any $ E L*, that [$ o /3 o el = [$ of]. Hence, SUP*($)
= SU($o ,!?) = [$ o P o el = [$ o f ] = SV($),as desired. B l ~efinition.Given data (Q, K, 0), a deriuntion (or crossed homomorphism) is a
function d: Q -+ K such that
Theorem '7.68 (Allperin-Kuo, 1967). If Q is a finite group, e = exp(M(Q)),and /
e' = exp(Q), then ee' divides I QI. +
d(xy) = xd(y) d(x).
The set Der(Q, K, 8) of all derivations is an abelian group under the follow-
Proof (Brandis). We first show that if U is a finite group with subgroup ing operation: if d, d' E Der(Q, K, 0), then d + dl: x H d(x) + df(x).In partic-
I<I U' n Z(U), then exp(K) exp(U/K) divides I UlKl. Let A be an abelian ular, if 8 is trivial, then Der(Q, K) = Hom(Q, K).
subgroup with K I A < U, and let V: U -+ A be the transfer. Since A is
abelian, I< < U' < ker V , so that u E K implies V(u) = 1. By Theorem 7.47, if EXAMPLE 7.18. 'Let data (Q, K, 8) be given. For fixed a E K , the function
u E Z(U), then V(u) = un.Therefore, if u E K 5 U' nZ(U), then x n = 1, and so d,: Q -+ I<, defined by x H a - xa is easily checked to be a derivation: it is
e = exp(I<)divides n = [U : A] = [UIK : AIK]. Hence, elA/KI divides ] UIKI. called the puinckak de~iaationdetermined by a.
In particular, this holds for all cyclic subgroups AIK < UIK (for I U/KI does EXAMPLE 7-19. Let G be an extension realizing data (Q, K , 0), so that G con-
not depend on n). But e' = exp(U/K) divides IAIKI for all cyclic AIK, and so
ee' divides I UIK I.
+ + +
sists of all (a, x) E K x Q with (a, x) (b, y) = (a xb f ( x , y), xy) for a
factor set f. If y: 6 -+ G is a stabilizing automorphism, then y: (a, x) H
If U is a cover of Q, then M(Q) K < Z(U), for U is a central extension. +
(a d(x), x) for some d(x) E K, and the reader may checlc that d is a derivation.
Now K < U', by definition of cover, so that K < U' n Z(U). By the first
paragraph, exp(K) exp(U/K) divides I UIKI. But K z M(Q) and UIK z Q,
Theorem 7.71. Let G be an extension realizing data (Q, K, 8). If A is the
and this gives the result. Bl
stabilizer of this extension, then
We remark that Schur proved that if e = exp(M(Q)),then e2 divides IQI.
212 7. Extensions and Cohomology Derivations
Proo$. Regard G as all (a, x) E K x Q. As in Example 7.19, if y E A, then PDer(Q, ICY0). Hence
y: (a, x) I--+ (a + d(x), x), where d is a derivation. Define q: A -+ Der(Q, K, 8)
by q(y) = d. Now q is a homomorphism: if y' E A, then y': (a, x) H
(a + dr(x),x), and y'y: (a, x) H (a + d(x) + dl(x), x). We see that y? is an iso-
morphism by constructing its inverse: if d is a derivation, define y: G -+ G by
+
y : (a, x) I-+ (a d (x), x). &!
Since we will be dealing with two transversals in the next theorem, let us
Lemma 4.72. Let G be a semidirect product K x,Q, and let y: (a, x) I-+ write the elements of a semidirect product G = K >a, Q not as ordered pairs
+
(a d(x), x) be a stabilizing automorphism of G. Then y is an inner auto- +
(a, x), but rather as sums a l(x), where 1: Q -, G is a transversal.
morphism if and only if d is a principal derivation.
Theorem 7.74. Let G = K >a, Q, where K is abelian, and let C and C' be corn-
ProoJ If d is a principal derivation, then there is b E K with d(x) = b - xb. plemerzts of K in G. If H'(Q, K , 0) = 0, then C and C' are conjugate.
Hence y(a, x) = (a + b - xb, x). But
(by1) + (a, x) - (by1) = (b + a, x) Remark. By Theorem 7.34, the hypothesis is satisfied if H2(Q, K, 0) = 0.
= (b + a - xb, x), Proo$. Since C and C' are complements of I<, they are isomorphic: C g
GIK z Q e C'; choose isomorphisms I: Q 4 C and 1': Q 4 C'. Both C and C'
so that y is conjugation by (b, 1). are also transversals of IC in G, and so they determine factor sets f and f '
Conversely, if y is conjugation by (byy), then for all (a, x) E G, (where, for example, E(x) + l(y) = f(x, y) + E(xy)). By Lemma 7.31, there is a
?(a, 4 = (b, Y)+ (a, X)- (by Y) function h: Q 4 K, namely, h(x) = ll(x) - l(x), with
= (b + ya, yx) + (- y-I b, y-l)
= (b + ya - yxy-'by yxy-'). Since 1 and 1' are homomorphisms, it follows that both f and J" are identi-
Since y is stabilizing, we must have yxy-I = x, so that
+
cally zero. Thus, f '(x, y) - f(x, y) is identically zero, h(xy) = xh(y) h(x),
and h is a derivation. The hypothesis H1(Q, K, 0) = 0 says that h is a princi-
y(a, x) = (ya + b - xb, x). pal derivation; that is, there is b E I<with
Finally, if we choose x = 1, then (a, 1) = y(a, 1) (because y is stabilizing), and lr(x) - l(x) = Iz(x) = b - xb.
so (a, 1) = (yay1). Therefore, ya = a for all a, and so y (a, x) = (a + b - xb, x) Therefore,
= (a + d(x), x), where d(x) = b - xb is a principal derivation. El
ll(x) = b + (-xb + l(x)) = b + l(x) - b;
It is easy to see that PDer(Q, K, 8), the set of all principal derivations, is a
subgroup of Der(Q, K, 0).
that is, C' =b + C - b is a conjugate of C. H
If 0 is trivial, then H1(Q, K, 0) = Horn(Q, K). In particular, if Q is abelian For example, if do is a principal derivation, then ker d, is the set of all x E Q
and K = C x , then H1(Q, K) is the character group Hom(Q, C x ) = Q*. which fix a.
Theorem 7.73. If (Q, K, 0) are data and G = H x, Q, then Lemma 7.75. Let (Q, K , 0) be data, and let d: Q 4 K be a derivation.
H1(Q, K, 0) 4 Aut(G)/Inn(G). (i) d(1) = 0.
(ii) d(x-l) = -x-ld(x).
ProoJ Let A be the stabilizer of the extension and let q : A 4 Der(Q, K, 0) (iii) lter d is a szibgroup of Q.
be the isomorphism of Theorem 7.71. By Lemma 7.72, q ( A n Inn(G)) = (iv) d(x) = d(y) if and only if x-ly E lter d.
214 7. Extensions and Cohomology Derivations 215
ProoPf. (i) d(1) = d(l '1) = Id(1) d(1).+ (ii) If Ic E K, then K a E implies lilkli E I<.Thus, kli = li(l[lkli) so that
(ii) 0 = d(1) = d(x-lx) = x-ld(x) + d(x-I). rc,(lc) = l~llcliand the permutation a determined by Ic is the identity. But
(iii) 1 E ker d, by (i). If x, y E ker d, then d(x) = 0 = d(y). Hence, d(xy-') = a,(k) = lirci(k)l;' = k, for all i, and so d(k) = n;=, ai(k) = Ic".
xd(y-') + d(x) = - xy-'d(y) + d(x) = 0. Therefore, xy-' E ker d and so ker d (iii) Recall that el, = l,,rc,(e); if e = lj, then ljli = l,1 for some 1, E L, because
is a subgroup of Q. L is now assumed to be a subgroup. Hence, rci(lj) = 1 = ai(lj)for all i (because
(iv) Now d(xA1y)= x-ld(y) + d(xml)= x-'d(y) - x-'d(x). Hence, if d(x) a, is a conjugate of rc,), and so d(lj) = 1 for every j.
= d(y), then d(xM1y)= 0. Conversely, if d(x-'y) = 0, then x-'d(y) = x-'d(x) (iv) First, note that d(k-l) =d(k)-l, by Lemma 7.75 (ii), because both k-I and
and d (y) = d(x). H d(Ic)-' lie in the abelian group K. Wow, d(k-lek) = d(ek)k-'d(k-') = d(eIc)d(k-I),
because both d(ek) and k-I lie in the abelian group I<, and d(ek)d(kw1)=
The subgroup ker d need not be a normal subgroup. d(k)ed(e)d(k-l)=d(k)ed(e)d(lc)-l. El
We are going to use derivations to give another proof of the Schur-
Zassenhaus lemma. Given data (Q, I<, 0), it is now more convenient to write The definition of the derivation d is reminiscent of the transfer; indeed, it is
the abelian group K multiplicatively. Assume that an abelian normal sub- now easy to see that dlK is the transfer.
group K has finite index n in a group E, and let I,, . . ., 1, be a left transversal The following proof is due to I<. Gruenberg and B.A.F. Wehrfritz.
of K in G; that is, E = U:=, 1,K. As in Lemma 7.44, if e E E, then there is a
unique rc,(e) E K with el, = E,,rc,(e), where o is a permutation (depending on e). Theorem 7.77 (=Theorems 7.40 and 19.49). Given data (Q, K, 8) with Q a finite
Define ai(e) = laiici(e)l;l, so that group, K a finite abelian group, and (IKI, IQI) = 1, then every extension G of
eli = ai(e)lai, K by Q realizing the data is a senzidirect product; moreover, any two comple-
and define a function d: E -,K by rnents of K in G are cotzjugate.
Pros$. Let E be an extension of I< by Q realizing the data and let I Q I = tz.
Define L = lter d, where d: Q -,K is Cruenberg's derivation. By Lemma 7.75
(iii), L is a subgroup of Q. We claim that L n K = 1. If a E I<, then d(a) = an,
Lemma 7.76 (Granenberg). Let K be an abelian normal subgroup of finite index
by Lemma 7.76 (ii); if a E L, then d(a) = 1, by definition of kernel; hence,
in a group E, and let L = {l,, ...,I,) be a left transversal of K in E.
a" = 1 for all a E L n K. But (lKI, n) = 1, by hypothesis, so that a = 1. Let us
(i) If 0: E -+ Aut(K) is defined by %(k) = eke-', then the function d defined now set that E = KL. If e E E, then d(e) E I<. Since (I K 1, n) = 1, there is k E K
above is a derivation. with d(e) = k-", by Exercise 1.31. Hence d(e) = k-" =f(k-I), by Lemma 7.76
(ii) If k E I<, then d(k) = kn. (ii), and so Ice E L = ker d, by Lemma 7.75 (iv). Therefore, e = kR1(ke)E KL,
(iii) If L is a complement of K in E, then L Iker d. and E is a semidirect product.
(iv) If k E I( and e E E, then d(kblek) = d(k)"d(e)d(k)-'. We now show that if Y is another complement of K in E, then Y and L are
conjugate. Note that each of Y and L is a transversal of I< in E. Let Y =
ProoJ (i) Iff E E, then fl, = a,(f )lri,where z is a permutation. Now {y,, . . . ,y,) and L = {I,, . . . , I,), and write y, = c,l, for ci E K. The derivation
determined by L is d(e) =
Hi
ni a,(e); the derivation determined by Y is 6(e) =
ai(e), where ai(e) E K and ey, = ai(e)yri.But
ey, = ecili = (ecie-')eli = cfai(e)lai= cFai(e)cz/y,,;
since (ef)li = ai(ef)lWi,for some permutation o,so that ai(ef) = a,(f)"ari(e).
Since each a,(e) lies in the abelian group K, for e E E and 1 5 i 5 n, and since it follows that z = a, ct,(e) = cfai(e)c,l, and
z is a permutation, it follows that
Since (IKI, tz) = 1, there is k E K with c = lcn,by Exercise 1.31, and so c = d(k),
Therefore, d is a derivation. by Lemma 7.76 (ii). Hence, d(k-lek) = d(k)"df(e)d(Ic)- = ced(e)c-', by Lemma
216 7. Extensions and Cohomology
7.54. If G = li; x, Q, then every transversal I: Q -+ G has the form 1(x) = (d(x), x) for
some d(x) E K. Show that I is a homomorphism if and only if d is a derivation.
7.55. Give an example of a derivation d: Q -+ K whose kernel is not a normal sub-
group of Q.
7.56. If 0: Q -+ Aut(K) is trivial, then H1(Q, K) z Hom(Q, K). Conclude that if B is an
abelian group, then H1(B,C X) r B*, the character group of B.
7.57. Regard the elements of an extension G realizing data (Q, K, 8) as ordered pairs
(a, x) E K x Q, let 1: Q -+ G be the transversal 1(x) = (0, x), and let f : Q x Q -+ K
be the corresponding factor set. If d: G -+ K is Gruenberg's derivation, show
that d(a, x) = Iza + CyEa f(x, y), where n = IQI.
7.58. Let h 3 = (a), let Z, = (x), and define an action 0 of B, on h 3 by ax = a-l. The Jordan-Hijlder theorem tells us that once we know extensions and
Show that H1(Z,, Z,, 8) = 0. (Hint.S3 r Z3 x Z,, and Aut(S3)/Inn(S3)= 1.)
simple groups, then we know all finite groups. There are several infinite
7.59. Let 9 : G -+ G be a homomorphism, and let G act on itself by conjugation: if families of finite simple groups (in addition to the cyclic groups of prime
g, x E G, then gx = xgx-'. Show that d: G -+ G, defined by d(g) = gq(g)-', satis- order and the large alternating groups), and our main concern in this chapter
fies the equation is the most "obvious" of these, the projective unimodular groups, which arise
d(gg') = d(g')gd(g). naturally from the group of all matrices of determinant 1 over a field K. Since
(Thus, d would be a derivation if G were abelian. This function d has already these groups are finite only when the field IC is finite, let us begin by examining
arisen in Exercise 1.50 and in the proof of Theorem 7.33.) the fidite fields.
/
Given data (Q, K, 8), there are cohomology groups Hi(Q, K, 8) for all i 2 0
and hoinology groups Hi(Q, K, 0) for all i 2 0. Cohomology of Groups is
the interpretation and computation of these groups. We have already Finite Fields
discussed the cohomology groups Hi(Q, K, 8) for i = 1, 2. The group
HO(Q,K, 0) consists of fixed points: Definition. If I< is a field, a subfield of K is a subring k of K which contains
the inverse of every nonzero element of k. A prime field is a field lc having no
HO(Q,K, 0) = (a E K: xa = a for all x E Q); proper subfields.
the group H3(Q, I(,0) is involved with obstructions: what sorts of data can
extensions with nonabelian kernels realize. Now H,(Q, K) is the maximal Theorem 8.1. Every field I< contains a unique prirne subfi'elcl li, nrzd eitlzer
Q-trivial quotient of K. If K = Z and 0 is trivial, then the first homology k r or k E Z, for some prirne p.
group H1(Q, Z) r Q/Q' and, when Q is finite, the second homology group
H,(Q, Z) r M(Q). There are also some standard homomorphisms between ProoJ If lc is the intersection of all the subfields of K, then it is easy to check
these groups, one of which, corestriction, generalizes the transfer. A funda- that k is the unique prime subfield of K. Define X: Z -+K by ~ ( n= ) rzl, where
mental idea is to construct the group ring ZG of a group G and to observe 1 denotes the "one" in K. It is easily checked that x is a ring homomorphism
that G acting on an abelian group K corresponds to K being a ZG-module. with im x c lc. Since K is a field, im x is a domain and ker x must be a prime
Indeed, our notation Hi(Q, K, 0) is usually abbreviated to Hi(Q, K) by ideal in Z. Therefore, either ker x = 0 or lter 31 = (p) for some prime p. In the
assuming at the outset that K is a ZG-module. first case, im x r Z and k contains an isomorphic copy F of the fraction field
of Z, namely, Q; as 1c is a prime field, k = F r Q. In the second case, k
218 8. Some Simple Linear Groups The General Linear Group 219
contains an isomorphic copy E of Z/ker x = Z,, which is a field; as k is .a Theorem 8.4. If p is a prinze, then the group Aut(GF(pn))of all field atitomor-
prime field, k = E r Z,. BI phisrns of GF(pn)is cyclic of order n.
Defiaition. If K is a field with prime field k, then K has characteristic 0 if ProoJ Let k be the prime field of K = GF(pn).If n is a primitive element of
lz r Q and K has characteristicp if lz E Z,. K, as in the lemma, then ihere is an irreducible polynomial g(x) E k[x] of
degree n having 7c as a root. Since every q E Aut(K) must fix Iz pointwise
Observe that if K has characteristic p 2 0, then pa =0 for all a E K. (because cp(1) = I), Lemma 5.1 shows that cp(n) is also a root of g(x). As
K = k(n), Lemma 5.2 shows that q is completely determined by cp(n). It
Corollary 8.2. If K is a finite field, then 1 Kl = pn for some prime p and some follows that IAut(l<)l 5 n, because g(x), having degree n, has at most n roots.
n 2 1. The map a: K -,K, given by o(a) = aP,is an automorphism of K. If 1 I i<n
and a i = 1, then a = api for every a E K. In particular, npi-l = 1, contra-
ProoJ If Iz is the prime field of K, then k $ Q because I< is finite; therefore, dicting n having order pn - 1 in I<". Therefore, (a) < Aut(I<) is cyclic of
k r Z,for some prime p. We may view K as a vector space over Z, (the order n, and so Aut(K) = (a).
"vectors" are the elements of K, the "scalars" are the elements of k, and the
"scalar multiplication" aa, for a E 12 and a E K, is just their product in K); if K We remark that Aut(GF(pn))is the Galois group Gal(GF(pn)/Zp),for
has dimension n, then 111' = pn. every cp E Aut(GF(pn))fixes the prime field Zp pointwise.
There exist infinite fields of prime characteristic; for example, the field of all
rational functions over Zp (i.e., the fraction field of Z,[x]) is such a field.
The existence and uniqueness of finite fields are proven in Appendix VI: for The General Linear Group
every prime p and every integer n 2 1, there exists a field with pn elements
(Theorem VI.19); two finite fields are isomorphic if and only if they have the Groups of nonsingular matrices are as natural an object of study as groups
same number of elements (Theorem VI.20). Finite fields are called Gabis of permutations: the latter consists of "automorphisms" of a set; the former
fields after their discoverer; we thus denote the field with q = pn elements by consists of automorphisms of a vector space.
GF(q) (another common notation for this field is IF,) though we usually
denote GF(p) by Z,. Deffnwition.If V is an m-dimensional vector space over a field K , then the
Recall that if E is a field, k is a subfield, and n E E, then k(n), the subfield of genirlak h e a r group GL(V) is the group of all nonsingular linear transforma-
E obtained by adjoining n to k, is the smallest subfield of E containing k and tions on V (with composite as operation).
n; that is, k(n) is the intersection of all the subfields of E containing k and n.
If one chooses an ordered basis (el, .. ., em) of V, then each T E GL(V)
Definition. A primitive element of a finite field K is an element n E K with xi
determines a matrix A = [aij], where Te, = aijei(the jth colurnn of A con-
K = lz(n), where k is the prime field. sists of the coordinates of Tej). The function T w A is an isomorphism
GL(V) -+ GL(mn, K), where GL(m, I<) is the multiplicative group of all nz x In
Lemma 8.3. There exists a primitive element n of GF(pn);moreover, n may be nonsingular matrices over K. When I< = GF(q), we may write GL(m, q) ,
chosen to be a root of an irreducible polynomial g(x) E Z,[x] of degree n. instead of GL(m, K).
ProoJ Let q = p" and let K = GF(q). By Theorem 2.18(ii), the multiplicative
group K x is cyclic; clearly, any generator n of K x is a primitive element of K
(there can be primitive elements of I ' that are not generators of Kx). By ProoJ Let V be an m-dimensional vector space over a field I<, and let
Lagrange's theorem, nq-I = 1 (for I K xI = q - I), and so n is a root off (x) = (el, . . . , em)be an ordered basis of V. If B denotes the family of all ordered
x4-I - 1. Factoring f(x) into a product of irreducible polynomials in k[x] bases of V, then there is a bijection GL(V) B: if T is nonsingular, then
-+
(where k r Zp is the prime field) provides an irreducible g(x) E k[x] having n (Te,, . . ., Ten,) is an ordered basis of V; if (v,, . . ., v,) is an ordered basis,
as a root. If g(x) has degree d, then k(n) is a subfield of K with [k(n) : k] = d then there exists a unique nonsingular T with Tei = vi for all i.
(Theorem VI.21 in Appendix VI); therefore, llz(n)( = pd. But k(n) = K (be- Let (v,, . . . , v,) be an ordered basis of V. Since there are qn' vectors in F/,
cause n is a primitive element) and so d = n. BB there are qm- 1 candidates for v, (the zero vector is not a candidate). Having
220 8. Some Simple Linear Groups The General Linear Group 221
chosen v,, the candidates for v, are those vectors in V not in (v,), the a matrix B that is similar to some B&); that is, B is a conjugate of some B,(A)
subspace spanned by v,; there are thus qm- q candidates for v,. More gener- in GL(m, K).
ally, having chosen an independent set {v,, ... ,v,), we may choose v,+, to be
any vector not in (v,, ...,v,), and so there are qm- qi candidates for vi+,. Every transvection is unimodular. Note that the inverse of an elementary
The result follows. transvection is another such: Bij(A)-I = Bij(- A); it follows that the inverse of
any transvection is also a transvection.
Notation. If V is an m-dimensional vector space over K = GF(q), if t is a If A E GL(m, K), then Bij(R)A is the matrix obtained from A by adding A
nonnegative integer, and if ?I is a primitive element of K, then times its jth row to its ith row.
M(t) = {A E GL(V): det A is a power of ?it).
Lemma 8.7. Let K be a field. If A E GL(mri, K ) and det A = p, then A =
Lemma 8.6. If Q = IGL(m, q)] and fi t is a divisor of q - 1, then M(t) is a UD(,u), where U is a product of elementary transvections and D =
normal subgroup of GL(m, q) of order Q/t. Moreover, if q - 1 = p1 . ..p,, where diag{l, 1, ..., 1, p).
the pi are (not necessarily distinct) primes, then the following normal series is
the beginning of a composition series: Proof. We prove, by induction on t 5 m - 1, that A can be transformed, by
a sequence of elementary operations which add a multiple of one row to
another, into a matrix of the form
Proof. Let K = GF(q). Use the correspondence theorem in the setting
det: GL(m, q) -+ K x
If t divides q - 1 = IK " I, then the cyclic subgroup (nr) of K " is normal (K " where E, is the t x t identity matrix.
is abelian), has order (q - l)/t, and has index t. Since M(t) is the subgroup of For the base step, note that the first column of A is not zero (A is non-
GL(m, q) corresponding to (?it), it is a normal subgroup of index t hence singular). Adding some row to the second row if necessary, we may assume
orderQ/t. Now IM(p1 i'i)/M(i'l Pi+l)I = (Q/Pl - p , . . . ~ i ) / (...Pi+l)
Q / ~ ~ = Pi+,; that a,, # 0. NOWadd a,i(l - a,,) times row 2 to row 1 get entry 1 in the
since the factor groups have prime order, they are simple. upper left corner. We may now make the other entries in column 1 equal
corner. We may now make the other entries in column 1 equal to zero by
Definition. A matrix (or linear transformation) having determinant 1 is called adding suitable multiples of row 1 to the other rows, and so A has been
u~airpror%lllar. transformed into A , .
For the inductive step, we may assume that A has been transformed into a
The subgroup M(q - 1) consists of all the unimodular matrices, for matrix At as displayed above. Note that C is nonsingular (for det A, = det C).
n"l = 1.
Assuming that C has at least two rows, we may further assume, as in the base
step, that its upper left corner y,+l,t+l = 1 (this involves only the rows of C,
Definition. If V is an m-dimensional vector space over a field K, then the hence does not'disturb the top t rows of A,). Adding on a suitable multiple of
special linear group SL(V) is the subgroup of GL(V) consisting of all the row t + 1 to the other rows of A, yields a matrix A,+,.
unimodular transformations. We may now assume that A has been transformed into
Choosing an ordered basis of V gives an isomorphism SL(V) -+ SL(m, K),
the group of all unimodular matrices. If K = GF(q), we may denote SL(m, K)
by SL(nz, q).
The following elementary matrices are introduced to analyze the structure where p E K and ,u # 0. Adding suitable multiples of the last row to the other
of SL(r72, K). rows cleans out the last column, leaving D(p).
In terms of matrix multiplication, we have shown that there is a matrix P,
Definition. Let A be a nonzero element of a field K, and let i # j be integers which is a product of elementary transvections, with PA = D(p). Therefore,
between 1 and m. An elementary transvection BJL) is the m x m matrix differ- A = P-'D(,u); this completes the proof because the inverse of an elementary
ing from the identity matrix E in that it has L as its ij entry. A transtrection is transvection is another such. Pl
222 8. Some Simple Linear Groups The General Linear Group
Theorem 8.9.
A choice of ordered basis of V induces an isomorphism q : SL(V) 2
(i) The center of GL(V) is Z(V). SL(m, K ) with q(SZ(V)) = SZ(nz, K), so that PSL(V) 2 SL(n2, K)/SZ(m,K).
(ii) The center of SL(m, K) is SZ(m, K). The latter group is denoted by PSE(m, I().When I( = GF(q), we may denote
PSL(m, K) by PSL(m, q).
PI'QQJ(i) If T E CL(V) is not a scalar transformation, then there is u E V with
we shall see, in Chapter 9, that these groups are intimately related to
projective geometry, whence their name.
(v, Tu) independent; extend this to a basis (v, Tv, u3, ...,urn)of K It is easy to
see that {u, v + Tu, u3, ..., u,) is also a basis of V, so that there is a (non-
+
singular) linear transformation S: V -+ V with Sv = v, S(Tu) = u Tv, and Theorem 8.11. If d = (m, q - I), then
Su, = ui for all i 2 3. Now T and S do not commute, for TS(v) = Tu while IPSL(n2, q)l = (qm- l)(qm- q) ...(qm- qm-')Id.
ST(v) = v + TV. Therefore, T 4 Z(GL(V)), and it follows that Z(GL(V)) =
Z( ProoJ Immediate from Theorems 8.5 and 8.10. F3
(ii) Assume now that T E SL(V), that T is not scalar, and that S is the
linear transformation constructed in (i). The matrix of S relative to the basis
(v, Tu, u3, ..., urn)is the elementary transvection B,,(l), so that det(S) = 1
and S E SL(V). As in (i), T 4 Z(SL(V)); that is, if T E Z(SL(V)), then T = aE
for some a E K. Finally, det(aE) = am, and so a m= 1, so that SZ(V) = 8.1. Let H d SL(2, I<),and let A E H. Using the factorization A = U D ( p ) (in the
Z(SL(V)). proof of Theorem 8.81, show that if A is similar to [Y !], then there is p E K
Theorem 8.10. jSZ(m, q)l = d, where d = (m, q - 1). such that W contains
,:[ p s p ] n
8.2. Let B = Bij(l) E GL(m, K)= G. Prove that CG(B)consists of all those nonsingu-
ProoJ Let K = GF(q). We first show, for all a E K x , that a m= 1 if and only lar matrices A = [aij]whose ith column, aside from a,,, and whose jth row, aside
if ad = 1. Since d divides m, a d = 1 implies a m= 1. Conversely, there are from ajj, consist of all 0's.
226 8. Some Simple Linear Groups
that a # + 1, and C is the desired matrix. In the second case, Exercise 8.1 If q = 7, however, then we do get a new simple group, for IPSL(2, 7)1 = 168,
which is neither prime nor i n ! . If we take q = 8, we see that there is a simple
group of order 504; if q = 11, we see a simple group of order 660. (It is known
that the only other isomorphisms involving An's and PSLs, aside from those
displayed above, are Exercise 8.12: PSL(2, 9) r A , (these groups have order
If T = diag(a-', a), where a is to be chosen, then H contains the commutator 360); Exercise 9.26: PSL(2, 7) E PSL(3, 2) (these groups have order 168);The-
=
orem 9.73: PSL(4,2) A , (these groups have order 20, 160).)
We are done if a-2 # rfr. 1; that is, if a4 # 1. If q > 5, then such an a exists, for EXERCISES
a field contains at most four roots of x4 - 1. If q = 4, then every ,u E K 8.4. Show that the Sylow p-subgroups of SL(2, 5) are either cyclic (when p is odd) or
satisfies the equation x4 - x = 0, SO that a # 1 implies a4 # 1. quaternion (when p = 2). Conclude that SL(2, 5) $ S,.
Only the case GF(5) EZ Z5 remains. Consider the factor P occurring in the
8.5. What is the Sylow 2-subgroup of SL(2, 3)?
lower left corner R = ,u/3(a2- 1) of U . If p # 0, choose a = [2] E Z5; then
a 2 - 1 # 0 and U = B,,(A). Hence H contains the elementary transvection 8.6. (i) Show that PSL(2, 2) r S,.
U2 = B2,(- 2A) and we are done. If P = 0, then (ii) Show that SL(2,3) $k S, but that PSL(2, 3) r A,.
8.7. What are the composition factors of GL(2, 7)?
8.8. Show that if H a GL(2, K), where K has more than three elements, then either
H < Z(GL(2, K)) or SL(2, I<) IH.
Therefore, the normal subgroup H contains
8.9. (i) What is the commutator subgroup of GL(2,2)?
(ii) What is the commutator subgroup of GL(2,3)?
(iii) If q > 3, prove that the commutator subgroup of GL(2, q) is SL(2, q).
for all v E Z5. If v = 2,u-', then the top row of this last matrix is [2 01, and 8.10. Prove, for every field K, that all transvections are conjugate in GL(2, K).
the theorem is proved. B l 8.11. Let A be a unimodular matrix. Show that A determines an involution in
PSL(2, K) if and only if A has trace 0, and that A determines an element of order
Corollary 8.14. If K is an infinite field which either has characteristic # 2 or +
3 in PSL(2, I<) if and only if A has trace 1. (Hirzt. Use canonical forms.)
is per$ect of characteristic 2, then PSL(2, K) is a sirnple group. 8.12. Prove that any two simple groups of order 360 are isomorphic, and conclude
that PSL(2,9) s A A ((Hint. Show that a Sylow 5-subgroup has six conjugates.)
Proof. The finiteness of I< in the proof of the theorem was used only to satisfy
the hypotheses of Lemma 8.12.
Rernark. In Theorem 9.48, we will prove that PSL(2, K) is simple for every
infinite field.
The simplicity of PSL(m, K) for all m 2 3 and all fields I< will be proved in
Corolllsary 8.85. SL(2, 5) is not solvable. this section. In 1870, C. Jordan proved this theorem for I< = Z,,and L.E.
Diclcson extended the result to all finite fields K in 1897, four years after
Proof. Every quotient of a solvable group is solvable. if4 Moore had proved the result for m = 2. The proof we present, due to E.
Artin, is much more elegant than matrix manipulations (though we prefer
We have exhibited an infinite family of simple groups. Are any of its mern- matrices when m = 2).
bers distinct from simple groups we already know? Using Theorem 8.11, we An m x m elementary transvection Bij(/Z)represents a linear transforma-
see that both PSL(2,4) and PSL(2, 5) have order 60. By Exercise 4.37, all tion T on an m-dimensional vector space V over K. There is an ordered basis
simple groups of order 60 are isomorphic: (v ,,..., v,) of Vwith Tv, = v,for all 1 # i and with TV,= vi + Loj. Note that
T fixes every vector in the ( i ~ z- 1)-dimensional subspace I1 spanned by all
v, # vi*
228 8. Some Simple Linear Groups
Definition. If V is an m-dimensional vector space over a field K , then a are there any others? Choose w E V with w 4 H; since T fixes Pi pointwise,
hypwpbaae I l in V is a subspace of dimension m - 1.
Tw = pw + h, where h E H.
The linear transformation T arising from an elementary transvection fixes If v E V and v 6 H, the lemma gives
the hyperplane H pointwise. If w E V and w & H, then ( w ) = { p w : p E K ) is
a transversal of H in V : the vector space T/, considered as an additive group, Tv = pv + h',
is the disjoint union of the cosets H + pw. Hence, every vector v E V has a where h' = (1 - p)h" + Ah, E H. If v is an eigenvector of T, then 'Ti, = pv for
unique expression of the form some p E M.But Tv = pv if and only if P = p and Ah = ( p - 1)h": sufficiency
is obvious; conversely, if flu = pu + hr,then ( P - p)v = h' E ( v ) n H = 0.
(i) If T is a dilatation, then p - 1 # 0 and, h" = A(p - 1)-lh. It follows
Lemma 8.14. Let H be a hyperplane in V and let T E G L ( V )fix H pointwise. If that v = w + ( p - 1)-'h is an eigenvector of T for the eigenvalue p. If
w E V and w 4 H, then (v,, . .., v,-,} is a basis of H, then adjoining v gives a basis of V , and the
T ( w ) = pw + Iz, matrix of T relative to this basis is D ( p ) = diag ( 1 , . . . , 1, p}.
(ii) If T is a transvection, then p = 1. Choose w 4 H so that Tw = w + lz,
for soine p E K and h, E H. Moreover, given any v E T/, where ii E H and h # 0. If v 6 H is an eigenvector of T, then av = Tv = u + h
T ( v ) = pw + h', for some a E K ; hence, (a - 1)v E ( 0 ) n H = 0, so that a = 1 and Tv = v. It
follows that T = I,, contradicting the proviso in the definition of transvec-
for sonle 12' E H. tion excluding the identity. Therefore, T has no eigenvectors outside of N.If
{h, h,, .. .,h,} is a basis of H , then adjoining w as the first vector gives an
Proof. We observed above that every vector in V has an expression of the ordered basis of V , and the matrix of T relative to this basis is Bl,(l). @!4
+
form 2.w h. In particular, T ( w ) has such an expression. If v E T/, then v =
Aw + 11" for some A E K and 12" E H. Since T fixes H, Cora~llary8.18. All transvections in G L ( m , I<) are conjugate.
+ h"
T ( v ) = /ZT(w)+ h" = /Z(pw + h,)
ProoJ Since transvections are, by definition, conjugates of elementary trans-
= p(Aw + h") + [(I - p)h" + Ah,] vections, it suffices to prove that any two elementary transvections are conju-
= pv + 12'.
gate to B2,(1). Let V be an m-dimensional vector space over K with basis
{v,, ..'i,v,}, and let T be the linear transformation with Tv, = v , + v, and
The scalar p = p ( T ) in Lemma 8.16 is thus determined uniquely by any T Tv, = v, for all 1 2 2. If i # j and A # 0, define a new ordered basis { u , , . . ., u,}
fixing a hyperplane pointwise. of V as follows: put v , in position i, put A-lv, in position j, and fill the
remaining m - 2 positions with v,, . . ., v, in this order (e.g., if m = 5, i = 2,
Defimitiom. Let T E G L ( V )fix a hyperplane H pointwise, and let p = p(T). If and j = 4, then {u,, ..., u,) = {v,, u,, v,, A-'v,, v,)). The matrix of T rela-
p # I , then T is called a dilatation; if p = 1 and if T # I,, then T is called a tive to this new ordered basis is easily seen to be Bij(l).Therefore B,, ( 1 ) and
transvection. B,j(A)are similar, for they represent the same linear transformation relative to
different choices of ordered basis. !El
The next theorem and its corollary show that the transvections just defined
are precisely those linear transformations arising from matrix transvections. If T E G L ( V ) is a transvection fixing a hyperplane H and if tv $ H , then
Tw = w'+ h for some nonzero h E H. If v E V, then v = ;Iw+ h" for some
Theorem 8.17. Let T E G L ( V )fix a hyperplane H pointwise, and let p = p(T). A E K and 12" E H, and (*) in the proof of Lemma 8.16 gives Tv = v + AIz
(because 1 - p = 0). The function y : V 4 K , defined by y ( v ) = y(Aw + h) =
(i) If T is a dilatation, then T has a matrix D ( p ) = diag(1, .. ., 1, p} (relative R is a K-linear transformation (i.e., it is a binetau$~szctiond)with kernel H. For
to a suitable basis of V ) . each transvection T, there is thus a linear functional cp and a vector Iz E ker cp
(ii) If T is a traizsvection, then T has matrix B12(1)(relative to a suitable basis with
of V ) . Moreover, T has no eigenvectors outside of H in this case. Tv=v+y(v)h forall U E K
PB'OOJEvery nonzero vector in H is an eigenvector of T (with eigenvalue 1); Notation. Given a nonzero linear functional cp on V and a nonzero vector
230 8. Some Simple Linear Groups
(ii) For all a E K ', Theorem 8.21. If m 2 3, then all transvections are conjugate in SL(V).
(@Y,h) = (9, ah).
(iii) (q, h) = ($, I) if and only fi there is a scalar a E K with I$Yoo+Let (9, h) and ($, 1) be transvections, and let H = ker cp and L =
ker t,b be the hyperplanes fixed by each. Choose v, u E V with q(u) = 1 = $(u)
$=ay and h=aE. (hence v 6H and u L). There are bases (h, h,, . . ., h,,z-,) and (I, I,, ... , Em-,)
(iv) If S E GL(V), then of H and L, respectively, and adjoining v and u gives bases (v, h, h,, . . . , hm-, )
S{q, h}S" = (qS-', Sh). and (u, 1, l,, . . ., Em-') of 1V. If S E GL(V) takes the first of these ordered bases
to the second, then
Proof. All are routine. For example, let us prove half of (iii). If {q, h) = {$, I), (4 S(v) = u, S(H) = L, and S(h) = 1.
then q(v)Iz = $(v)l for all v E V. Since y f 0, there is v E V with q(v) 0, SO + Let ,det S = d; we now show that we can force S to have determinant 1.
that h = y(v)-'tb(v)I; if a = q(v)-'$(v), then h = al. To see that $(u) = aq(u)
for all u E V, note that q(u) = 0 if and only if $(u) = 0 (because both h, 1 # 0). jn
Since 2 3, the first basis of V constructed above contains at least one other
If $(u) and y(u) are nonzero, then h = q(u)-'$(u)l implies q(u)-'$(u) = vector\ (say, hm-,) besides v and h. Redefine S so that S(lt,,-,) = d-llm-, .
q(v)-'$(v) = a, and so $ = ay. BI Relative to the basis {v, Iz, h,, . . . , hm-,), the matrix of the new transforma-
tion differs from the matrix of the original one in that its last column is
multiplied by d-'. The new S thus has determinant 1 as well as the other
Theorem 8.20. The commutator subgroup of GL(V) is SL(V) unless V is a properties (*) of S.
two-clii?zensionalvector space over Z,.
Now S(cp, h)S-' = {qS-', Sh) = (qS-', I), by Lemma 8.19(iv). Since qS-'
and $ agree on the basis (u, 1, I,, . . ., 1,-,) of V, they are equal. Therefore
Proof. Now det: GL 4 K " has kernel SL and GL/SL z I< " ; since K x is {cp, h) and {$, 1). are conjugate in SLYas desired.
abelian, (GL)' I SL.
For the reverse inclusion, let v: GL -+ GL/(GL)' be the natural map. By Notation. If H is a hyperplane in a vector space V, then
Corollary 8.18, all transvections are conjugate in GL, and so v(T) = v(TJ)for
all transvections T and T'; let d denote their common value. Let T = {q, h) F ( H ) = (all transvections fixing H ) v (1,).
be a transvection. If we avoid the exceptional case in the statement, then H
contains a nonzero vector 1 (not necessarily distinct from h) with h + 1 # 0. Lemma 8.22. Let H be a hyperplane in an m-dimensional vector space V over
+
By the lemma, (9, h) 0 (9, I) = {q, h l) (these are transvections because K.
1 # 0 and h + 1 # 0). Applying v to this equation gives d2 = d in GL/(GL)', (i) There is a linear functional 40 with H = lcer q so that
whence d = 1. Thus, every transvection T E ker v = (GL)'. But SL is gener-
ated by the transvections, by Theorem 8.8(ii), and so SL < (GL)'. IBI
(ii) F ( H ) is alz (abeliaiz) subgroup of SL(V), and F ( H ) r H.
If V is a two-dimensional vector space over Z,,then GL(V) is a genuine (iii) The centralizer CsL(Y(H))= S Z ( V ) T ( H ) .
232 8. Some Simple Linear Groups
then A' has 1 as the entry in position (3, I), and so A2 is not scalar. We Lie groups and Lie algebras which are defined over more general fields, and
conclude that A is a direct sum of a 1 x 1 companion matrix and a 2 x 2 we now discuss them (not proving all results).
companion matrix: In what follows, all vector spaces are assumed to be finite-dimensional.
+
Iff is alternating and u, v E V, then 0 = f(u v, zr + v) = f(u, a) + f(u, v) +
+ +
f(v, U) f (u, v) = f(u, v) f (v, u), SO that f (v, u) = -f (u, v). Conversely, iff
is a bilinear form for which f(v, u) = -f(u, v), then 2f(v, v) = 0 for all v E I/. If
K has characteristic # 2, then f is alternating; if K has characteristic 2, then
There are only three such matrices; if n is a primitive element of GF(4), they f is symmetric.
are There is another interesting type of form, not quite bilinear (Bourbaki calls
it ccsesquilinear").
It is clear that f is completely determined by an inner product matrix, for Conversely, if u satisfies f (u, v) = 0 for all v E I/, then f (u, ui) = 0 for all vi
if ti = aiui and w = Pivi, then (where {v,, . . . , v.1 is a basis of V). If u = pjvj, then x j p jf(vj, vi) = 0; if
Y = ( p l ,. . . ,prl)is the column vector of u, then Y # 0 and A Y = 0. Hence A
(u, W ) = C aiPjf (vi, vj)-
i,j
is singular. !El
What happens to the inner product matrix after changing basis? Definition. An isometry of a nondegenerate space (I/,f ) is a linear trans-
formation T: V 4 V such that
Lemma 8.25. Let (I/, f ) be an inner product space, let {v,, ..., vnJ and
{u,, . . . , u,J be ordered bases of V, and let the corresponding inner product
f (Tu, Tu) = f (24, v)
matrices be A and B. for all u, v E Y;
(i) Iff is bilinear, then A and B are congruent; that is, there is a nonsingular Lemma 8.27. If (v f ) is a nondegenerate space, then every iso~netryis non-
matrix P with singular, nnd so all the isometries form a subgroup Isom(V, f ) I GL(V).
B = P'AP.
(ii) If f is hermitian, then A and B are a-congruent; that is, there is a ProoJ If T is an isometry and Tu = 0, then f (u, v) = f (Tu, Tv) = f (0, Tv) = 0
nonsingular inatrix P = [pijJ with for all v E K Since f is nondegenerate, it follows that u = 0 and T is an
injection; since V is finite-dimensional, T is nonsingular, B
B = PtAPa,
where Po = [(pij)"]. Lemma 8.28. Let (V, f ) be a nondegenerate space, let A be the inner product
In either case, B is nonsingular if and only fi A is nonsingular. matrix off relative to an ordered basis {v,, . . .,u,,} of arzd let T be a linear
transfortnatiorz on K
ProoJ. (i) Write uj = zpijvi; the matrix P = [pljJ, being a transition matrix (i) Iff is bilinear, then T is an isometry fi and only if its matrix M = [mu]
between bases, is nonsingular. Now relative to the ordered basis satisfies
MtAhl = A;
in this case, det M = )1.
in matrix terms, this is the desired equation (the transpose is needed because (ii) If J; is hermitian, then T is an isometry fi arzd only fi
the indices 12, i in the first factor must be switched to make the equation '\ MtAMa = A,
correspond to matrix multiplication). The last statement follows from det B =
det(PtAP) = det(P)2 det(A). where M" = [(mij)o]; in this case, (det M)(det Ma) = 1.
Definition. An inner product space (I!f ) is nondegenerate (or nonsingular) if = 1mlif ( ~ rvk)mkj
, = f (vi, vj)-
one (and hence any) of the inner product matrices off is nonsingular. 1, k
After translating into matrix terms, this is the desired equation. It follows
Lemma 8.26. An inner product space (V,f ) over a field K is nondegenerate if t det A. Moreover, nondegeneracy of ( V , f ) g'~vesnon-
that (det ~ ) ~ ( dA)e =
and only if f(u, v) = 0 for all v E V implies u = 0. singularity of A, and so det M = f 1.
(ii) The obvious modification of the equations above leads to the desired
Proof. Let {v,, . . ., v,) be a basis of K If an inner product matrix A off is matrix equation and its consequence for determinants. tFl
singular, then there is a nonzero column vector Y with AY = 0; that is, if
Y = (p,, . . . , p,), where pi E K, then u = pivi is a nonzero vector with The group GL(V) acts on F ( V ) ,the set of all functions V x V 4 K : i f f is
f(v,u) = XtAY = 0 a function and P E CL(V), define
for all v = x Aivi (where X = (4,. .., A,)).
238 8. Some Simple Linear Groups Classical Groups 239
it is easily checked that if Q E GL(V), then f = (f ')Q (this is the reason for when K = GF(q2), one writes U(n, q2) (recall that the only finite fields for
the inverse). Notice that iff is either symmetric, alternating, or hermitian, which hermitian forms are defined are of the form GF(q2)).
then so is f'. It is not true that all symmetric forms over a finite field are equivalent, and
it turns out that inequivalent forms give nonisomorphic groups. The groups
Theorem 8.29. Let V be a vector space over a field K , and let F ( V ) be the Isom(V;f ) are called orthogoaalgroarps; in odd dimensions over a finite field
GL(V)-set of all functions V x V -+ K. When f is either symmetric, alternat- of odd characteristic, there is only one orthogonal group, but in even dimen-
ing, or hernzitian, then the stabilizer off is Isom(V, f ); moreover, if g is in the sions over finite fields of any characteristic, there are two orthogonal groups,
orbit off, then Isom(V, g) is isomorphic to Isom(V, f ) (indeed, they are conjzr- denoted by 0 + ( V )and by 0 - ( V ) .
gate subgroups of GL(V)).
Definition. A group is a classicalgrorrp if it is either general linear, symplectic,
Proof. The stabilizer GL(V), of f is { P E GL(V): f P = f 1, so that P E unitary, or orthogonal.
GL(V)f if and only if f(u, v) = f (P-'u, P-'v) for all u, v E V; that is, P-' E
Isom(V, f ) and hence P E Isom(V, f). By Exercise 3.37, Isom(V, f P ) = We remark that the term classical group is usually not so precisely defined;
P Isom(V, f)P-'. !El for most authors, it also encompasses important groups closely related to
these as, say, SL(V) or PSL(V).
Definition. Two functions f, g E F ( V ) are called eqirivalent if g =f for some We now discuss symplectic groups; afterwards we will describe corres-
P E GL(V). ponding results for the unitary and orthogonal groups.
If follows from the theorem that equivalent symmetric, alternating, or Lemma 8.31. If (I/, f ) is a nondegenerate space, then for every linear functional
hermitian forms determine isomorphic groups of isometries. gE V* (the dual space of V), there exists a unique x E V with g = f(x, ).
Lemma 8.30. Two bilinear forrns f, g E F ( V ) are equivalent if and only if they Prooj: We first prove that if {v,, . . . , v , ] is a basis of K then (f(v,, ), . . . ,
have inner product matrices A and B which are congruent. Two hermitian forms f(vn, )) is a basis of V*. Since dim V* = n (by standard linear algebra), it
(relative to the same automorphism o)are equivalent if and only if their inner suffices to prove that these n linear functionals are independent. Otherwise,
product matrices are a-congruent. 1
there are scalars /Ii, not all 0, with /Iif(vi, ) = 0; that is, ,Iif(ui, x) = 0 for
1
all x E V. If z = Aivi, then f(z, x) = 0 for all x E K Thus, z = 0, because f is
Proof. By Lemma 8.25(i), we may assume that all inner product matrices are nondedenerate, and this contradicts the independence of the vi.
determined by the same basis of I/. E Vr, there are scalars pi with g = pif (v,, ), and g(v) = f (x, v) for
Let X and Y be column vectors. Iff and g are bilinear and g = f P, then all v E V. TGprove uniqueness of x, suppose that f (x, v) = f (y, v) for all v E K
g(X, Y) = XtBY (see the proof of Lemma 8.26). By definition, f '(x, Y) = Then f (x - y, v) = 0 for all v E I/, and so nondegeneracy gives x - y = 0. B l
f (P-I X, P-I Y) = (P-'X)'A(P-' Y) = X' [(P-')'AP"] Y. Since this equation
holds for all X and Y, it follows that B = (P-')'AP-'; hence, A and B are Definition. Let (I/, f ) be an inner product space. If x,y E V, then x and y are
congruent. orthogonal iff (x, y) = 0. If Y is a nonempty subset of V, then the ortliogon~l
Conversely, if B = QtAQ for some nonsingular Q, then XtBY = complement of Y, denoted by YL, is defined by
X'QtAQY = (QX)'A (Q Y), SO that g (X, Y) = f (Q-'X, Q-' Y).
y L = {v E V: f(v, y) = 0 for all y E Y).
This argument, rnzrtatis mutandis, works in the hermitian case as well.
It is easy to see that YL is always a subspace of V. Using this notation, an
Let (V, f ) be a nondegenerate space. We are going to see that all alternat-
inner product space (I/,f ) is nondegenerate if and only if VL = 0.
ing forms f are equivalent, and so there is, to isomorphism, just one isometry
Let ( V , f ) be a nondegenerate space. If W 5 V is a subspace, then it is
group Isom(l/, f); it is called the symplectic group. If V is an n-dimensional
possible that the restriction f l(W x W) is degenerate. For example, let V =
vector space over K, then Isom(v f ) is denoted by Sp(V) or by Sp(n, K); if
(x, y) be a two-dimensional space and let f have inner product matrix A
K = CF(q), one writes Sp(n, q).
relative to this basis:
It is true that all hermitian forms are equivalent, and so there is, to isomor-
phism, just one isometry group Isom(v f ) in this case as well; it is called the
rrrritary grorrp. The group Isom(V, f )is now denoted by U(V) or by U(n, K);
240 8. Some Simple Linear Groups Classical Groups 24 1
thus, f is symmetric and nondegenerate. However, if W = (x), the restric- dim V > 0, then our discussion above shows that there exist x,, y, E V with
tion f l(W x W )is identically zero. f(xl, y,) = 1. If W = (x,, y,), then Wis a hyperbolic plane and f / ( W x W)
is nondegenerate. By Lemma 8.32(i), V = W @ WL; by Lemma 8.32(ii),
Lemma 8.32. Let (V,f ) be an inner product space, and let W be a subspace of f j(wL x w') is nondegenerate, and so the inductive hypothesis shows that
V. W' is an orthogonal direct sum of hyperbolic planes.
(i) Iff l(W x W) is nondegenerate, then Definition. If (Kf ) is a nondegenerate space with f alternating, then a sym-
v = w@wl plectic basis of V is an ordered basis
(ii) If ( V ,f ) is a nondegenerate space and V = W @ W', then f l(W' x w') is
rzorzdegenerate.
with f (xi, xj) = 0 = f ( ~ iyj)
, for all i, j, and f (xi,yj) = 6,, = -f (y,, xi), where
= 1 if i = j and aij = 0 if i f j.
Proof. (i) If x E W n W', then f(x, W) = 0, and so nondegeneracy gives x =
0. If v E V, then the restriction g = f(v, )I W is a linear functional on W, and
so there is wo E W with g(w) = f(v, W)= f(wo, W)for all w E W. But v = wo + Thus, all inner products are 0 except f (xi, y i ) = 1 = -f (y,, xi) for all i.
( u - w,), where wo E W, and v - w, E WL.
(ii) If {v,, . . . , v,) is a basis of W and {v,,,, . . ., v,,) is a basis of W', then Theorem 8.34. Let (V,f ) be a nondegenerate space with f alternating.
the inner product matrix A off relative to the basis (v,, ...,v,) has the form (i) V has a symplectic basis {x, , y, , x,, y,, .. . , x,, y,).
(ii) The inner product matrix A off relative to this ordered basis is the matrix
J which is the direct sum of 2 x 2 bloclcs
so that det A = (det B)(det C). But A nonsingular implies C nonsingular; that
is, the restriction off is nondegenerate. El [ 11.
Assume that (I/, f ) is an inner product space with f alternating. Iff is not
(iii) If u = (aixi + Piyi) and v = 1(yixi+ 6,yi), then
identically zero, there are vectors x and y with f (x, y) = a # 1
f (u, v) = (aiai - Piyi).
by a-'x if necessary, we may assume that f(x, y) = 1. If dim
(iv) All nondegenerate alternating forms on V are equivalent, and so the sym-
inner product matrix is thus
plectic groups Isom(V, f), to isomorphism, do not depend on f.
We have just seen that every two-dimensional inner product space (V,f ) J, and hence to any inner product matrix off. Therefore, the isometry group
with f alternating and not identically zero is a hyperbolic plane. Isom(% f ) does not depend on f, by Theorem 5.29.
Theorem 8.33. If (V,f ) is a nondegenerate space with f alternating, then V is Notice that alternating bilinear forms are thus sums of 2 x 2 determinants.
even-dimensional. Indeed, Note also that if one reorders a symplectic basis so that all the xi precede all
v = w, @ . . . @ w;, the y,, then the matrix J is congruent to
where each M: is a hyperbolic plane and the summands are p~irwiseorthogonal;
that is, if i # j, then f ( q . , y ) = 0.
Proof. We proceed by induction on dim V 2 0, the base step being trivial. If where E is the 1 x I identity matrix.
242 8. Some Simple Linear Groups Classical Groups
Definition. If (V, f ) is a nondegenerate space, then the adjoint of T, denoted It follows that if T* has matrix
by T*, is a linear transformation on V for which
f(Tx,y)=f(x,T*y) forall x , y ~ V .
then M = -BE. Similar calculations give the other three blocks. For existence
Lemma 8.35. Let (I/, f ) be a nondegenerate space, and let T be a linear trans- of T*, it is routine to checlc that the matrix construction in the statement
formation on V having an adjoint T*. Then T is an isometry if aizd only if defines a linear transformation that behaves as an adjoint must. The last
T"T = 1,. statement follo-tvs from Lemma 8.35.
ProoJ: If T has an adjoint with T*T = I,, then, for all x, y E V, f(Tx, Ty) = By Lemma 8.28, symplectic matrices have determinant $- 1, but it can
f (x, T*Ty) = f (x, y), so that T is an isometry. be shown, in fact, that every symplectic matrix has determinant 1; that is,
Conversely, for all x, y E V, Sp(V) 5 SL(V).
then T* exists and has matrix Theorem. Let (V,f ) be a nondegenerate space with f hermitian.
(i) V has an orthorzormal basis (x,, . . . ,x,).
(ii) The inner product matrix off relative to this basis is the identity matrix. ,
K. If I<= GF(q) has odd characteristic and dim V = 21 + 1 is odd, there is a Assume now that K = GF(q) does have characteristic 2. Bilinear forms g
basis of I/ relative to which f has inner product matrix associated to a given quadratic form Q are no longer uniquely determined
by Q; however, g satisfies two extra conditions: first, g(u, u) = 0 (because
u + u = 0); second, g is symmetric. Since - a = a! for all a E K , it follows that
g is alternating. Theorem 8.33 shows that if (V; g) is to be nondegenerate, then
V must be even-dimensional, say, dim V = 21. If K = GF(q) has characteris-
where E is the 1 x 1identity matrix. All forms are thus equivalent (for all inner tic 2 and Q is a nondegenerate quadratic form on a 21-dimensional vector
product matrices are congruent to J), and so there is, to isomorphism, just space V over I<, then the orthogonal group O(V,Q) is defined as
one group Isom(V; f )in this case. It is denoted by O(V), 0(21+ 1, K), or by O(V;Q) = { T E GL(V): Q(Tz4) = Q(u) for all u E V}.
+
O(21 1, q).
If dim V = 21 is even and K = GF(q) has odd characteristic, then there are Given a nondegenerate quadratic form Q, there is always a symplectic basis
exactly two inequivalent forms: every inner product matrix is congruent to (x,, yl, . . . , x,, y,} such that Q(xi) = 0 = Q(yi)for all i < 1; moreover, either
(+): Q(x,) = 0 = Q(yr) or (-): Q(yl) = 1 and Q(x,) = y, where t 2 + t + y is
E O O O
JE=/0 0 1 0 ' 1 irreducible in K [ t ] . One proves that there are only two nonisomorphic
groups for a given V arising from different quadratic forms Q (one from each
possibility just described); they are denoted by O'(21, K) and by 0-(21, I<); as
LO o o EJ usual, one may replace I< by q in the notation when K = GF(q).
+
where E is the ( I - 1) x (1 - 1) identity matrix and 8 = 1. The correspond-
ing isometry groups are not isomorphic; they are denoted by O f (21, K) and Each type of classical group gives rise to a family of simple groups; we
by 0-(21, K) (or by 0+(21, q) and by 0-(21, q) when K = GF(q)). describe the finite such.
Before describing the orthogonal groups in characteristic 2, let us recall the The center of Sp(21, q) consists of $. E. Define
definition of the real orthogonal group O(n, R) given in Chapter 3 in terms of
distance: if T E O(n, R), then/'1/Tvll = Ilvil for all v E Rn. In Theorem 3.29,
+
PSp(21, q) = Sp(21, q)/( E ) .
however, it was shown that T is orthogonal in this sense if and only if These groups are simple unless (2E, q) = (2, 2), (2, 3), or (4, 2). Moreover,
(zr, v) = (Tu, Tu) for all u, v E IWn (where (u, v) is the usual dot product of vec-
tors in Rn). Given any symmetric bilinear form f, define the analogue of
llv112 = (u, v) to be Q(v) = f(u, v). If U, v E V; then where d = (2, q - 1).
The center of U(n, q2) consists of all scalar transformations LEYwhere
f (u + VY u + 0) = f (u, U)+ 2f (u, v) + f (v, v); M" = 1. Let SU(n, q2) 1 U(n, q2) consist of all unitary transformations of
that is, Q(u + v) - Q(u) - Q(v) = 2f(u, 0). determinant 1, and define
Definition. A quadraticform on a vector space V over a field K is a function
Q: V -+ K such that: These groups are simple unless (n, q2) = (2,4), (2, 9), or (3,4). Moreover,
(i) Q(au) = a2Q(u)for all u E V and a E I<; and
(ii) Q(u + v) - Q(u) - Q(v) = g(u, v), where g is a bilinear form on V (one
calls g a bilinear form associated to Q). where E = (n, q + 1).
Assume that q is a power of an odd prime. Let the commutator subgroup
A quadratic form Q is nondegenerate if (V, f ) is nondegenerate, where f is
of O(n, q) be denoted by R(n, q) (it is usually a proper subgroup of SO(n, q),
an associated bilinear form.
the subgroup consisting of all orthogonal transformations of determinant 1).
If K has characteristic # 2, one can recapture f from Q: f(u, u) = The center of R(n, q) consists of diagonal matrices having diagonal entries
i(Q(u + v) - Q(u) - Q(u)),and there is just one bilinear form associated to Q. $- 1, and one defines
The proof of Theorem 3.28 shows that a linear transformation T on V lies in PR(n, q) = R(n, q)/center.
0( Y )(i.e., f ( Tu, Tv) = f (u, v) for all u, v E V) if and only if Q (Tu) = Q(u) for all When rz 2 5 is odd, then these groups are simple, and
u E V. Thus, orthogonal groups in odd characteristic could have been defined
in terms of quadratic forms.
246 8. Some Simple Linear Croups
i
where d = (2, q - 1). Notice that JPR(21+ 1, q)l = JPSp(21,q2)/; these two ( CHAPTER 9
groups are not isomorphic if I > 2 (Theorem 8.24, proved in 1900, exhibited 1
the first pair of nonisomorphic simple groups of the same order; here is an
infinite family of such examples).
When dim V = 21 is even, there are two orthogonal groups. If we denote
+
the commutator subgroup by RE,where E = 1, and the quotient Elcenter
by PaE,then the orders are:
I Permutations and the Mahhieu Groups
Theorem 3.89. If X is a G-set with action a, then there is a Izomomorphism Theorem 9.2. If X is a transitive 6-set of degree n, and if x E X, then
8: G -+ Sx given by ai(g): x H gx = a(g, x). Conversely, every homomorpl~ism
q: G -. Sx defines an action, namely, gx = ga(g)(x). IGI = rzlGxI.
G-set. Conversely, if a G-set X is partitioned into transitive G-sets (Xi: i E I), x E X. Of course, {x) is a G,-orbit of X, and so rank X is really describing the
then tlze Xi are the G-orbits of X. behavior of G, on X - (x).
Proof. It is clear that the orbits partition X into transitive G-sets. Conversely, Theorem 9.4. If X is a transitive G-set and x E X, then rank X is tlze iizci~zbei*
it sufficesto prove that each Xi is an orbit. If xi E Xi, then the orbit Gxi c Xi of (Gx-G,)-double cosets in G.
because Xiis a G-set. For the reverse inclusion, if y E Xi, then transitivity of
Xi gives y = gx, for some g E G. Hence, y E Gxi, and Xi c Gxi. Eli Proof: Define f : (G,-orbits) 4 ((G,-G,)-double cosets) by f(G,y) = GxgG,,
where gx = y. Now f is well defined, for if hx = y, then gx = hx, g-'h E G,,
Recall that the stabilizer ofx, denoted by G,, is defined by h = lg(g-'lz) E G,gG,, and GxgG, = G,hG,. Let us show that f' is injective.
If f(G,y) = G,gGx = G,hG, = f(G,z), where gx = y and hx = z, then there
Gx = {g E G: gx = x). are a, b E G, with g = ahb. hTow y = gx = ahbx = alzx = nz E G,z; it follows
250 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Multiple Transitivity 25 1
that G,y = G,z. Finally, f is surjective: if g E G, then gx = y and f(Gxy) = It is easy to see that GXl, . . . , , t = ni
Gxi.In particular, if x, y E X, then X is
GxgGx. E J also a G,-set and a Gy-set,and
Of course, 1-transitivity is ordinary transitivity. If k > 1, then every Theorem 9.7. If X is a k-transitive G-set of degree n, then
k-transitive G-set is (k - 1)-transitive. A k-transitive G-set X is called doubly
transitive (or multiply transitive) if k 2 2, triply transitive if k 2 3, . . . , and so
forth. for every choice of k distinct elements x,, . . . , x,. If X is faithful, then
It is quite common to say that a group G is k-transitive if there exists a 1 G,, ,...,Xk 1 is a divisor of (n - k) !.
k-transitive G-set. This usage applies to other adjectives as well.
The easiest example of a multiply transitive G-set is provided by X = P r o d If x, E X, then JGI = tz]GXlj,by Theorem 9.2. Since Gxl acts (k - 1)-
(1, ..., k) and G = S,; it is plain that X is a k-transitive Sk-set. transitively on X - {x,), by Lemma 9.5, induction gives
Lemma 9.5. Let X be a G-set. If k 2 2, then X is k-transitive if and only if, for lGxl/ = (n - ')'*'(' - + l)lGxl,...,~kl,
each x E X, the G,-set X - (x) is (k - 1)-transitive. and this gives the result. When G acts faithfully, then the result follows from
G being imbedded in SX-IXl,.. .,,kJ. Dl
Proof: Assume that X is k-transitive, and let (x,, ..., x,-,) and (y,, . . . , y,-,)
be (k - 1)-tuples of distinct elements of X - {x). There is thus g E G with DeGnition. A k-transitive G-set X is sharply k-transitive if only the identity
gx = x (so that g E Gx) and gx, = yi for all i 2 1. fixes k distinct elements of X.
Conversely, let (x,, . . ., x,) and (y,, ..., y,) be k-tuples of distinct ele-
ments of X. By hypothesis, there is g E Gxk with g(x,, .. .,x,-,, xk) = Theorem 9.8. The following conditions are equivalent for a faithful Ic-transitive
(y,, . .., y,-,, x,), and there is h E G,, with h(y,, y,, ..., y,-,, x,) = G-set X of degree n.
(y,, y,, . . . ,Y,-~,y,). Therefore, Jzg E G carries (x,, ..., x,) to (y,, .. ., y,). BI
(i) X is sharply k-transitive.
Theorem 9.6. Every doubly transitive G-set has rank 2, and if x E X and g 4 G,, (ii) If (x,, . . ., x,) and (y,, . . . , y,) are k-tuples of distinct elements in X , then
then G = G, u GxgGx. there is a unique g E G with gxi = yi for all i.
(iii) ]GI = n(n - 1)...( TZ - k 1). +
B)I.ooJ Since G acts k-transitively on X for k 2 2, we have Gx acting (k - 1)- (iv) The stabilizer of any k elements in X is trivial.
transitively on X - {xi; hence G, acts transitively on X - {x). Therefore, as If k 2 2, then these conditions are equivalent to:
a Gx-set, X has two orbits: {x) and X - {x); thus rank X = 2. By Theorem
9.4, there are exactly two (Gx-Gx)-doublecosets in G. E l (v) For every x E X, the Gx-set X - {x) is sharply ( k - 1)-transitive.
Definition. If X is a G-set and x,, .. ., x,E X, then the stabilizer is the Pro@$ All verifications are routine and are left are exercises for the reader.
subgroup
G, = {g E G: gx, = xi for i = 1, ..., t). Theorem 9.9. For every n, the symnzetric group S,, acts sharply tz-transitively on
252 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Multiple Transitivity 253
X = {1, ..., n); for every n 2 3, the alternating group A, acts sharply (n - 2)- Lemma 9.110. If X is a faithful sharply 2-transitive G-set of degree n, then the
transitively on X. Frobenius kernel N of G has exactly n elenzents.
Proof. The first statement is obvious, for Sncontains every permutation of X. Roo$ By Theorem 9.8(iii), IGl = n(n - 1). For each x E X, the stabilizer G,
We prove the second statement by induction on n 2 3. If n = 3, then A, = has order n - 1 (because I GI = n 1 G,l), so that I G,XI = rz - 2, where G
: =
((1 2 3)) acts sharply transitively on X = {l, 2, 3). If n z 3, then (A,),, the G, - {l). If x # y, then G, n G, = G,,, = 1, by Theorem 9.8(iv). Hence,
stabilizer of i, where 1 Ii 2 n, is isomorphic to A,-,; by induction, it acts {G: x E X) is a disjoint family, and IU,., G/: = n(n - 2). Since N is the
sharply (n - 3)-transitively on X - (i). Theorem 9.8(v) now completes the complement of this union, IN( = n(n - 1) - n(n - 2) = n.
proof.
The basic philosophy is that permutation representations of a group G can
EXAMPLE 9.3. Let f (x) E Q [x] be a polynomial of degree n with distinct roots yield important information about 6 . We now illustrate this by classifying all
X = (a,, . . . , a,) c C; let E = Q(a,, ..., a,) be the splitting field of f(x), and those groups G having a G-set X as in Lemma 9.10 in the special case when
let G = Gal(E/Q) be the Galois group off (x). By Lemma 5.2, X is a G-set; by n = 1x1is odd (the classification when n is even is known, but it is more
Theorem 5.7, X is transitive if and only iff (x) is irreducible over Q. Now f (x) difficult).
factors in Q(a,)[x]: f(x) = (x - a,)f,(x). Moreover, G, = Gal(E/Q(a,)) 5
Gal(E/Q) = G is the stabilizer of a,, and so G, acts on X - {a,); indeed, G, Theorem 9.811. Let X be a faithful sharply 2-transitiue G-set of odd degree n.
is also the Galois group of f,(x). By Theorem 5.7, G, acts transitively if and
only if f,(x) is irreducible (over Q(a,)). Hence, G = Gal(E/Q) acts doubly (i) Each G, contains a unique involution.
transitively on X if and only if both f (x) and f,(x) are irreducible (over Q and (ii) G, has a center of even order, and a Sylow 2-subgroup of G, is either
Q(a,), respectively). Of course, this procedure can be iterated. The set X = cyclic or generalized quaternion.
(iii) The Frobenius kernel N of G is a normal subgroup of G.
{a,, . .. , an) of all roots of f(x) is a k-transitive G-set if and only if the poly-
nomials f (x), f, (x), ...,f,-, (x) are all irreducible (over Q, Q (a,), ..., and (iv) The degree n is a powei. of an odd prime p.
Q(a,, ..., a,-,), respectively). (v) N is an elementary abelian p-group.
It can be proved that there are no faithful k-transitive groups for k > 5 (vi) G is a semidirect product of N by 6,.
other than the symmetric and alternating groups. It follows that if the Galois
group G of a polynomial is 6-transitive, then G is either a symmetric group or ProoJ (i) Since ]GI = n(n - 1) is even, G contains an involution g. Now g,
an alternating group. Indeed, if G is 4-transitive, then the only additional being a permutation of the n points of X, has a cycle decomposition; indeed,
possibilities for G are four of the Mathieu groups. Exercise 1.16 shows that g is a product of disjoint transpositions z,. . . z,.
Since 1x1 is odd, g must fix some x E X ; that is, g E G,; because G acts
Sharp k-transitivity is interesting for small k. sharply, g can fix nothing else, so that m = $-(n- 1). If h is another involution
in G, then h E G, for some y E X (perhaps y = x) and h = a, . . . a,, a product
of disjoint transpositions. Note that g and Iz can have no factors in common:
Definition. A sharply 1-transitive G-set X is called regular.
otherwise, we may assume that z, = a, = (a b) (because disjoint transposi-
tions commute); then gh-l fixes a and b, hence is the identity. Therefore,
A faithful G-set X is regular if and only if it is transitive and only the 1 = gh-I and g = h.
identity has a fixed point. It is now easy to see that the left regular representa- Assume that G, has t involutions. Sharp 2-transitivity implies that {G:
tion of a group G in the Cayley theorem makes G itself into a regular G-set. x E Xj is a disjoint family, and so G contains nt such elements, each of
Our discussion of sharply Ztransitive G-sets begins with a technical which involves :n = $(n - 1) transpositions. Collectively, there are thus tm =
definition. $nt(n - 1) distinct transpositions occurring as factors of these involutions.
But there are only $n(n - 1) transpositions in S, s S,,, and so t = 1, as
DeG'awition. If X is a G-set, then the Pi'obenirss kernel N of G is the subset desired.
N = { l) u {g E G: g has no fixed points). (ii) Let g, h E Gx, and assume that g is an involution. Then hgh-' is an
involution, so that the uniqueness in (i) gives hglz-' = g; that is, g E Z(G,).
The Frobenius kernel may not be a subgroup of G, for it may not be closed The second statement follows from Theorem 5.46.
under multiplication. (iii) If T is the set of all involutions in G, then we claim that T T c N (the
254 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Multiple Transitivity 255
Frobenius kernel). Otherwise, there exist g, h E T with gh # 1 and gh $ N ; a semidirect product of its Frobenius kernel by G, (which is a Frobenius
that is, gh fixes some y E X. If z = hy, then both g and h have the transposi- complement) (see Isaacs (1976),p. 100). Every Sylow subgroup of a Frobenius
tion (y z) as a factor: hy = z and hz = hhy = y (h2 = 1); gy = hy = z (for complement is either cyclic or generalized quaternion; such groups are usu-
ghy = y gives hy = g-'y = gy) and gz = ghy = y. By (i), g = h, giving the ally solvable (see Theorem 7.53), but there do exist nonsolvable ones. The
contradiction gh = 1. group SL(2, 5), which is not solvable, by Corollary 8.15, is a Frobenius com-
For fixed g E T, the functions T -,N, defined by h I-+ gh and by h I-,hg, are plement. Let Y be a two-dimensional vector space over GF(29), and let
both injective. By (i), I TI = n, for there is exactly one involution in each G$ GL(2, 29) act on V by matrix multiplication on the elements of V regarded as
as x varies over X; by Lemma 9.10, IN1 = n = I TI. It follows that both injec- column vectors. There is a copy H of SL(2, 5) imbedded in GL(2,29), and the
tions above must be surjections; that is, g T = N = Tg for all g E T. group G = V x H is a Frobenius group with Frobenius complement H r
The Frobenius kernel always contains 1 and it is closed under inverses and SE(2, 5) (see Passman (1968), p. 202).
conjugations by elements in G. Here N is closed under multiplication: choose
g E T and observe that
-
and B is a block, then there is an equivalence relation on X given by x y
if there is some giB containing both x and y. This equivalence relation is
G-invariant: that is, if x = y, then gx gy for all g E G. Conversely, if F is a
-
G-invariant equivalence relation on a G-set X, then any one of its equivalence
classes is a bloclt. Thus, a G-set is primitive if and only if it admits no non-
trivial 6-invariant equivalence relations.
Primitive G-Sets
Theorem 9.12. Every doubly transitive G-set X is primitive.
If G is a group of order n, then Cayley's theorem gives a faithful permutation
representation of G of degree n; that is, G may be regarded as a subgroup of Proof. If X has a nontrivial block Bythen there are elements x, y, z E X with
S,. The coming discussion can often give representations of smaller degree. x, y E B and z Ff: B. Since X is doubly transitive, there is g E G with gx = x
and gy = z. Hence, x E B n gB and B # gB, a contradiction. BI
Definition. If X is a G-set, then a block is a subset B of X such that, for each
g E G, either gB = B or gB n B = @ (of course, gB = (gx: x E B)). Theorem 9.13. Let X be a transitive G-set of degree n and let B be a nontrivial
Uninteresting examples of blocks are 0, X, and one-point subsets; any bloclc of X.
other block is called nontrivial.
(i) If g E G, then gB is a block.
Consider the following example of a G-set of degree 6, where G E S,. (ii) There are elements g,, . . . , g,, of G such that
G = ( 1, (1 2 3) (a b c), (1 3 2) (a c b), (1 b) (2 a) (3 c),
(1 4 2 c)(3 b)Y (1 c)(2 b)(3 a)) is a partition of X.
(iii) IBI divides n, and Y is a transitive G-set of degree m = n/lBI.
Here is a characterization of primitive G-sets. Proof. (i) The lemma shows that Hx is a block for every x E X. Since X
is primitive, either Hx = @ (plainly impossible), Hx = (x), or Hx = X. If
Theorem 9.15. Let X be a transitive G-set. Then X is primitive if and only if, Mx = {x) for some x E X, then N _< G,. But if g E G, then normality of H
for each x E X , the stabilizer Gx is a nzaximal subgroup. gives H = g ~ g - l5 gG,g-I = G,,. Since X is transitive, H 5 Oy,,
Gy = 1,
for X is faithful, and this is a contradiction. Therefore Hx = X and X is a
Proof. If G, is not maximal, there is a subgroup H with G, < H < G, and we transitive H-set.
will show that Hx = (gx: g E H) is a nontrivial block; that is, X is imprimi- (ii) This follows from Theorem 9.2.
tive. If g E G and Hx ngHx # @, then hx = gh'x for h, h' E H. Since h-lgh'
fixes x, we have h-lgh' E G, < H and so g E H; hence, gHx = Hx, and Hx is
Using this theorem, we see that the GL(V)-set V# in Example 9.4 is transi-
a block. It remains to show that H x is nontrivial. Clearly Hx is nonempty.
tive but not primitive.
Choose g E G with g 4 H. If Hx = X, then for every y E X, there is h E: H with
y = hx; in particular, gx = hx for some h E H. Therefore g-'h E G, < H and
g E H, a contradiction. Finally, if Hx is a singleton, then H 5 G,, contra- Corollary 9.18. Let X be a faithful prir~zitiveG-set of degree n. If G is solvnble,
dicting G, < H. Therefore, X is imprimitive. then n = pmfor some prime divisor p of I GI; if G is nilpotent, then n is a prirne
Assume that every G, is a maximal subgroup, yet there exists a nontrivial divisor of GI.
block B in X. Define a subgroup H of G:
PuooJ If 6; is solvable, a minimal normal subgroup H of G is elementary
H = (g E G: gB = B). abelian of order pk, by Theorem 5.24. The theorem now gives lz a divisor of
Choose x E B. If gx = x, then x E B n gB and so gB = B (because B is a pk, and so n, too, is a power of p. If G is nilpotent, then G has a normal
block); therefore, G, < H. Since B is nontrivial, there is y E B with y $. x. subgroup H of prime order p (e.g., take H = (g), where g is an element of
Transitivity provides g E G with gx = y; hence y E B n gB and so gB = B. order p in Z(G)). The theorem gives n a divisor of p; that is, n = p.
Thus, g E H while g 4 G,; that is, G, < H. If H = G, then gB = B for all g E G,
and this contradicts X # B being a transitive G-set. Therefore G, < H < G,
contradicting the maximality of G,.
9.13. Let X be an imprimitive G-set and let B be a maximal nontrivial bloclc of X;
EXAMPLE 9.4. If X is a transitive G-set and 1 # H a G, then it need not be that is, B is not a proper subset of a nontrivial block. Show that the imprimitive
true that X is a transitive H-set. For example, if V is a vector space, then system Y generated by B is a primitive G-set. Give an example with X faithful
V# = V - (0) is a transitive GL(V)-set. However, if H is the center of GL(V) and Y not faithful.
(i.e., if H is the subgroup of all the scalar transformations), then V# is not a 9.14. (i) Let X be a transitive G-set, let x E X, and let A be a nonempty subset of X.
transitive H-set. Show that the intersection of all gA containing x, where g E G, is a block.
(ii) Let X be a primitive G-set and let A be a nonempty proper subset of X. If x
Lemma 9.16. Let X be a G-set, and let x, y E X and y are distinct elements of X, then there exists g E G with x E gA and
y 4 gA. (Hilzt. The block in part (i) must be {x).)
(i) If H _< G, then Hx n Hy Z @ implies H x = Hy.
(ii) If N a G, then the subsets Hx are blocks of X. 9.15. (i) Prove that if a group G has a faithful primitive G-set, then its Frattini
subgroup @(G)= 1.
Pro05 (i) It is easy to see that Hy = H x if and only if y E Hx. If Hy n H x # (ii) Prove that a p-group G that is not elementary abelian has no faithful primi-
a, then there are Iz, h' E H with hy = h'x. Hence y = h-lh'x E Hx and tive G-set. (Hint. Theorem 5.47.)
Wy = Hx.
+
(ii) Assume gHx n H x @. Since H a G, gHx n Hx = Mgx n Hx. There
are h, h' E H with hgx = Iz'x, and so gx = Iz-lh'x E Hx. Therefore, gNx = Simplicity Criteria
Hx. B
Theorem 8.17.
We now prepare the way for new proofs showing that the alternating groups
and the projective unimodular groups are almost always simple.
(i) If X is a faitltful primitive G-set of degree n 2 2, if N a G and if H # 1,
then X is a transitive H-set. Definitio~a.If X is a G-set and H a G, then H is a regular norr~zalsrrbgvoisp if
(ii) iz divides I H 1. X is a regular H-set.
260 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Simplicity Criteria 26 1
Xf H is a regular normal subgroup, then I HI = 1x1. Thus, all regular normal If G is a (finite) group and H, K 5 G are such that H K = G, then there is a
subgroups have the same order. G-isomorphism f : G/(H n K) 2; (GIH) x (GIK), where the latter has diagonal
action. Define f by x(H n K) ++ (xH, XI<). It is straightforward to show
Theorem 9.19. Let X be a faithful primitive G-set with G, a simple group. Then that f is a well defined injective G-map. Since HK = G, the product formula
either G is simple or every nontrivial normal subgroup H of G is a regular lHKl IH n KI = IHI /I<\ gives IGIIIHI IKF(I= 1/IH n KI; multiplying both sides
rzormal subgroup. by /GI gives [G : H I [G : K] = [G : H n K], and so f must be surjective as
well. Therefore, f is a G-isomorphism.
ProoJ If H a G and H # 1, then Theorem 9.17(i) says that X is a transitive
H-set. We have H n G, a G, for every x E X, SO that simplicity of G, gives Theorem 9.20. Every transitive G-set X is isomorphic to the G-set GIG, of all
either H n G, = 1 and X is regular or H n G, = G,; that is, G, 5 H for some left cosets of G, on which G acts by left mmztltiplication.
x E X. In the latter event, Theorem 9.15 gives G, a maximal subgroup of G,
so that either G, = H or H = G. The first case cannot occur because H acts Proof. Let X = {x,, . . . , x,,), let H = G,,, and, for each i, choose g, E G with
transitively, so that H = G and G is simple. ill gixl = xi (which is possible because X is transitive). The routine argument
that f : X -+ GIH, given by f(xi) = giH, is a well defined bijection is left to the
It is proved in Burnside (191I), p. 202, Theorem XIII, that if a group G has reader (recall that n = 10(xl)I = [G : HI). To check that f is a G-map, note
a faithful doubly transitive G-set X whose degree is not a prime power, then that if g E G, then for all i there is j with gx, = xj, and so
either G is simple or G has a simple normal subgroup. (This result may be
false when the degree is a prime power; S, is a counterexample.)
Here is the appropriate notion of homomorphism of G-sets. On the other hand,
gf (xi) = ggiH.
Definition. If X and Y are G-sets, then a function f : X -+ Y is a G-map if
f (gx) = gf (x) for all x E X and g E G; iff is also a bijection, then f is called a But ggixl = gxi = xj = gjxl; hence g,rlggi E G,, = H, and so gjH = ggiH, as
G-isomorphism. Two G-sets X and Y are isomorphic, denoted by X r Y, if desired. E l
there is a G-isomorphism f : X -, Y.
By Theorem 9.1, every G-set X determines a homomorphism q : G -+ S,. (i) if H, K _< G, then the G-sets GIH and GIK (with G acting by lefl tlzultipli-
Usually there is no confusion in saying that X is a G-set and not displaying cation) are isomorphic if and only if H and K are conjugate in G.
q, but because we now wish to compare two G-sets, let us denote X more (ii) Two transitive G-sets (X, q ) and (Y, $) are isomorphic if and only if stabi-
precisely by (X, cp). The action of g E G on x E X is now denoted by cp,x lizers of points in each are conjugate in G.
instead of by gx. The definition of G-map f : (X, q ) -+ (Y, $) now reads, for all
g E G and x E X, as ProoJ (i)Assume that there is a G-isomorphism f : G/H 4 GIK. In particular,
f (cp,(x)) = $&f(XI). there is g E G with f(H) = gK. If h E H, then
EXAMPLE 9.5. Let G be a group, and let A, p: G -+ SG be the left and right
regular representations of G (recall that A,: x H gx and p,: x H xg-' for all
Therefore, g-lhg E K and g-'Ng 5 K. Now f (g-'H) = g-'f (N) = g-'gl< =
x, g E G). We claim that (G, A) and (G, p) are isomorphic G-sets. Define
K gives f -l(K) = g-IN. The above argument, using f -' instead off, gives
f : G 4 G by f(x) = x-l; clearly f is a bijection. Let us see that f is a G-map.
the reverse inclusion gKg-' _< H.
Conversely, if g - l ~ g= K, define f : G/H 4 G/K by f(aH) = agK. It is rou-
tine to check that f is a well defined G-isomorphism.
9.6. CIzinese Rernairzder Theorenz.
EXAMPLE (ii) Let H and K be stabilizers of points in (X, cp) and ( Y , I
)
), respectively.
By Theorem 9.20, (X, q ) r GIN and (x tk) r G/I<. The result now follows
If S < G is any (not necessarily normal) subgroup, we denote the family of from part (i). !I3
all left cosets of S in G by G/S; it is a G-set with action g(xS) = (gx)S (as in
Theorem 3.12). If X and Y are G-sets, then their cartesian product X x Y Corol1lary 9.22. If G is solvable, then every nzaxirnal subgroup has index a prime
may be regarded as a G-set with diagonal action: g(x, y) = (gx, gy). power; if G is nilpotent, then every maximal subgroztp has prirlze index.
262 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Croups Simplicity Criteria 263
Remark. The second statement was proved in Theorem 5.40. Now (G,), acts doubly transitively, hence primitively, on H # - { h ) . It is easy
to see, however, that (k, hlc) is now a block, and so H * - {h) = {k, hk). We
Pros$ If H < G, then the stabilizer of the point (H) in the transitive conclude that AT = (1, h, lc, hk) r V and n = 4.
G-set G/H is the subgroup H. If H is a maximal subgroup of G, then G/H Finally, we cannot have k 2: 5 because lz I 4. BI
is a primitive G-set, by Theorem 9.15, and so IGIHI = [G: H I is a prime
power, by Corollary 9.18. A similar argument gives the result when G is Of course, the case k = 4 does occur (G = S4 and H = V). Compare the
nilpotent. case k = 2 with Theorem 9.1 1.
Lemma 9.23. Let X be a transitive G-set and let H be a regular normal sub- Theorem 9.25. Let X be a faithful k-transitive G-set, where k r: 2, and asstime
group of G. Choose x E X and let G, act on H" by conjugation. Then the that G, is simple for some x E X.
G,-sets H # and X - (x) are isomorphic.
(i) If k 2: 4, then G is simple.
ProoJ Define f : H # -+ X - {x) by f(h) = hx (notice that hx f x because H (ii) If k 2: 3 and 1x1is not a power of 2, tlzerz either G r S3 or G is simple.
is regular). Iff (A) = f (k), then h-lk E H, = 1 (by regularity), and so f is injec- (iii) If Ic 2 2 and 1x1is not a prime power, then G is simple.
tive. Now 1x1= /HI (regularity again), IH*I = IX - {x) I, and so f is surjec-
tive. It remains to show that f is a Gx-map. If g E G, and h E H", denote the ProoJ By Theorem 9.19, either G is simple or G has a regular normal sub-
action of g on h by g * h = ghg-l. Therefore, group H. In the latter case, Lemma 9.24 gives k < 4; moreover, if k = 4, then
N E $7 and 1x1= 4. Now the only 4-transitive subgroup of S4 is S4 itself, but
f(g * h) = f(ghg-') = ghg-'x = ghx, the stabilizer of a point is the nonsimple group S,. Therefore, no such H
because g-l E G,; on the other hand, g. f(h) = g(hx), and so f(g * h) = exists, and so G must be simple. The other two cases are also easy conse-
g.f(h). quences of the lemma (note that the stabilizer of a point of an S3-set is the
simple group S2 r Z2 so that S, is a genuine exception in part (ii)).
Lemma 9.24. Let k 2 2 and let X be a k-transitive G-set of degree n. If G has
a regular normal subgroup H, then 1c < 4. Moreover: Here is another proof of the simplicity of the large alternating groups.
(i) if k >_ 2, then H is an elementary abelian p-group for some prime p and n Theorem 9.24. A, is simple for all iz 2 5.
is a power of p;
(ii) if k 2 3, then either H r Z3 and n = 3 or H is an elementary abelian ProoJ The proof is by induction on n 2 5. If rz = 5, then the result is Lemma
2-group and n is a power of 2; and 3.8. By Theorem 9.9, A, acts (n - 2)-transitively on X = (1, 2, . . ., n); hence,
(iii) fi k > 4, then H r V and n = 4. if n 2 6, then A, acts k-transitively, where k 2 4. The stabilizer (A,),, of 11 is
just (for it consists of all the even permutations of (1, . . . , n - I)), and
Pros$ By Lemma 9.5, the G,-set X - (x) is (k - 1)-transitive for each fixed so it is simple, by induction. Therefore, A, is simple, by Theorem 9.25(i).
x E X; by Lemma 9.23, H # is a (k - 1)-transitive Gx-set, where G, acts by
conjugation. Here is another simplicity criterion. It shall be used later to give another
(i) Since k > 2, H # is a transitive G,-set. The stabilizer Gx acts by conjuga- proof of the shplicity of the PSLs.
tion, which is an automorphism, so that all the elements of H # have the same
(necessarily prime) order p, and H is a group of exponent p. Now Z(H) a G, Theorem 9.27 (Iwasawisra, 19411). Let G = G' (such a group is called perfect) and
because Z(H) is a nontrivial characteristic subgroup, so that I XI = IZ(H)I = let X be a faithful primitive G-set. If there is x E X and an abelian normal
IHI, for Z(H) and H are regular normal subgroups of G'. Therefore, Z(H) = subgroup K a G, whose conjugates {gKg-l: g E G) generate G, then G is
H, H is elementary abelian, and ]XI is a power of p. simple.
(ii) If h E H", then it is easy to see that {h, h-') is a block. If k 2 3, then Proox Let H # 1 be a normal subgroup of G. By Theorem 9.17, H acts
H * is a doubly transitive, hence primitive, G,-set, so that either {h, h-I ) =
H# or (h, h-') = (h). In the first case, lH[ = 3, H r Z,, and n = 3. In the
n
transitively on X. By hypothesis, each g E G has the form g = g i k i g ~ ' ,
where g, E G and k, E PC. Now G = HG,, by Exercise 4.9(i), so that gi = hisi
second case, h has order 2, and so the prime p in part (i) must be 2. for each i, where hi E H and si E G,. Normality of K in G, now gives
(iii) If Ic 2: 4, k - 1 2: 3 and IH#l 2 3; it follows that both H z Z, and
H r Z,are excluded. Therefore, H contains a copy of V; say, (1, h, k, hk). g= nhisilzis;lh;l E HKH IHI<
Affine Geometry 265
264 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups
for all x E V (Of course, a is the composite t,g.) We may also denote Aff(V)
(because H lies in the subgroup HK), and so G = HK. Since K is abelian, by Aff(n, I<) or by Aff(n, q).
G/H = HK/H G K/(H n K) is abelian, and H 2 G' = G. Therefore, G is Since gtYg-' = t,,, we have Tr(V) a Aff(V); moreover, the map t, H y is an
simple. isomorphism of the group Tr(V) with the additive abelian group V.
cp -
Prove that if X is a transitive G-set and x E X, then Aut(X) z N,(G,)/G,. (Hint.
If y, E Aut(X), there is g E G with gx = q(x); the desired isomorphism is
g-lGx.1
9.17. Let X be a transitive G-set, and let x, y E X. Prove that G, = G,,if and only if
%"roo$ Since Tr(Y) acts transitively on V (as is easily seen), it suffices to show
that if x # 0 and if y # z are vectors, then there exists a E Aff(V) with a(x) = y
and a(0) = z. There exists g E GL(V) with g(x) = y - z, by Theorem 9.28, and
one checks that a E Aff(V), defined by a: U H g(v) + z, sends (x, 0) to (y, z). If
there is y, E Aut(X) with q ( x ) = y. n = 1, then g is unique, hence a is unique, and so the action is sharp.
When n = 1 and K = GF(q), then / Aff(1, q)l = q(q - I), for Aff(1, q) acts
Affine Geometry sharply 2-transitively on a set with q elements. Indeed, Aff(1, q) is the semi-
direct product K xo K ",where 0: K " -+ K is defined by 0: x~multiplication
All vector spaces in this section are assumed to be finite-dimensional. by x. If q is a power of an odd prime, then K = GF(q) is a sharply 2-transitive
Aff(1, q)-set of odd degree, and so Aff(1, q) is described by Theorem 9.1 1.
Theorem 9.28. If V is an n-dimensional vector space over a field K, then Let us now consider linear subsets of a vector space V: lines, planes, etc.,
V# = V - {O) is a transitive GL(V)-set that is regular when n = 1. If n 2 2, not necessarily passing through the origin.
then V" is doubly transitive if and only if K = Z,.
DeFnnition. If S is an m-dimensional subspace of a vector space V , then a coset
PYOOJ GL(V) acts transitively on V", for every nonzero vector is part of a +
W = S v, where v E V, is called an affine m-saabspace of I/. The dintension of
basis and GL(V) acts transitively on the set of all ordered bases of V. If n = 1, S -I- v is defined to be the dimension of the subspace S.
only the identity can fix a nonzero vector, and so V" = K x is regular.
Assume that n 2 2, and that {y, z) is a linearly independent subset. If There are special names for certain affine m-subspaces: if rn = 0, 1, or 2,
K # Z,, there exists A E K with d # 0, 1; if x E V', then (x, Ax) is a linearly they are calledpohts, affi~telines, and affi~eplanes, respectively; if dim V = n,
dependent set, and there is no g E G with gx = y and gAx = z. Therefore, then affine (n - 1)-subspaces of V are called affine hyperplanes.
GL(V) does not act doubly transitively in this case. If K = Z,, then every We are going to focus attention on the affine subspaces of a vector space
pair of distinct nonzero vectors is linearly independent, hence is part of a V-its "geometry (that is, we focus on the lattice of all affine subspaces)."
basis, and double transitivity follows from GL(V) acting transitively on the Here is a description of this aspect of V.
set of all ordered bases of V.
Definition. Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over a field K , let A be a
Definition. If V is a vector space and y E then translation by y is the func- set, and, for 0 5 m I n, let Ym(A)be a family of subsets of A (called affine
tion t,: V --+ V defined by m-subspaces). If a: V -+ A is a bijection such that a subset W of V is an afine
t,(x) = x +y m-subspace ( W = S + v) if and only if a(W) E Yn,(A),then (A, Y*(A), a) is
called an afjne n-space over I< with associated uectov space V.
for all x E V. Let Tr(V) denote the group of all translations under composi-
tion (we may also write Tr(n, K) or Tr(n, q)). EXAMPLE9.7. If V is an n-dimensional vector space over a field K , define
gm(V)to be the family of all affine m-subspaces S + v in V (where S is a
Definition. If V is a vector space over K, then the a . e groalp, denoted by sub-vector space) and define a: V -+ V to be the identity. Then (V, ,Y*(V), I,)
Aff(V), is the group (under composition) of all functions a: V -+ V (called is an affine space, called the standard affie space of V over K.
affinities) for which there is y E V and g E GL(V) such that
EXAMPLE9.8. Let (V, Y*(V), 1,) be a standard affine space over K and let
266 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Affine Geometry 267
v E V. Then (V, Y*(V), t,) is also an affine space over K, where t, is translation EXAMPLE 9.9. If K = C, the map f : Cn Cn (the vector space of all n-tuples
-+
by u. of complex numbers), given by (z,, . .. , z,,) I-+ (Z,, .. . , 2,) (where denotes the
complex conjugate of z), is easily seen to be an affine automorphism. More
We have not given the most important examples of affine spaces: certain generally, if a is any automorphism of a field K, then a,: Kn Kn,defined by
-+
(iii) ~f{x, y} is linearly independent, then Theorem 3.33. if V and U are isornorplzic vector spaces of dirllerisiorz 2 2 over
a field I<, then every afine isomorphistn f : V -+U has the forrn f = t,,g for
+ y) = (Kx + y) n (KY+ x).
{x sorne zr E U and some rzonsingular semilinear transfor~nationg; that is, for all
(iv) Two distinct hyperplanes H + x and J + y are disjoint if and only if H = XE &/,
J. In particular, fi dim V = 2, distinct lines Kx + y and Kz + w are dis- f(x) = g(x) + u.
joint if and only fi Kx = Kz.
Remarks. 1. One must assume that dim V 2 2, for every bijection between
Proof. (i) If z E el n t , , then C, nC,=(Kx, + +
y1)n(Kx2 y,)=(Kx, nKx,)+ one-dimensional vector spaces is an affine isomorphism.
z, by Exercise 2.26. Now Kx, = Kx, cannot occur lest the lines C, and C, 2. We will not use the full force of the hypothesis, namely, f(,S?,,(V))=
be distinct cosets of the same subgroup Kx, and hence disjoint. Therefore Zm(U)for all m I n; we shall assume only that f(Zl(V)) = Zl(U); that is, f
Kx, n Kx, = {Oj and 8, n C, = {z). carries lines to lines.
+
(ii) Clearly K(x - y) y is a line containing x and y; a second such line
intersects this one in at least two points, contradicting (i). Proo4; Composing f with the translation x +-+ x - f (0), we may assume that
+
(iii) Independence of {x, y) implies that the lines Kx y and Ky x are + f(0) = 0; it suffices to prove that such an affine isomorphism is semilinear.
+ +
distinct. But x + y E (Kx y) n (Ky x), and (i) now gives the result. /,
Since f is a bijection, it preserves intersections; in particular, if and L, are
(iv) If H = J , then distinct hyperplanes are distinct cosets of H , and hence lines, then f (8, n L,) = f (C, ) n f (L,).
are disjoint. If H # J , then H + J = V (because H and J are maximal sub- If (x, y} is independent, then we claim that
spaces). Hence y - x = h + j for some h E H and j E J. Therefore, h x = +
+
- j + y E (H + x) n (J y), and the hyperplanes intersect.
The last statement follows, for a hyperplane in a two-dimensional vector
space is a line. !&!I
+
By Lemma 9.32(iii), both f (Kx y) and f(Kx) are lines contained in
(f(x), f(y)); indeed, they are disjoint because Kx + y and I<x are disjoint.
Lemma 9.32. Let V and U be uector spaces over K, let f : V 4 U be an affne Since f (Kx) = Kf (x), by Lemma 9.31(i), we may apply Lemma 9.31(iv) to
isomorphism of standard afline spaces with f(0) = 0, and let W be a two- (f (x),f (Y)) to obtain
dimensional subspace of V with basis {x, y). Then: +
f(I<x y) = ITf (.x) z +
(i) f (Kx) = Kf (x); for some z. In particular, there are scalars a, P E K with f(y) = af(x) + z and
(ii) { f (x), f (y)} is linearly independent; +
f(Ax + y) = /?f(x) z, where A G K and /? depends on A. Thus
(iii) f (W) = (f (x), f (y)), the subspace spanned by f(x) and f (y); and
(iv) f 1 W: W -+ f (W) is an affine isomorphism.
Proo/. (i) Kx is the unique line containing x and 0, and f(Kx) is the unique
line containing f (x) and f (0) = 0. Therefore f(Kx + y) c Kf(x) + f(y), and equality holds because both are
(ii) If (f (x), f(y)} is dependent, then f(x), f(y), and 0 are collinear; ap- lines.
-'
plying the affine isomorphism f gives x, y, and 0 collinear, contradicting +
We now prove that f(x y) = f(x) + f(y) when (x, y} is independent. By
the independence of {x, y). Lemma 9.31(iii), (Kx + y) n (Icy + x) = (x + y}. Since f preserves intersections,
(iii) For each ordered pair A, p E K, not both zero, denote the line contain-
ing Ax and py by /(A, p). Since W = U,,,e(A, p), it follows that f ( W ) =
U,, f(L(A, p)). Denote (f(x), f(y)) by W'. To see that f(W) = W', choose a
line /(A, p). By (i), there are a, /3 E K with f (Ax) = af (x) and f (py) = Pf (y).
Now f (Ax),f (py) E W' for all A and ,u, hence f ({(A, p ) ) c W', and so f (W) c
W'. For the reverse inclusion, consider the affine isomorphism f -'and the
subset { f(x), f(y)}, which is independent, by (ii). As above, we see that the last equality because (f (x),f (y)} is independent (Lemma 9.32(ii)).There-
f -'(wl) c CY, so that W' c f(W). fore, f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) if (x, y} is independent. It remains to show that
(iv) By (iii),f(W) is a two-dimensional vector space, and so its affine struc- f(Ax + px) = f (Ax) + f (px), and we do this in two steps (as f (0) = 0, we may
ture is the same as that of W, by Theorem 9.30. assume that A # 0 and p # 0). Since dim V 2 2, we may choose w so that
i
270 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups ; Affine Geometry 27 1
{w, X) is independent; it follows that ( x + w, -x) is also independent. Now Proox This is essentially contained in the next to last paragraph of the proof
of the theorem.
f (w) = f ((x + W)- X)
= f (x + w ) + f (- x) (independence of (x + w, - x)) Corollary 9.35. Let (A, Y : + ( A )a)
, and (8,S?..:(B),P) be afline spaces of dirnen-
sion 2 2 with associated vector spaces V and U, respectively. Iff: A -+ B is an
= f (x) + f(w) + f (-x) (independence of (x, w)) affine isomorphism, then
It follows that f ( -x) = -f (x). Consequently, if A + p = 0, then f (Ax + px) = f = ptzga-l,
+
0 = f (Ax) + f(px). Finally, if A + p # 0, then {Ax w, px - w), {Ax, w), and where g: V --+ U is a nonsingular semilinear transformation and z = P-'fa(0).
{px, - w] are independent sets (for A # 0 and p # O), and so
-
Proof. The function g': V -+ U, defined by g' = ,!?-'fa, is an affine isomor-
phism; if g is defined by g = t-,gl, then g: V U is an affine isomorphism
with g(0) = 0. By Theorem 9.33, g is a nonsingular semilinear transformation.
Therefore g = t-=g' = t-,P-lfa, and the result follows. El
We have proved that f is additive.
If x # 0 and A E I<, then f (Kx) = Kf(x) implies that there is ox@)E K with If V is a vector space over a field I<, we have written Aut(V) for the group
f(Ax) = ox(A)f (x). The function ox: K --+ K is a bijection (because f(Kx) = of all affine automorphisms of I/; If dim V 2 2, then Theorem 9.33 shows that
Kf (x)) with ox(l) = 1. Additivity off implies f E Aut(V) if and only iff (x) = g(x) + y, where g is a nonsingular semilinear
transformation and y E V. If dim V = 1, then we have already remarked that
every permutation of V is an affine automorphism: the group of all afine
automorphisms is the symmetric group on J!
Since f(x) # 0, we see that ox is additive.
Tl~eorem9.36. If V is an n-dir~zensionalvector space over a field K, therl TL(V)
Next, we show that cx does not depend on x. Choose w so that {x, w) is
is a sernidirect product of GL(V) by Aut(K). If K = GL(q) = GF(pr),then
independent. Now
f (Ax + Aw) = f (Ax) + f (Awl = ox(4f ( 4 + ~w(Alf(w).
On the other hand, Proof. We have already seen that each g E TL(V) determines a unique o E
Aut(K); this function TL(V) --+ Aut(l<) is a surjective homomorphism with
kernel GL(V). As in Example 9.9, choose a basis of V and, for each o E
Equating coefficients, Aut(K), consider the semilinear trarlsformation o,. It is easy to see that Q =
%(A) = %+,(A>= ow(4. {G,: 0 E Aut(K)) TL(V), Q z Aut(K), and Q is a complement of GL(V).
Lastly, if p E K ', then {px, w) is independent and we see, with px in place of Therefore, FL(V) E GL(V) x Aut(K).
- .
x, that opx(A)= %(A). When K = GF(q), then lrL(V)l = IAut(I<)(IGL(V)I.The result now fol-
It remains to show that o: I< --+ K is multiplicative (the subscript may now lows from he or em 8.4. El
be omitted). But
f (Apx) = ~ x ( k ~ ) f (x) When V is finite, IGL(V)Jis given by Theorem 8.5
and also Theorem 9.37. Let V be a vector space of dimension n over a field I<.
f ( t x ) = o,,(Alf (4.
(rx) = opx(A)cx(~)f
(i) Aut(V), the group of afline automorphisms of V , is a srnlidirect product of
Therefore, cx(Ap)= opx(A)ox(p);as o does not depend on the subscript, Tr(V) by TL(V).
= o(A)o(p),and so o E Aut(K). It follows that f is semilinear.
El
~(41) (ii) If I< = GF(q), then
IAut(V)l = qnlTL(V)I.
Corollary 9.34. Let V and W be vector spaces over a field K with dim(V) =
dim(W) 2 2. If g: V -+ W is an additive function for which g(v) = A,v for all (iii) V is a doubly transitive Aut(V)-set.
v E V , where A, E I<, then all the A, are equal and g is a scalar transforination. (iv) Aff(V) = Aut(V) if and only if Aut(K) = 1.
272 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Projective Geometry 273
Proof. (i) By Theorem 9.33, if f E Aut(V), then f (x) = g(x) + y for some g E planes (see Coxeter (1987), 81.2); this is the etymology of the adjective "projec-
TL(V) and some y E V. Define ?r: Aut(V) -+ TL(V) by n(f ) = g. Now ker n = tive." To a viewer, two parallel lines appear to meet at the horizon, and
Tr(V) and n fixes TL(V) pointwise, so that n is a retraction. Lemma 7.20 now projective space was invented to actually make this happen. "Points at infin-
gives Aut(V) z Tr(V) >a TL(V). ity" (which constitute a "horizon") are adjoined to ordinary space: for each
(ii) This follows from (i) after recalling that Tr(V) r K line in ordinary space, there is a new point serving as the common meeting
(iii) This follows from Theorem 9.29, for Aff(V) 5 Aut(V). point of all lines parallel to it. It is more efficient for us, however, to reverse
(iv) Aut(K) = 1 if and only if every semilinear transformation is linear. E9 this procedure; we begin with the larger space and then observe that ordinary
(affine) space exists inside of it.
There exist fields K for which Aut(K) = 1. For example, the prime fields Q Let V be a vector space over a field I<. Define an equivalence relation on
and Z,,for all primes p, and the real numbers R. V# = V - (0) by x -- y if there exists A E K," with y = Ax; if x E V#, denote
its equivalence class by [XI. If x E V " , then [x] is the family of all the nonzero
points on the line through x and the origin.
9.18. Choose a basis of an n-dimensional vector space V over a field K. To the affin- Definitiow. If V is an (n + 1)-dimensional vector space over a field K, then
ity a E Aff(V) with a(x) = g(x) + y (where g E GL(V) and y E V), assign the P(V) = {[x]: x E V") is called projective n-space; one says that P(V) has
projecthe dimension n.
Theorem 9.38. Let V be a vector space over a field K of dimension n 2 2. In view of this theorem, every projective 1.2-spaceover K is isomorphic to
P(Kn+l)= P"(K), where Kn+' is the vector space of all ( n + 1)-tuples of ele-
(i) If x, y E V# = V- {0), then [x] # [y] if and only if {x, y) is linearly ments of I<.
independent.
(ii) Every pair of distinct points [x], [y] E P(V) lie on a unique projective line.
(iii) If H is a projective hyperplane and L is a projective line not contained in
H, then H n L is a projective point. (i) For every n 2 0 and every prime power q,
Proof. (i) The following are equivalent: [x] = [y]; y = Ax for some A E K x ;
(x, y) is linearly dependent. +
In particular, every projective line in Pn(q)has q 1 points.
(ii) Since [x] # [y], the subspace W = (x, y) of V is two-dimensional, and (ii) The number of projective lines in P2(q)is the same as the number of projec-
so [W] is a projective line containing [x] and [y]. This line is unique, for tive points, namely, q2 + q + 1.
if [W'] is another such line, then W' is a two-dimensional subspace of V
containing the independent set {x, y), and so W' = W. Proof. (i) If V = Kn+', where K = CF(q), then I V#l = qnfl - 1. Since V# is
(iii) Write H = [U] and L = [W], where U and W are subspaces of V of partitioned into equivalence classes [x] each of which has q - 1 elements, we
dimension n and 2, respectively. Now W $ U because L $ H. Therefore, have
u + w=v, /Pfl(q)l= (qn+l- l)/(q - 1) = qn + qn-l + ... + q + 1.
(ii) We claim that there are exactly q + 1 lines passing through any point
[x]. Choose a line d not containing 1x1; for each of the q + 1 points [y] on
/, there is a line joining it to [x]. If d' is any line containing [x], however,
Theorem 9.38(iii) shows that there exists some point [y] E L" n L'. Since two
and [U n W] has projective dimension 0; that is, [U n W] = [U] n [W] = points determine a line, 8' coincides with the line joining [x] and [y] origi-
H n L is a projective point. nally counted.
+
Choose a line t o ; for each of the q 1 points [x] on do, there are exactly
Definitiom. Let V and V' be vector spaces. A colheation (or projective isomor- q lines (other than do) passing through [x]. We have displayed q(q 1) + 1+
phism) is a bijection 8: P(V) -+ P(V1)such that a subset S of P(V) is a projec- distinct lines (the extra 1 counts the line do). Since every line t' meets t o , we
tive m-subspace if and only if 8(S) is a projective m-subspace of P(V1). Two have counted all the lines in P2(q).
projective spaces are isomorphic if there is a collineation between them.
Here is the important example of an affine space.
Notation. If g: V -, V' is a nonsingular semilinear transformation, then the
function Theorem 9.41. If [W] is a projective hyperplane in a projective n-space P(V)
P(g): P(V) + P(V1), and fi x E V - W, then A = P(V) - [W] can be given the structure of an afJi'tze
n-space (A, 9*(A), a) with associated vector space W, where a: W - , A is
defined by g([x]) = [g(x)], is easily seen to be a collineation. If g is a linear defined by a(w) = [w + XI for all w E W.
transformation, then P(g) is called a projectiuity.
We are going to see that if dim(V) 2 3, every collineation on P(V) has the ProoJ If 0 5 m 5 n, define
form P(g) for some g E TL(V).
Ym(A)= {[U] n A: U is a subspace of V with dim(U) = n.2 + 1).
TPneo~t-em9.39. Two projective spaces P(V) and P(V1) are isomorphic if and We show that a is a bijection by exhibiting its inverse. Since x 4 W, every
only if dim V = dim V'. +
v E V has a unique expression of the form v = Ax w for w E W and A E K. If
v q! W, then A # 0 and there is an element v' equivalent to v with v' - x E W
P r o 6 Necessity is obvious: for all m, P(V) has a projective rn-subspace if and (namely, u' = A-'v). This element v' is the unique such: if v" = pv, p # 1-',
only if P ( V 1 ) does. Conversely, if dim V = dim V', there is a (linear) iso- and v" - x E W,then (v' - x) - (v" - x) = (A-' - p)v forces v E W, a contra-
morphism g: V -+ V', and hence there is a collineation (even a projectivity) diction. The function P: A -, Ty, defined by P([v]) = v' - x (where v' is the
P(g): P(V) -+ P(V1). unique scalar multiple of v for which v' - x is in W), is thus well defined, and
276 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Croups Projective Geometry 277
Remarks. 1. One needs dim(V) 2 3, for then P(V) has projective dimension
2 2. Every bijection between projective lines is a collineation.
Figure 9.2 2. There is a stronger version of this theorem in which K is assumed only
to be a division ring. This version does not affect finite groups, however, for
a theorem of Wedderburn (1905) asserts that every finite division ring is a
field.
There are three pairs of parallel lines in A (e.g., 12 and 34), so that P2(2)
requires 3 points at infinity to force every pair of lines to meet. Since IP2(2)1=
ProoJ Let W be an n-dimensional subspace of ;V, so that [W] is a projective
2' + 2 + 1 = 7, the picture of P2(2)is
hyperplane in P(V). As in Theorem 9.41, A = P(V) - [W] is an affine
n-space with affine isomorphism a: W -> A given by a(w) = [w + x] for
any x E V - W. Now f([IW]) is a hyperplane in P(V') (since f is a collin-
eation), so there is an n-dimensional subspace W of V' such that A' =
P(V1)- f([W]) = [W'] is an affine 11-space with bijection P: W' 4 A' given
by P(w') = [w" + y] for y E V' - W'; as any such y will serve, choose y so
that [y] = f([x]). Since f is a collineation, its restriction f I A: A -+ A' is an
affine isomorphism. By Corollary 9.35, f 1 A = Pt,ga-l, where g: W -+ W' is a
nonsingular semilinear transformation and z = P-lfa(0). Now
If U' E Y', then P-'([v']) = v" - y, where v" is the unique scalar multiple of v'
for which v" - y E W'. If folloufsthat P-l([y]) = y - y = 0, and so t, = to =
I,, . Therefore,
Figure 9.3
f 1 A = Pga-'.
Now V = (x) O W. If o is the field automorphism determined by the
There are now 7 lines instead of 6 (the circle {a, b, c) is a line; "line" in this semilinear transformation g, define 0: V -+V' by
pictorial representation of P2(2) has nothing to do with euclidean lines drawn
on a sheet of paper). We have adjoined one "infinite point" to each of the lines
in A so that any pair of extended lines now meet; {a, b, c) is the horizon. where A E K and w E It is routine to check that y" is a semilinear
278 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Projective Geometry
transformation with g"(x) = y and g"l W = g; also, g" is nonsingular because g 9.10. PTL(2,4) z S , and PGL(2,4) z A , .
EXAMPLE
is nonsingular and y 4 W'. We claim that f = P(8). For all [v] E A,
For all 12 r. 1, the group PFL(n + 1, q) is the group of all collineations of
f (Cvl) = Ps"~-~(Cvl) Pn(q), so that PTL(n + 1, q) (and each of its subgroups) acts faithfully on
= P(ij(Au - x)) (where Av - x E W ) Pn(q). In particular, PTL(2, 4) acts faithfully on P1(4). Since IP1(4)1 = 5,
PGL(2, 4) < PTL(2, 4) < S,. By Theorems 9.36 and 8.5, IPTL(2,4)) = 120
and lPGL(2,4)1 = 60. The isomorphisms follow.
Theorem 9.45. For every vector space V , PSL(V) (and hence the larger groups
= P(g")([ul).
PGE and PTL) acts doubly transitively on P(1V.).
Therefore, f 1 A = P(g")IA, and so f = P(8), by Lemma 9.42.
PrkaoJ If ([x], [y]) and ([x'], [y']) are ordered pairs of distinct elements
There are some interesting groups acting on projective space. of P(V), then {x, y) and {x', y') are linearly independent, by Theorem 9.38.
Each of these independent sets can be extended to bases of V, say, {x, y,
Naptation. If V is a vector space over K , denote the group of all nonzero
z 3 , . .. , zn) and (x', y', z;, . .., 2 ; ) . There exists g E GL(V) with g(x) = x',
scalar transformations on V by Z(V). If dim(V) = n, we may denote Z(V) by
g(y) = y', and g(zi) = zf for all i 2 3. Hence P(g) [x] = [x'] and P(g) [y] =
Z(n, K); if I< = GF(q), we may denote Z(V) by Z(n, q).
[y']. If detfg) = A, define h E GL(V) by h(x) = A-lx', h(y) = y', and h(zi) = zf
for all i. Then det(h) = 1, so that h E SL(V), P(h)[x] = [A-'x'] = [x'], and
Theorem 9.44. If dim(V) 2 3, the group TL(V)/Z(V) is isomorphic to P(h)[y] = [y']. Therefore, PSL(V) acts doubly transitively on P(V).
the group C of all collineations of P(V) with itsel$, if dim(V) = 2, then
TL(V)/Z(V) is isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group on P(V) (the We now give a second proof of the simplicity of the PSL's. Recall the
symmetric group is the full collineation group of P(V) in this case). discussion preceding Lemma 8.19: for every transvection T E SL(V), where V
is a vector space over K , there is a linear functional q : V -+ K and a nonzero
Pro05 Define a homomorphism n: TL(V) -+ C by n(g) = P(g). If g E ker n, vector h E kerf such that T = {cp, h), where
then P(g) = 1; that is, [g(v)] = [v] for all v E V; so there are scalars A, with
g(v) = A,v for all v. By Corollary 9.34, g is scalar, and so n induces an injec- {q, h ) : v-v + q(v)h.
tion PTL(V) -+ C. If dim(V) 2 3, then the Fundamental Theorem 9.43 gives
n surjective, so that TL(V)/Z(V) E C. If dim(V) = 2, then C is the symmetric Theorem 9.46. PSL(n, K) is simple if (n, K) # (2, Z,) and (n, K) # (2, Z,).
group on P(V). B!l
ProoJ We use Iwasawayscriterion, Theorem 9.27. Let G = PSL(V), where V
Definition. If V is a vector space over a field K, then the quotient group is a vector space over I<. By Theorem 9.45, P(V) is a faithful doubly transi-
TL(V)/Z(V) is denoted by PTL(V) and its subgroup GE(V)/Z(V) is denoted tive, hence primitive, G-set.
by PCL(V). As usual, one may replace V by (n, K) or by (n, q) when Choose h E ViS"and define a subgroup of the stabilizer GLhlby
appropriate. H = {P({q, h ) ) :q(h) = 0) u {I).
Theorem 9.44 shows that PTL(V) is (isomorphic to) the collineation group Applying P to the formula {q, h ) {$, h) = {q + $, h) of Lemma 8.19(i),
of the projective space P(V) (when dim(V) > 2), and it is easy to see that we see that H is abelian. Recall Lemma 8.19(iv): If S E GL(V), then
PGL(V) is the subgroup of all projectivities. The projective unimodular S h yh)S-I = {qs-l, Sh); this is true, in particular, for S E SL(V). Now
group PSL(V) = SL(V)/SZ(V) can be imbedded in PGL(V): after all, P(S) E G[,, if and only if Slz = Ah for some d E K. But {$, Ah) = {A$, h ) , by
Lemma 8.19(ii), and this shows that H a GI,].
We now show that the conjugates of H generate G, and it suffices, by
Lemma 8.8(ii) (SL(V) is generated by the transvections), to show that every
P(($, k)) is a conjugate of some P({q, h)). Choose S E SL(V) with Slz = k.
Then, for any {q, h),
280 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Sharply 3-Transitive Groups
As q varies over all linear functionals annihilating h, the linear functional groups, where V is a vector space over I<.
IS-' varies over all those annihilating k = Sh. In particular, given $, there is
y with q ( h ) = 0 and $ = qS-'.
It remains to prove that G is perfect: G = G'. Suppose some transvection T
is a commutator: T = [My N] for some M, N E SL(V). If T' is another trans-
vection, then T' and T are conjugate in GL(V), by Corollary 8.18. There-
fore, there is U E GL(V) with T' = T U= [My NIU = [MU,NU]. But both
M', Nu E SL(V), because SL(V) a GL(V), and so T', too, is a commutator.
It follows that SL(V) is perfect, and so its quotient PSL(V) is perfect as well.
Let n 2 3 and let (el, .. . , en) be a basis of K Define T E GL(V) by T(ei) =
e, for all i # 3 and T(e,) = e, - e, - e l .
9.23. Show that if 11 2 2, then PSL(iz + 1, K) acts faithfully and transitively on the set
of all projective lines in Pn(I<).(Hint. Two points determine a unique line.)
9.24. Let f : P(V) -+ P(V) be a collineation, where dim(V) 2 3. If there exists a projec-
Note that T = {q,h), where h = -e, - el and q~ is the linear functional tive line L in P(V) for which f Id is a projectivity, then f is a projectivity.
which selects the third coordinate: qJ(zRiei)= 1,. Define M = B,,(- 1) and
9.25. Prove that PGL(2, 5) r S, and PSL(2, 5) s A , . (Hiizt. IP1(5)1= 6.)
define N by Ne, = -e2, Ne, = el, and Ne, = ei for all i 2 3. Both M and N
lie in SL(V), and a routine calculation shows that [M, N] = MNM-'N-' = 9.26. Prove that any two simple groups of order 168 are isomorphic, and conclude
T: that PSL(2, 7) r PSL(3,2). (Hint. If G is a simple group of order 168, then a
Sylow 2-subgroup P of G has 7 conjugates and NG(P)/Pz Z,. Construct a
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 - 1 projective plane whose points are the conjugates of P and whose lines are those
subsets ( a ~ a - ' ,PPP-', yPy-l) for which {a, P, y) is a transversal of P in N,(P).)
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
If n =2 and IK I > 3, then there exists R E K with A2 # 1. But
Sharply 3-Transitive Groups
We have seen that the groups PTL(n, K) are interesting for all n 2 3: they
and so the (elementary) transvection B12(R2- 1) is a commutator. All the are collineation groups of projective (n - 1)-space. Let us now see that
conditions of Iwasawa's criterion have been verified, and we conclude that PTL(2, K) and its subgroup PGL(2, K) are also interesting.
PSL(tz, K) is simple with two exceptions.
Definition. If K is a field, let k = K u (ca), where m is a new symbol. If
Note that the proof of Corollary 8.14 does not work for nonperfect fields a E Aut(K) and ad - bc # 0, then a semilinear fiactiot~altratrsfortnatio~tis a
of characteristic 2; the proof above has no such limitation. function f: I? -+ I? given by
Here is a chart of the groups that have arisen in this chapter.
f(A) = (anu + b)/(c;lu + d) for A E I?.
The "extreme" values are defined as follows: f(A) = co if cRu + d = 0; f(co) =
co if c = 0; f ( m ) = ac-I if c # 0. If o is the identity,'then f is called a litte~v
fr~ctionaltrcansforrnaPion.
Notation. TLF(I<) denotes the group of all semilinear fractional transforma- phism and
tions on k,and LF(K) denotes the subgroup of all the linear fractional
transformations.
The action of y on [A, p] is essentially matrix multiplication: g[A, p] =
Theorem 9.47. For every field K, PTL(2, K) g TLF(K) and PGL(2, K) r
ha,[R, p] = lz[lu, pu] (we are regarding [A", pu] as a column vector).
LF(K).
To see that @,a, = P$,, it must be shown that 9,a, and P$, agree
+ +
on I<u (co). If A E K and c l u d 0, then B,a,(A) = 9a,6-1(A) =
Proof. Choose a basis of a two-dimensional vector space V over K. Using
Theorem 9.36, one sees that each f E TL(2, K) has a unique factorization
6a,([A, 11) = Q(P(g)[A, 11) = Q(P(ha,)[A, 11) = B([aAu + +
bycRu d l ) =
f = ga,, where g E GL(2, I<) and a E Aut(I<). If the matrix of g relative to the
+
9[(aRU + b)/(cAa d), 11 = (aAu + b)/(cT + d) = /?$,(A) ($, is this semilinear
fractional transformation, and P$:,(A) is its evaluation at A).
chosen'basis is The reader may check that O,a,,(;l) = ,8$,(A) when c;lu + d = 0 and also
that 6,a,(co) = P$,(co).
define 0:TL(2, K) -+ TLF(K) by go, H (aRu + b)/(cRa + d). It is easy to see Theorem 9.48. For every field I<, the projective line P1(I<) is a faithful sharply
that $ is a surjective homomorphism whose kernel consists of all the non- 3-transitive PGL(2, I()-set.
zero scalar matrices. The second isomorphism is just the restriction of this
ProoJ AS in Example 9.11 (with the restriction PGL(2, K) -+ LF(I<) re-
one.
placing the isomorphism PTL(2, K) -+ TLF(K)), it suffices to consider linear
fractional transformations acting on I?. The stabilizer of co is Aff(1, K) =
We have seen that P1(K) is a PTL(2, K)-set and that I? is a TLF(K)-set. +
( l H a l b), the subgroup of LF(K) consisting of all numerators. By Theo-
There is an isomorphism $: PTL(2, K) -+ TLF(K) and there is an obvious rem 9.29, I<is a sharply Ztransitive Aff(1, I<)-set. It suffices, by Theorem 9.8,
bijection 6: P1(K) -+ I?, namely, [A, 11r l if 1 E K and [I, 0] H m. If y E to show that LF(K) acts transitively on W. But if p E K, then f ( l ) = l + p
PTL(2, K) and A E K, when is it reasonable to identify the action of y on sends 0 to p and f(A) = 1/R sends 0 to co. E4l
[A, 11 with the action of $(y) on 6([A, I])? More generally, assume that there
is a G-set X (with action a: G -+ S,), an H-set Y (with action p: H -+S,), and If K = GF(q), then Theorem 9.S(iii) gives another proof that 1 PGL(2, q)l =
a bijection 6: X -+ Y. As in Exercise 1.39,8 gives an isomorphism 0,: Sx -+ Sy (4 + l)q(q - 1).
by n: H On:O-'. Finally, assume that there is an isomorphism $: G -+ H. There Let us display a second family of sharply 3-transitive G-sets. The groups
are now two possible ways to view Y as a G-set: via 6,a or via p$. occur as subgroups of the semilinear fractional transformations TLF(q). If
+ +
h = (aRO b)/(cAu d) E TLF(K), then ad - bc # 0. Multiplying numerator
and denominator by p E I<' does not change lz, but it does change the
"determinant" to p2(ad - bc). If q is a power of an odd prime p, then the
nonzero squares form a subgroup of index 2 in GF(q)", namely, (n2), where
n is a primitive element of GF(q) (if q is a power of 2, then every element of
GF(q) is a square). In this odd prime case, it thus makes sense to say that
det(lz) is or is not a square.
Definition. With the notation above, the G-set X and the H-set Y are isornor-
A second ingredient in the coming construction is an automorphism a of
phic if the diagram commutes; that is, if 6,a = P$.
GF(q) of order 2; a exists (uniquely) if and only if q = p2", in which case
Lo = AP".
EXAMPLE 9.11. The TLF(K)-set I? and the PTL(2, I<)-set P1(I<) are
isomorphic. Definition. Let p be an odd prime, let q = p2", and let a E Aut(GF(q)) have
order 2. Define M(q) 5 I"EF(q) = S u 17 where
Let $: PTL(2, I<) 4 TLF(I<) be the isomorphism of Theorem 9.47, and let
9: P1(I<)-+ I? be the bijection given by [A, 11H A and [0, 11H m. Now each
S = {AH (a2 + b)/(cA + d)l ad - bc is a square)
y E PTL(2, I<) is the coset of some semilinear transformation g; relative to the and
standard basis of K2, g = ho,, where a is the corresponding field automor- T = {AH (aA" + b)/(cAu + d ) /ad - bc is not a square).
284 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Sharply 3-Transitive Groups 285
It is easy to check that M(q) is a subgroup of TLF(K); indeed, S is a GF(9)" r Z,;indeed, a generator of Go,, is g: At-+ n/Z,where n is a primitive
subgroup of index 2 in M(q), and T is its other coset. Since it is a subgroup element of GF(9). There is an involution t E G, namely, t: A H 1/A, such that
of semilinear fractional transformations, M(q) acts faithfully on 2, where tgt = g-'. It follows that (t, Go,,) z D16 is a Sylow 2-subgroup of G.
K = GF(q). Let H = MI,. The automorphism a of GF(9) in the definition of Mlo is
A HA3. The double stabilizer
Theorem 9.49. Let p be an odd prime, let q = p2", and let K = GF(q). Then l?
Kl,o3 = S0,m LJ TO,@
is a faitlfzd sharply 3-transitive M(q)-set.
= (h: A i-t a2/Z/a # 0) u (h: /Z H aA31 a nonsquare).
ProoJ If G = M(q), then G = S u T implies G, = S, u T,, where It is now easy to see that Ho,, is a nonabelian group of order 8 having a
S, = (A -+i a 1 + b ( a is a square) --
unique involution; hence, Hot, Q, the quaternions. Since Dl, has no qua-
ternion subgroups, it follows that G and H have nonisomorphic Sylow 2-
and subgroups, and so G $ H.
+
T, = (AHa/Zu bl a is not a square),
Let cc and P be distinct elements of K. If a - P is a square, define h E S, T.Y. Lam and D.B. Leep found that every subgroup of index 2 in Aut(S6),
by h(1) = (a - P)/Z+ P; if a - P is not a square, define h E T, by h(A) = a group of order 1440, is isomorphic to either S6, MLO,or PGL(2, 9), and
(a - P)AU+ P. In either case, h(1) = cc and h(0) = P, so that G, acts doubly each of these does occur.
transitively on K. But, in each of S, and T, there are q choices for b and
*(q - 1) choices for a, so that I G, 1 = q(q - 1).By Theorem 9.8(iii), this action
is sharp. Finally, G acts transitively on f?, for A w - 1/A lies in G (the negative
sign gives determinant I, and 1 is always a square), and - 1/A interchanges 0 The polynomial p(x) = x2 + x - 1 is irreducible in Z3[x] (for it is a quadratic having
and co. The result now follows from Theorem 9.8(v). E l l no roots in Z,). Now GF(9)contains a root n of p(x);indeed, GF(9) = Z3(n),so that
n is a primitive element of GF(9). In the following exercises, n denotes a primitive
Zassenhaus (1936) proved that the actions of PGL(2, q) and of M(q) on the element of GF(9)for which n2 + n = 1.
projective line (if we identify GF(q) u (a)with the projective line) are the 9.27. Prove that a Sylow 3-subgroup of M,,is elementary abelian of order 9.
only faithful sharply 3-transitive G-sets; the first family of groups is defined 9.28. Prove that (M,,), is a group of order 72 having a normal Sylow 3-subgroup.
for all prime powers q; the second is defined for all even powers of odd Conclude that (M,,), is a semidirect product (Z,x 12,) xQ. (Hiizt. For every
primes. As each of PGL(2, q) and M(q) acts sharply 3-transitively on a set b E GF(9)", A H A + b has order 3; the inverse of A H x2'A + b is A H
+
with q + 1 elements, their common order is (q I)q(q - 1) when q = p2" and z6'A - n6'b, and the inverse of A H n2'+lA3+ b is A H n2i+5A- x2i+5
b .)
p is odd. It is true that PGL(2, q) $ M(q) in this case; here is the smallest
instance of this fact. 9.29. There are exactly 8 elements of (MI,), of order 3, and they are conjugate to one
another in (M,,),.
Notation. The group M(9) is denoted by MI, (and it is often called the 9.30. Prove that the subgroup S of M(q) is isomorphic to PSL(2, q). Conclude that
Mathieu group of degree 10). Mlo is neither simple nor solvable. (Hint.If h(A) = (aL + b)/(cL + d) and
ad - bc = ,u2,multiply numerator and denominator by p-'.)
In the next section, we shall construct five more Mathieu groups: MI,, 9.31. Show that MI, is not a semidirect product of S by Z2. (Hint.T contains no
MI,, M,,, M23, M2, (the subscripts indicate the degree of each group's usual involutions.)
representation as a permutation group). However, the phrase "the Mathieu 9.32. Regard GF(9) as a two-dimensional vector space over Z, with basis { l , n).
groups" generally refers to these five groups and not to MI,. Verify the following coordinates for the elements of GF(9):
1 = (1,0)7 n4 = (-1, O),
Theorem 9.50. PGL(2,9) and MI, are nonisornorphic groups of order 720
actirzg sharply 3-transitively on I?, where K = GF(9).
ProoPf. We already know that each of these groups acts sharply 3-transitively
on k, a set with 10 elements, and so each group has order 10 x 9 x 8 = 720.
Let G = PGL(2,9). The double stabilizer Go,, = (Iz: Ai-taA/a # 0) r
286 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Mathieu Croups 287
9.33. Show that MI, = (a,, a,, a,, Q, a,), where Recall Lemma 9.5: If X is a k-transitive G-set, then 3 is a (k + 1)-transitive
(?-set (should 2 exist).
Mathieu Groups because GG = G. It must be shown that GhGhG c G u GhG, and this will
follow if we show that hGh c G u GhG.
We have already seen some doubly and triply transitive groups. In this sec- Since G acts doubly transitively on X, Theorem 9.4 gives G = Gx u GxgGx
tion, we construct the five simple Mathieu groups; one is 3-transitive, two ( f ~ gr $ G,). The hypothesis gives y, 6 E G with h2 = y and (~$2)~= 6. It fol-
are 4-transitive, and two are 5-transitive. In 1873, Jordan proved there are lows that hy-I = h-' = y-'h and hgh = g-'h-'g-'6. Let us now compute.
no sharply 6-transitive groups (other than the symmetric and alternating
groups). One consequence of the classification of all finite simple groups is
that no 6-transitive groups exist other than the symmetric and alternating
groups; indeed, all multiply transitive groups are now known (see the survey
= hGxh u (hGxh)h-'gh-l(hG,h)
article [P.J. Cameron, Finite permutation groups and finite simple groups,
Bull. London Math. Soc. 13 (1981), pp. 1-22]). = G, u ~ , h - ' ~ h - ' ~ , (condition (iv))
All G-sets in this section are faithful and, from now on, we shall call such
= Gx v Gx(y-'h)g(hy-l)G,
groups G permutation groups; that is, G _< S, for some set X. Indeed, we
finally succumb to the irresistible urge of applying to groups G those adjec- = G, u Gxy-' (g-'h-'g-16)y-1 G,
tives heretofore reserved for G-sets. For example, we will say "G is a doubly
c G u GIz-'6
transitive group of degree n" meaning that there is a (faithful) doubly transi-
tive G-set X having n elements. = G uG ~ - % G
We know that if X is a k-transitive G-set and if x E X , then X - {x) is a
= G u GhG.
(k - 1)-transitive Gx-set. Is the converse true? Is it possible to begin with a
+
k-transitive Gy-set X and construct a (k 1)-transitive G-set X v {y}?
One can say a bit about the cycle structure of lz. If lz(co) = a E X, then
Definition. Let G be a permutation group on X and let 2 = X u {m), where h2 E G = cwimplies /$(a)= h2(m) = m; hence, h = (m a)hl, where h' E Ga,,
oo 4 X . A transitive permutation group G on 8 is a transitive extension of G is disjoint from (m a). Similarly, one can see that gh has a 3-cycle in its
if^ Gand GW= G. factorization into disjoint cycles.
288 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Mathieu Groups 289
The reader will better understand the choices in the coming constructions Theorem 9.53. There exists a sharply 5-transitive group M,, of degree 12
once the relation between the Mathieu groups and Steiner systems is seen. and order 95,040 = 12.11 . 10.9 - 8 = 2 6 . 33. 5 . 11 strclz that the stabilizer of a
point is MI,.
Theorem 9.52. There exists a sharply 4-transitive group M,, of degree 11 and
order 7920 = 11 -10- 9 . 8 = Z4. 3' - 5 el1 szrch that the stabilizer of a poirzt is Pro05 By Theorem 9.52, M,, acts sharply 4-transitively on Y =
M10. {GF(9), m, a). We construct a transitive extension of M,, acting on =
{Y, a), where R is a new symbol. If n is a primitive element of GF(9) with
ProoJ By Theorem 9.49, M,, acts sharply 3-transitively on X = GF(9) u n2 + 71: = 1, define
{a). We construct a transitive extension of M,, acting on 2 = {X, w),
where w is a new symbol. If n is a primitive element of GF(9) with
+
n2 n = 1, define
and
k = ( o Q)(n n3)(n2 n6)(7-c5 n7) = (w 52)d3 = (W Q)07
and (note that this is the same 12 occurring in the construction of M,,).
h = ( a LU)(X
n2)(n3 n7)(n5 n6) = ( 0 CO)(T~, Clearly k(52) = o E Y and h 4 (MI,), = M,,. Also, k2 = 1 and hk =
(w 92 m)(n n7 n6)(n2 n5 n3) has order 3. To satisfy the last condition of
where a,(A) = n2A + nA3 (use Exercise 9.32 to verify this). Theorem 9.51, observe first that iff E (M,,), = M,, = S u T, then kfk also
The element g lies in M,,, for det(g) = - 1 = .n4, which is a square in fixes w. Finally, kfk E M,, : if f (A) = (aA + b)/(cA + d) E S, then kJc(A) =
GF(9). It is clear that g $ (MI,), (for g(co) = O), h(w) = co E X,and h2 = (a3A + b3)/(c3A + d3) has determinant a3d3- b3c3 = (ad - b ~ )which ~ , is a
1 E G. Moreover, (gh)3 = 1 because gh = (w 0 m)(n n6 n3)(n2 n7 n5). square because ad - bc is; a similar argument holds when f E 7: Thus,
To satisfy the last condition of Theorem 9.51, observe that iff E (M,,),, kMlOk = MI,.
then It follows from Theorem 9.8(v) that MI,, defined as (M,,, Ic), acts sharply
hfh(a) = hf(o) = h(o) = co, 5-transitively on l?, and so IM,, 1 = 95,040. 89
so that Iz(M,,),lz = (M,,), if we can show that hflz E Mlo. Now (M,,), =
S, u T,, so that either f = n2'A + a or f = n2i+1A3+ a, where i 2 0 and Note that k is an even permutation, so that M,, < A,,.
a E GF(9). In the first case (computing with the second form of h = (o a)(T6), The theorem of Jordan mentioned at the beginning of this section can now
be stated precisely: The only sharply 4-transitive groups are S,, S,, A,, and
MI,; the only sharply 5-transitive groups are S,, S,, A,, and M,,; if Ic 2 6,
+ ~ ~ ~) " +~ E(~ 1" ~ respec-
The coefficients of A and l3are 7 - ~ ~ ' + ~7( 1 ~ and ), then the only sharply k-transitive groups are S,', S,+, , and A,,,. We remind
tively. When i = 2j is even, the second coefficient is 0 and the first coefficient the reader that Zassenhaus (1936) classified all sharply 3-transitive groups
is n4j'4, which is a square; hence, hfh E S, < MI, in this case. When (there are only PGL(2, q) and M(p2") for odd primes p). If p is a prime
i = 2j + 1 is odd, the first coefficient is 0 and the second coefficient is and q = p", then Aut(1, q) is a solvable doubly transitive group of degree q.
n4jn5, which is a nonsquare, so that hfh E T, c M,,. The second case Zassenhaus (1936) proved that every sharply 2-transitive group, with only
(f = n2'+'A3 + a) is similar; the reader may now calculate that finitely many exceptions, can be imbedded in Aut(1, q) for some q; Huppert .
(1957) generalized this by proving that any faithful doubly transitive solvable
group can, with only finitely many more exceptions, be imbedded in Aut(1, q)
an expression which can be treated as the similar expression in the first case. for some q. Thompson completed the classification of sharply 2-transitive
It follows from Theorem 9.8(v) that M,,, defined as (M,,, h), acts sharply groups as certain Frobenius groups. The classification of all finite simple
4-transitively on 2,and so I M l l 1 = 7920. groups can be used to give an explicit enumeration of all faithfill doubly
transitive groups. The classification of all sharply 1-transitive groups, that is,
Note, for later use, that both g and h are even permutations, so that Exer- of all regular groups, is, by Cayley's theorem, the classification of all finite
,
cise 9.34 gives M, 5 A, ,. groups.
This procedure can be repeated; again, the difficulty is discovering a good The "large" Mathieu groups are also constructed as a sequence of transi-
permutation to adjoin. tive extensions, but now beginning with PSL(3,4) (which acts doubly transi-
290 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups
II
[A, p, v]. If v = 0, then the right side is [p2, A2, 01; since Aji # 0, by our initial
begins with a permutation group of degree 21. We describe elements of P2(4) choice of [A, p, v], we have [ji2, ,I2, 0) = [(;lP)y2, (A,u)/I2,01 = [A, p, 01. The
by their homogeneous coordinates. reader may show that (LJ~,)~also fixes co, [I, 0,0], and [0, 1,0], so that
( ~ h ,= ) ~1.
Lemma 9.54. Let P be a primitive element of GF(4,).The futzctions fi: P2(4)-, Finally, assume that k E G, I PSL(3,4), so that k is the coset (mod scalar
P2(4),for i = 1,2, 3, defined by matrices) of
fl CAY P, v l = [A2 + PV, P2, v21,
f2CAY PYv l = [A2, p2, Pv21,
P v1 = [A2, p2, v219
f3C4 Y (because Ic fixes [I, 0,0]). Now det(k) = 1 = ad - bc. The reader may now
are involutions which fix [I, 0, 01. Moreover, calculate that hllchl, mod scalars, is
f
ProoJ The proof is left as an exercise for the reader (with the reminder that
all 3-tuples are regarded as column vectors). A hint for the second statement 1
r
is that PSL(3,4) a PTL(3,4), PTL(3,4)/PSL(3,4) r S,, and, if the unique which fixes [I, 0,0] and whose determinant is a2d2 - b2cZ= (ad - b ~ =) 1.~
nontrivial automorphism of GF(4) is o: AH ,I2, then f3 = o, and Thus hlGxh, = G,, and Theorem 9.51 shows that M2, = (PSL(3,4), h,)
acts 3-transitively on 3 = PZ(4)u { a ) with (M,,), = PSL(3,4).
By Theorem 9.7, I Mz2(= 22 - 21 .20.1H 1, where H is the stabilizer in M2,
of three points. Since (M,,), = PSL(3,4), we may consider H as the
stabilizer in PSL(3,4) of two points, say, [I, 0,0] and [0, 1,0]. If A E SL(3,4)
I sends (1,0,O) to (a, 0,O) and (0, 1, 0) to (0, p, O), then A has the form
Theorem 9.55. There exists a 3-transitive group M2, of degree 22 and order
443,520 = 22.21 -20- 48 = Z7 32.5 . 7 - 11 such that the stabilizer of a point is
I
PSL(3,4).
II
1
Proof. We show that G = PSL(3,4) acting on X = P2(4) has a transitive where q = (ap)-l. There are 3 choices for each of a and P, and 4 choices for
extension. Let each of y and 6, so that there are 144 such matrices A. Dividing by SZ(3,4)
i
x = [I, 0,01, z (which has order 3), we see that IH( = 48. El
sCA, p, v1 = CP, 2, v1, i
1 Theorem 9.56. There exists a 4-trarzsitiue group M23 of degree 23 and order
i'
h, =( a Cl, 0,Ol)fl. i 10,200,960 = 23 22.21 .20 48 = 27 3" 5 7 11.23 such that the stabilizer
[:: :]
1x1 matrix form, of a point is MZ2.
g= 1 0 0 , ProoyC The proof is similar to that for M,,, and so we only provide the
necessary ingredients. Adjoin a new symbol o to Y2(4)v (a),
and let
so that det(g) = - 1 = 1 E GF(4) and g E PSL(3,4). It is plain that g does not
fix x = [I, 0,0] and, by the lemma, that h: = 1. The following computation g = (co [I, 0, 01)f, = the former 1z,,
shows that (gh,)3 = 1. If [A, p, v] # coy[I, 0,0], or [0, 1,0], then
h2 = ( o co>S2.
( s ~ , ) ~ [ Ap,, V] = [Av + p2(v3 + I), pv + A2(v3+ I), v2].
The reader may apply Theorem 9.51 to show that M23 = (M,,, Iz,) is a
If v # 0, then v3 = 1 and v3 + 1 = 0, SO that the right side is [Av, pv, v2] =
transitive extension of M2,. PI
292 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Steiner Systems 293
Theorem 9.57. There exists a 5-transitive group M2, of degree 24 and order (1 2 . . . 10 11); if z = (1 11)(2 10)(3 9)(4 8 ) ( 5 7), then r is an involution
244,823,040 = 24.23-22.21 -20.48 = 210-33.5.7.11~ 2 such 3 that thestabi- with soz = o-I and z E Nsll(P).But i is an odd permutation, whereas M,,2
lizer of a point is M2,. A , , , so that INMll(P)I= 11 or 55. Now P 2 &(P) 5 NMll(P),so that either
P = N'(P) or NH(P) = NMll(P).The first paragraph eliminated the first pos-
ProoJ Adjoin a new symbol LI to P2(4)u ( a , o),and define sibility, and so NH(P) = NMll(P) (and their common order is 55). The Frattini
argument now gives M,, = HNMll(P)= HNH(P)= H (for NH(P)5 H), and
so M,, is simple.
g = ( a a ) f 2 = the former h,,
EXERCISES
The reader may check that Theorem 9.51 gives M2, = (M23, h,) a transitive 9.37. Show that the 4-group V has no transitive extension. (Hirtt. If h E S , has order
extension of MZ3. B! 5, then (V, h ) 2 A,.)
Theorem 9.58 (Miller, 1904)). The Mathieu groups M,,, &,, and M2, are 9.38. Let W = {g E M I 2 :g permutes {cc,o R)). Show that there is a homomor-
phism of W onto S3with kernel (M,,),,,,,. Conclude that 1 = 6 x 72.
simple groups.
9.39. Prove that Aut(2, 3), the group of all affine automorphisms of a two-dimen-
PBl.004: Since M2, is 3-transitive of degree 22 (which is not a power of 2) and sional vector space over Z3, is isomorphic to the subgroup W of M I , in the
since the stabilizer of a point is the simple group PSL(3,4), Theorem 9.25(ii) previous exercise. (Hint.Regard GF(9) as a vector space over Z3.)
gives simplicity of M,,. The group M2, is 4-transitive and the stabilizer of a 9.40. Show that (PSL(3, 4), h,, h,) IMz4 is isomorphic to PTL(3,4). (Nirzt. Lemma
point is the simple group M,,, so that Theorem 9.25(i) gives simplicity of 9.54.)
M2,. Finally, M2, is 5-transitive and the stabilizer of a point is the simple
group M2,, so that Theorem 9.25(i) applies again to give simplicity of
Mz4. El
Steiner Systems
Theorem 9.59 (Cole, 1896; MilBer, 1899). The Mathieu groups Mll and M12
are sirnple. A Steiner system, defined below, is a set together with a family of subsets
which can be thought of as generalized lines; it can thus be viewed as a kind
ProoJ Theorem 9.25(i) will give simplicity of M12 once we prove that MI, is of geometry, generalizing the notion of affine space, for example. If X is a set
simple. The simplicity of MI, cannot be proved in this way because the with 1x1 = u, and if k Iv, then a it-srrbset of X is a subset B c X with I Bl = k.
stabilizer of a point is MI,, which is not a simple group.
Let H be a nontrivial normal subgroup of M,,. By Theorem 9.17, H is Definition. Let 1 < t < k < v be integers. A Steiner syste~ttof type S(t, Ic, u ) is
transitive of degree 11, so that ]HI is divisible by 11. Let P be a Sylow an ordered pair (X, B), where X is a set with u elements, 97 is a family of
11-subgroup of H. Since (1 does not divide IM,, 1, P is also a Sylow 11- k-subsets of X, called bdociis, such that every t elements of X lie in a unique
,,
subgroup of M , and P is cyclic of order 11. block.
We claim that P # NH(P). Otherwise, P abelian implies P I C,(P) I
NH(P)and NH(P)/CH(P)= 1. Burnside's normal complement theorem (Theo- EXAMPLE 9.12. Let X be an affine plane over the field GF(q), and let iB be the
rem 7.50) applies: P has a normal complement Q in H. Now / QI is not divisi- family of all affine lines in X. Then every line has q points and every two
ble by 11, so that Q char H; as H a MI,, Lemma 5.20(ii) gives Q a MI,. If points determine a unique line, so that (X, B) is a Steiner system of type
Q # 1, then Theorem 9.1 7 shows that 1 Q j is divisible by 11, a contradiction. q, q2).
If Q = 1, then P = H. In this case, H is abelian, and Exercise 9.10 gives H a
regular normal subgroup, contradicting Lemma 9.24. EXAMPLE 9.13. Let X = P2tq)and let 93' be the family of all projective lines in
Let us compute b l I ( P ) . In Sll, there are 11!/11 = lo! 11-cycles, and X. Then every line has q + 1 points and every two points determine a unique
hence 9! cyclic subgroups of order 11 (each of which consists of 10 11- line, so that (X, B) is a Steiner system of type S(2, q + 1, q2 + q + 1)).
cycles and the identity). Therefore [Sf,: Nsl(P)] = 9! and I Nsf(P)I = 110. EXAMPLE 9.14. Let X be an m-dimensional vector space over Z2, where 171 2
,
Now NAfl(P) = NsIl(P)n M, . We may assume that P = (a), where a = 3, and let 93 be the family of all planes (affine 2-subsets of X). Since three
294 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Steiner Systems
distinct points cannot be collinear, it is easy to see that (X, B ) is a Steiner and
system of type S(3,4, 2").
Theorem 9.60. Let (X, B) be a Steiner system of type S(t, k , v), where t 2 3. If
x E X, define X' = X - (x) and B' = { B - (x}: B E star(x)}. Then (X',3') is
a Steiner system of type S(t - 1, k - 1, v - 1) (called the contraction of (X, 99) Similarly, the number r(P)of blocks in (X, $3') containing p points, where
at x). l_<pit,is
,(P) = (v - p)(v - p - l).,.(v - t + 1)
Pros$ The routine proof is left to the reader. (12 - p)(k - p - l ) . - . ( k- t + 1)'
'Ifheorem 9.62. All the automorphist~zsof n Steiner system (X, B)form a group
if r is the number of blocks containing a point x E X, then r is independent of x Aut(X, B ) r S,.
296 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Steiner Systems 297
Proof. The only point needing discussion is whether the inverse of an auto- (i) NG(U)acts t-transitively on F ( U ) .
morphism h is itself an automorphism. But S, is finite, and so h-' = hm for (ii) (hnniehael? 1931; Witt, 1938). If k = IF(U)I > t and U is n nontrivial
some m 2 1. The result follows, for it is obvious that the composite of auto- nornzal subgroup of H, then (X, B) is a Steiner system of type S(t, k, v),
rnorphisms is an automorphism. fl where 1x1 = v and
98 = {gF(U): g E G} = {F(Ug):g E G).
Theorem 9.63. If (X, B ) is a Steiner system, then Aut(X, B) acts faithfully on
iJ3. Pro05 (i) Note that 9 ( U ) is a NG(U)-set: if g E NG(U), then U = Ug and
F ( U ) = 9 ( U g )= gP(U). NOW(xl, . . . x,) c F ( U ) because U < H, the sta-
Proof. If cp E Aut(X, 93)and q(B) = B for all blocks 13, then it must be shown bilizer of x,, . .., x,; hence 12 = IF(U)j 2 t. If y,, . . . , y, are distinct elements
that cp = 1,. of F ( U ) , then t-transitivity of G gives g E G with gy, = xi for all i. If u E U,
For x E X,let r = Istar(x)l, the number of blocks containing x. Since cp is an then gug-'xi = guy, = gyi = xi (because y, E F(U)); that is, Ug < H . By the
automorphism, cp(star(x))= star(&)); since cp fixes every block, cp(star(x))= Sylow theorem, there exists h E H with Ug = u". Therefore 1 2 - l ~E~NG(U)and
star(x), so that star(x) = star(cp(x)).Thus, ~ ( xand
) x lie in exactly the same (h-'g)yi = h-'xi = xi for all i.
blocks, and so the number r' of blocks containing (cp(x), x) is the same as the (ii) The hypothesis gives 1 < t < k _< v. If k = v, then F ( U ) = X; but U #
+
number r of blocks containing x. If cp(x) x, however, r' = r gives k = v 1, contradicting G acting faithfully on X. It is also clear that k = IF(U)j =
(using the formulas in Theorem 9.61 and the remark thereafter), contradict- Ig9(U)I for all g E G.
ing k < v. Therefore, ~ ( x=) x for all x E X. If y,, .. . , y, are distinct elements of X, then there is g E G with gxi = yi for
all i, and so {y,, . . ., y,} c gS"(U). It remains to show that g F ( U ) is the
Corollary 9.64. If (X, 99)is a Steiner system and x E X, then 0, Es,,,, B = {x). unique block containing the yi. If {y,, . . . ,y,) c hF(U), then there are z,, . . . ,
z, E F ( U ) with yi = hzi for all i. By (i), there is a E NG(U)with zi = oxi for all
Proof. Let x, y E X. If star(x) = star(y), then the argument above gives the i, and so gxi = y, = haxi for all i. Hence g-'ha fixes all xi and g-'ha E H. Now
contradiction r' = r. Therefore, if y # x, there is a block B with x E B and H s NG(U),because U u H, so that g-'ha E NG(U)and g-'h E NG(U).There-
4 B, so that y 4 nBEsta,,,B. fore, Ug = Uh and g F ( U ) = 9 ( U g )= F ( u " ) = hF(U), as desired.
We are going to see that multiply transitive groups may determine Steiner Lemma 9.67. Let H < Ad2, be the stabilizer of the five points
systems.
Notation. If X is a G-set and U 4 G is a subgroup, then (i) H is a group of order 48 having a normal elementary abelinn Sylow 2-
subgroup U of order 16.
F ( U ) = (x E X: gx = x for all g E U). (ii) F ( U ) = L' u ( a , o , 921, where LP is the projective line v = 0, and so
I9(U)l = 8.
Recall that if U 5 G and g E G, then the conjugate gUg-' may be denoted (iii) Only the identity of M2, fixes more than 8 points.
by Ug.
Proof. (i) Consider the group fi of all matrices over GF(4) of the form
[a : 1
Lemma 9.65. If X is a G-set and U < G is a subgroup, then
F ( U g )= g F ( U ) for all g E G.
A=A 0 y /? ,
PPOO$, The following statements are equivalent for x E X: x E F(Ug);
gug-'(x) = x for all u E U; ug-'(x) = gP1(x) for all u E U; g-'(x) E F(U); where 2, y # 0. There are 3 choices for each of A and y, and 4 choices for each
x EgF(U). of a and p, so that = 3 x 48. Clearly R / Z ( ~4), has order 48, lies in
PSL(3,4) 1 M2,, and fixes the five listed points, so that H = @/2(3,4) (we
Theorem 9.66. Let X be a faithful t-transitive G-set, where t 2 2, let H be the know that IHJ = 48 from Theorem 9.57). Define G 4 l? to be all those matri-
stabilizer of t points x,, . . ., x, in X, and let U be a Sylow p-subgroup of H for ces A above for which y = 1. Then U = 0/2(3,4) has order 16 and consists
some prime p. of involutions; that is, U is elementary abelian. But 6 u l?,being the kernel
298 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Steiner Systems 299
of the map a + SL(3,4) given by so that q(C) = A3 (we have just seen that q(C) # 1) and so 3 divides ICI.
There is thus an element h E C of order 3. Since g and h commute, the element
gh has order 15. Now gh cannot be a 15-cycle (G has degree 13), and so its
cycle structure is either (5, 5, 3), (5, 3, 3), or (5, 3). Hence (gh)5, being either a
3-cycle or a product of 2 disjoint 3-cycles, fixes more than 6 points. This
contradiction shows that no such G can exist.
so that U a H. A transitive extension G of M,, would have degree 25 and order 25.24.
(ii) Assume that [A, p, v] E F ( U ) . If h E U, then y = 1 and 23.22.21 .20.48. If g E G has order 11, then g is a product of 2 disjoint
11-cycles (it cannot be an 11-cycle lest it fix 14 > 8 points, contradicting
Lemma 9.67(iii)). Arguing as above, there is an element lz E G of order 3
commuting with g, and so gh has order 33. Since G has degree 25, glz is not a
33-cycle, and so its cycle structure is either of the form (11, 11, 3) or one
<
for some E GF(4)'. If v = 0, then all projective points of the form [A, p, 01 11-cycle and several 3-cycles. In either case, (gh)" has order 3 and fixes more
(which form a projective line L having 4 + 1 = 5 points) are fixed by h. If than 8 points, contradicting Lemma 9.67.
v # 0, then these equations have no solution, and so h fixes no other projec-
tive points. Therefore, every h E U fixes L, co,w, R, and nothing else, so that Theorem 9.69.
B ( U ) = t' u (as, w, 0) and IF(U)I = 8.
(iii) By 5-transitivity of M2,, it suffices to show that h E H # can fix at most (i) Let X = P2(4)u (as, w, $2) be regarded as an M2,-set, let U be a Sylow
3 projective points in addition to [I, 0,0] and [O, l,O]. Consider the equa- 2-subgroup of H (the stabilizer of 5 points), and let 33' = (gB(U): g E
tions for 5 E GF(4) : M2,). Then (X, g)is a Steiner.system of type S(5, 8, 24).
(ii) If g F ( U ) contains (coyw, R), then its renzaining 5 points form a projective
line. Conversely, for every projective line f', there is g E PSL(3,4) _< M2,
with g g ( U ) = L' u ( a , o , 0).
ProoJ (i) Lemma 9.67 verifies that the conditions stated in Theorem 9.66 do
If v = 0, then we may assume that A # 0 (for LO, 1,0] is already on the list of hold.
five). Now 1, = li. + av = and p = yp + pv = 5p give y = 1; hence h E U
(ii) The remark after Theorem 9.61 gives a formula for the number r."
and 12 fixes exactly 8 elements, as we saw in (ii). If v # 0, then v = y-'v = t v of blocks containing 3 points; in particular, there are 21 blocks containing
implies 5 = y-l; we may assume that y # 1 lest h E U . The equations can now (coy w, R). If t' c F ( U ) is the projective line v = 0, and if g E PSL(3,4) =
be solved uniquely for A and p (A = (y-' - 1)-'av and p = (y-' - y)-lflv), so (M24),,,,Q, then g F ( U ) = g(8) u {as, 0 , a).But PSL(3,4) acts transitively
that h 4 U can fix only one projective point other than [I, 0,0] and [0, 1,0]; on the lines of P2(4)(Exercise 9.23) and P2(4)has exactly 21 lines (Theorem
that is, such an h can fix at most 4 points. 9.40(ii)). It follows that the 21 blocks containing the 3 infinite points coyo , $2
are as described. El
Theorem 9.68. Neither MI, nor M2, has a transitive extension.
The coming results relating Mathieu groups to Steiner systems are due to ' .
Proof. In order to show that MI, has no transitive extension, it suffices to
R.D. Carmichael and E. Witt.
show that there is no sharply 6-transitive group G of degree 13. Now such a
group G would have order 13.12.11 . l o . 9.8. If g E G has order 5, then g is
Theorem 9.70. M2, z Aut(X, B), where (X, 9 ) is a Steiner system of type
a product of two 5-cycles and hence fixes 3 points (g cannot be a 5-cycle lest
it fix 8 > 6 points). Denote these fixed points by (a, by c), and let H = G,,,,,. S(5, 8, 24).
Now (g) is a Sylow 5-subgroup of H ((g) is even a Sylow 5-subgroup of G),
so that Theorem 9.66(i) gives N = NG((g)) acting 3-transitively on F ( ( g ) ) = Remark. There is only one Steiner system with these parameters.
{a, byc); that is, there is a surjective homomorphism cp: N -+ S,. We claim
that C = C,((g)) $ ker cp. Otherwise, q~induces a surjective map 9,:N/C -+ Pro@+Let (X, g)be the Steiner system of Theorem 9.69: X = P2(4)u
S,. By Theorem 7.1, N/C I Aut((g)), which is abelian, so that N/C and ( m yw, 0) and B = (gB(U): g E M2,), where F ( U ) = C u { a , w, R) (here C
hence S, are abelian, a contradiction. Now C a N forces y(C) a y(N) = S3, is the projective line v = 0).
300 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Steiner Systems 301
It is clear that every g E M2" is a permutation of X that carries blocks Since (X', B') is a contraction of (X, B), a block in 93" containing m and w
to blocks, so that M2, < Aut(X, 93). For the reverse inclusion, let q E has the form C' u {a, w), where C' is a projective line. As in the proof of
Aut(X, B). Multiplying cp by an element of M2, if necessary, we may assume Theorem 9.70, q/P2(4)preserves lines and hence is a collineation of P2(4).
that cp fixes {m, o, a ) and, hence, that q l P2(4): P2(4) 4 P2(4). By Theorem Since M24 contains a copy of PTL(3,4), there is g G M2, with glP2(4)=
9.69(ii), q carries projective lines to projective lines, and so q is a collineation qlP2(4). Therefore, g and q can only disagree on the infinite points co,w,
of P2(4). But M2, contains a copy of PTL(3,4), the collineation group of and Q.
P2(4), by Exercise 9.40. There is thus g E M2, with gl P2(4) = q 1 P2(4),and If B E star@) (i.e., if B is a block in 9
7 containing Zl), then q(B) and g(B) are
cpg-' E Aut(X, B ) (because M2, 5 Aut(X, 9)). Now qg-I can permute only blocks; moreover, /q(B)n g(B)I 2 5, for blocks have 8 points, while (o and g
m, o , R. Since every block has 8 elements qg-' must fix at least 5 elements; can disagree on at most 3 points. Since 5 points determine a block, however,
as each block is determined by any 5 of its elements, qg-' must fix every q(B) = g(B) for all B E star(0). By Corollary 9.64,
block, and so Theorem 9.63 shows that qg-' = 1; that is, q = g E M2,, as
desired.
S(4, 7,23). sideration of star(o), as in the proof of Theorem 9.72, gives g(w) = w.
Therefore, qg-' is a permutation of X fixing P2(4)u {w). If yg-' fixes R,
Remark. There is only one Steiner system with these parameters. then qg-' = I, and q = g E (M24)n,, = M2,. The other possibility is that
qlg-l = (m Q).
Pvooj: Let X' = P2(4)u (m, o ) , let B' = B1(C)= C v (m, w ) , where L' is the We claim that [Aut(XU,2"): Mi2] 5 2. If q,, y2 E Aut(XU,B") and q,,
projective line v = 0, and let 9Y'= {g(B1):g E kfZ3). It is easy to see that q2 q! M,,, then we have just seen that qi = (cn R)gi for i = 1, 2, where
(X', -9')is the contraction at Q of the Steiner system (X, 9?)in Theorem 9.69, gi E M24. But g;'g2 = q;'q2 E (M24)f2,,= M2, (since both q i fix R and o);
so that it is a Steiner system of type S(4, 7,23). there are thus at most two cosets of M,, in Aut(XU, . .
L$Y"'.
,
It is clear that M2, 5 Aut(X', 93'). For the reverse inclusion, let q E Recall the definitions of the elementsh, and h3 in M,,: h, = (w cn)f2 and
Aut(Xt, 2'), and regard q as a permutation of X with q(Q) = Zl. Multiplying h, = (R w)f,, where f2, f3 act on P2(4) and fix co,o,and fi. Note that h,
by an element of M2, if necessary, we may assume that q fixes m and a. fixes Q and h, fixes m. Define g = h3k2h , = (R a) f3 f, f3, and define
302 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Steiner Systems 303
cp: X" -+ X" to be the function with q(m) = m and qlP2(4) = f3 fZ By f3.
interchanges 1 and - 1. But [: GF(9) -+ GF(9), defined by [: At---+-A, lies in
Lemma 9.54, qlp2(4) is a collineation; since 9 fixes m, it follows that MI, (for - 1 is a square in GF(9)) and [I Y = o, so that [ = O-*.Since the only
q E Aut(XU,93"). On the other hand, rp $ M,,, lest qg-' = (Q m ) E M24, other point fixed by [ is 0, the one-point Q-orbit of X - Y must be {O).
contradicting Lemma 9.67(iii). We have shown that M,, has index 2 in Define Z = Y u (0) = (myo,Q, 1, - 1,O). We saw, in Exercise 9.33,
Aut(X", .9?"). that MI, 5 M,, contains o : ( 9 + ( 9 , where a : 1 w - 1 is
(0 m)(l - l)(n3 n)(n5 n7). Let us see that the subgroup Z = (Q, o,) EZ S,.
Corollary 9.74. M,, has an outer automorphism of order 2 and Aut(XU,B") z The set Z is both a Q-set and a (o,)-set, hence it is also a C-set. As C acts
transitively on Z and the stabilizer of 0 is Q (which acts sharply 5-transitively
M22 x z2.
on Z - (0) = Y), we have 2 acting sharply 6-transitively on the 6-point set
h o o f . The automorphism 9 E Aut(XU,B")with q $ MZ2constructed at the Z, and so Z z S,. Finally, the 6 points X - Z comprise the other C-orbit of
end of the proof of Theorem 9.73 has order 2, for both f2 and f3 are X (for we have already seen that X - Z is a Q-orbit).
If P E Q, then P(Y) = Y and P(0) = 0, so that P(Z) = 2.Since o,(Z) = 2, it
involutions (Lemma 9.54), hence the conjugate f3f2 f3is also an involution. It
follows that Aut(XU,93") is a semidirect product M I , x Z2. NOW(P is an follows that o(Z) = Z for all u- E C. Conversely, suppose p E M,, and p(Z) =
automorphism of M,,: if a E M,,, then am= qaq-' E M,,. Were an inner Z. Since Z acts 6-transitively on 2, there is o E C with o Z = p ]2. But pa-'
automorphism, there would be b E M,, with qaV-' = babe' for all a E M,,; fixes 6 points, hence is the identity, and ,u = a E C. B
that is, 90-I would centralize M,,. But a routine calculation shows that rp
does not commute with h, = (m [I, 0, O])fl E M,,, and SO q is an outer Theorem 9.76. If X = GF(9) u {a, w, a ) is regarded as an MI,-set arzd L%? =
automorphism of M,,. Bl {gZ: g E MI,}, where Z = {m, w, Q, 1, - 1,O), then (X, B)is a Steiner system
of type S(5, 6, 12).
The "small" Mathieu groups MI, and MI, are also intimately related to
Steiner systems, but we cannot use Theorem 9.66 because the action is now Proof. It is clear that every block gZ has 6 points. If x,, . . ., x, are any
sharp. five distinct points in X, then 5-transitivity of MI, provides g E MI, with
{x, , . . . , x, ) c gZ. It remains to prove uniqueness of a block containing five
Lemma 9.75. Regard X = GF(9) u {m, w, Q) as an MI,-set. There is a given points, and it sufices to show that if Z and g Z have five points in
srrbgrozip Z 5 MI,, isomorphic to S,, having two orbits of size 6, say, Z and Z', common, then Z = gZ. Now if Z = {z,, .. . , Z6), then gZ = {gzl,.. . , yz,),
and which acts sharply 6-transitively on 2. Moreover, where gz,, .. . , gz, E Z. By Lemma 9.75, there is O- E Z s MI, with O-zz,=
gz,, .. . , oz, = gz,. Note that 0.2= 2,for Z is a Corbit. On the other hand,
CJ and g agree on five points of X, so that sharp 5-transitivity of M,, gives
a = g. Therefore Z = O-Z= gZ.
Proof. Denote the 5-set {m, w, R, 1, - 1) by Y. For each permutation r of Y,
sharp 5-transitivity of MI, provides a unique r* E M,, with r*j Y = r. It is If GF(9) is regarded as an affine plane over Z,,then the blocks of the Steiner
easy to see that the function S , -+ M,,, given by r r r * , is an injective system constructed above can be examined from a geometric viewpoint.
homomorphism; we denote its image (isomorphic to S,) by Q.
Let us now compute the Q-orbits of X. One of them, of course, is Y. If r is
the 3-cycle (aw R), then r* E Q has order 3 and fixes 1 and - 1. Now r* is Lemma 9.77. Let (X, 9) be the Steiner system corzstrircted fiorn MI, in Theo-
a product of three disjoint 3-cycles (fewer than three would fix too many rem 9.76. A szrbset B of X containing T = {m, w, Q) is a block if arzd only if
points of X), so that the (r*)-orbits of the 7-set X - Y have sizes (3,3, 1). B = T u C, where C is a line in GF(9) regarded as an affine plane over Z3.
Since the Q-orbits of X (and of X - Y) are disjoint unions of (r*)-orbits
(Exercise 9.4), the Q-orbits of X - Y have possible sizes (3, 3, I), (6, I), (3,4), Proof: Note that Z = TuC,, where C, = {l, - 1,0), and C, is the line con-
or 7. If Q has one orbit of size 7, then Q acts transitively on X - Y; this is sisting of the scalar multiples of 1. By Exercises 9.38 and 9.39, MI, contains
impossible, for 7 does not divide /QI = 120. Furthermore, Exercise 9.3(i) says a subgroup W z Aut(2,3) each of whose elements permutes 7: Hence, for
that Q has no orbits of size t, where 2 < t < 5. We conclude that X - Y has every g E W, g Z = T u gCo, and gd, is an affine line. But one may count
two Q-orbits of sizes 6 and 1, respectively. There is thus a unique point in exactly 12 affine lines in the affine plane, so that there are 12 blocks of the
X - Y, namely, the orbit of size 1, that is fixed by every element of Q. If G E S, form T u C. On the other hand, the remark after Theorem 9.61 shows that
is the transposition (1 - I), then its correspondent a* E Q fixes m, w, Q and there exactly 12 blocks containing the 3-point set 7: I Y
304 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups Steiner Systems 305
Theorem 3.78. M,, r Aut(X, B), where (X, 9 ) is a Steiner systern of type ProoJ Recall from Lemma 9.75 that if X = { a , w,Q) u GF(9) and C ( 2 S,)
S(5, 6, 12). is the subgroup of M,, in Lemma 9.75, then X has two C-orbits, say, Z =
Y u (0) and Z' = Y' u (0'1, each of which has 6 points. If a E C has order 5,
Renzark. There is only one Steiner system with these parameters. then a is a product of two disjoint 5-cycles (only one 5-cycle fixes too many
points), hence it fixes, say, 0 and 0'. It follows that if U = (a), then each of Z
DooJ Let (X, B ) be the Steiner system constructed in Theorem 9.76. Now and Z' consists of two U-orbits, one of size 5 and one of size 1. Now H =
MI, 5 Aut(X, 98) because every g E M,, carries blocks to blocks. For the (M12)o,ol E Ml0, and U is a Sylow 5-subgroup of H. By Theorem 9.66, N =
reverse inclusion, let cp E Aut(X, B).Composing with an element of M,, if NMIZ(U) acts 2-transitively on B ( U ) = (0, 0'), so there is a E N of order 2
necessary, we may assume that rp permutes T = ( m yw, Q) and cp permutes which interchanges 0 and 0'.
GF(9). Regarding GF(9) as an affine plane over Z,,we see from Lemma 9.77 Since a has order 2, a = z, .. . z,, where the zi are disjoint transpositions
that qlCF(9) is an affine automorphism. By Exercise 9.39, there is g E M,, and m I 6. But M,, is sharply 5-transitive, so that 4 _< m; also, M,, I A I 2 ,
which permutes T and with g JGF(9) = cp 1 GF(9). Now cpg-I E Aut(X, B), for so that m = 4 or rn = 6..
M,, 5 Aut(X, g),rpg-' permutes T, and cpg-I fixes the other 9 points of X. We cIaim that a interchanges the sets Z = Y u (0) and 2'= Y'u {Of).
We claim that cpg-' fixes every block B in B. This is clear if IB n TI = 0, 1, or Otherwise, there is y E Y with a(y) = z E X Now aaa = a ' for some i (because
3. In the remaining case, say, B = { m yo , x,, ...,x,), then cpgW1(B)must a normalizes (a)). If ai(y) = u and a(z) = v, then u, v E Y because Y u (0) is a
contain either m or o as well as the xi, so that ( Bn rpg-'(B)[ 2 5. Since X-orbit. But u = ai(y) = aaa(y) = a&) = a(v), and it is easy to see that y, z,
5 points determine a block, B = cpgV1(B),as claimed. Theorem 9.63 forces u, and v are all distinct. Therefore, the cycle decomposition of a involves
cpg-' = 1, and so cp = g E M,,, as desired. E l (0 Or), (y z), and (v 21). There is only one point remaining in Y, say a, and
there are two cases: either a(a) = a or %(a)E Y'. If a fixes a, then there is
Theorem 9.79. M,, r Aut(X', 9'), where (X', 93')is a Steiner system of type y' E Y' moved by a, say, a(yl) = z' E Y'. Repeat the argument above: there
S(4, 5, 11). are points u', v' E Y' with transpositions (y' z') and (0' u') involved in the
cycle decomposition of a. If a' is the remaining point in Y', then the transpo-
Remark. There is only one Steiner system with these parameters. sition (a a') must also occur in the factorization of a because a is not a
product of 5 disjoint transpositions. In either case, we have a E Y and a' E Y'
Proof. Let ( X ' , B') be the contraction at R of the Steiner system (X, a)of with a = (0 O')(y z)(v u)(a a')& where /? permutes Y' - (a'). But aaa(a) =
Theorem 9.76. It is clear that MI, 2 Aut(X1,98'). For the reverse inclusion, ai(a) E 2 ; on the other hand, if a(af)= b' E Y', say, then aaa(a) = aa(al) =
regard q E Aut(X1,98') as a permutation of X with cp(Q) = a. Multiplying by a(bl), so that a(bl) E Y. Since a' is the only element of Y' that a moves to Y,
an element of M,, if necessary, we may assume that cp permutes (a, a). b' = a' and a(al) = b' = a'; that is, a fixes a'. This is a contradiction, for a
By Lemma 9.77, a block B' E 98' containing co and o has the form B' = fixes only 0 and 0'.
{m, o ) u C, where C is a line in the affine plane over Z,.As in the proof of It is easy to see that a normalizes C. Recall that a E C if and only if a(Z) =
Theorem 9.78, pJGF(9)is an affine isomorphism, so there is g E M,, with Z (and hence 42') = 2'). Now aaa(Z) = aa(Z1)= a(Z') = Z, so that aaa E
gIGF(9) = (plGF(9). As in the proof of Theorem 9.72, an examination of C. Therefore, y = y, (conjugation by a) is an automorphism of C.
g(star(Q)) shows that g(f2) = R, so that g E (M,,), = &,. The argument Suppose there is fl E C with aa*a = Ba"fl-' for all a* E C; that is, P-la E
now finishes as that for Theorem 9.78: cpg-I E Aut(X1,98'); cpg-' fixes W'; C = CMI2(C).If C = 1, then a = fl E ;S, and this contradiction would show
cp = g e M l l . !%I that y is an outer automorphism. If a* E C, then a* = aa', where CT permutes
Z and fixes Z' and a' permutes 2' and fixes Z. Schematically,
The subgroup structures of the Mathieu groups are interesting. There are
other simple groups imbedded in them: for example, M,, contains copies of
A,, PSL(2,9), and PSL(2, ll), while M2, contains copies of M,,, A,, and if p E M1,, then (as any element of S, ,),
PSL(2,23). The copy C of S, in M,, leads to another proof of the existence
of an outer automorphism of S,.
In particular, if p E C (so that pa*,u-' = a*), then either p(Z) = Z and
Theorem 9.80. S, lzas an outer autornorplzism of order 2. p(Z') = 2'or p switches Z and 2'.In the first case, p E C, by Lemma 9.75,
and p E C n C = Z(C) = 1. In the second case, pap-' = a' (and pa'p-' = a),
Remark. See Corollary 7.13 for another proof. so that a and a' have the same cycle structure for all a* = aa' E C. But there
306 9. Permutations and the Mathieu Groups
is o-* E C with rs a transposition. If such p exists, then IT* would be a product 1 CHAPTER 10
of two disjoint transpositions and hence would fix 8 points, contradicting
MI, being sharply 5-transitive. Abelian Groups
There is a similar argument, using an imbedding of MI, into M2,, which
exhibits an outer automorphism of MI,. There are several other proofs of the
existence of the outer automorphism of S,; for example, see Conway and
Sloane (1993).
The Steiner systems of types S(5,6, 12) and S(5, 8,24) arise in algebraic I
coding theory, being the key ingredients of (ternary and binary) Golay odes.
The Steiner system of type S(5,8,24) is also used to define the Leech lattice,
11
a configuration
- in iW24 arising in certain sphere-packing problems as well as i
in the construction of other simple sporadic groups.
1
J
Basics
A valuable viewpoint in studying an abelian group G is to consider it as an
extension of simpler groups. Of course, this reduces the study of G to a study
of the simpler groups and an extension problem.
In this chapter, we assume that allgroups are abelian and we again adopt
additive notation.
There is no need to label the arrow 0 - + A , for there is only one such
homomorphism, namely, O r 0; similarly, there is no need to label the only
possible homomorphism C -+ 0: it must be the constant map x r 0. In the
short exact sequence above, 0 = im(0 -+ A) = kerf says that f is an injec-
tion and A E im f ; also, im g = ker(C 0) = C says that g is a surjection.
-+
If A 5 B and f is the inclusion, then im f = A and B/A E C. Thus, B is infinite and infinitely many A, # 0, then the direct sum is a proper subgroup
an extension of A by C if and only if there is a short exact sequence of the direct product.
O-,A-+B-,C-,O.
Defi~ition.If x E G and n is a nonzero integer, then x is divisible by $1 in G if
Definiticb~.If G is a group, its torsion sakbgrolsp is there is g E G with ng = x.
tG = {x E G: nx = 0 for some nonzero integer n).
Were the operation in G written multiplicatively, then one would say that
Note that tG is a fully invariant subgroup of G. x has an nth root in G. Exercise 1.31 shows that an element of order In is
When G is not abelian, then tG may not be a subgroup. For example, divisible by every n with (n, m) = 1.
Exercise 2.17 shows that tG is not a subgroup when G = GL(2, Q).
Theorem 80.23. There exists a group G whose torsion subgroup is not a direct
Definition. A group G is torsion if tG = G; it is torsion-free if tG = 0. summand of G.
The term torsion is taken from Algebraic Topology; the homology groups
of a "twisted" manifold have elements of finite order.
Proof. Let P be the set of all primes, and let G = n,,,Z,.If q is a prime and
x = (x,) E G is divisible by q, then there is y = (y,) with qy, = x, for all p; it
follows that x, = 0. Therefore, if x is divisible by every prime, then x = 0.
Theorem 10.1. The quotient group G/tG is torsion-fiee, and so every group G is We claim that G/tG contains a nonzero element which is divisible by every
an extension of a torsion group by a torsion-free group. prime. If this were true, then G # tG @ H for some subgroup H, because
H z G/tG. If a, E Z, is a generator, then a = (a,) has infinite order: if nu = 0,
Proof. If n(g + tG) = 0 in G/tG for some n # 0, then ng E tG, and so there is then nap = 0 for all p, so that p divides n for all p and hence n = 0. Therefore
m # 0 with m(ng) = 0. Since mn # 0, g E tG, g + tG = 0 in G/tG, and G/tG is +
a $ tG, and its coset a tG is a nonzero element of GItG. If q is a prime, then
torsion-free. a, is divisible by q in Z, for all p # q, by Exercise 1.31; there is thus y, E Z,
with qy, = a, for all p # q. Define y, = 0 and define y = (y,). Now a - qy E
If an abelian group is a semidirect product, then it is a direct product or, in tG (for its coordinates are all 0 except for a, in position q). Hence
additive terminology, it is a direct sum. The first question is whether the
extension problem above is only virtual or if there exists a group G whose q(y + tG) = qy + tG = a - (a - qy) + tG =n + tG,
torsion subgroup is not a direct summand of G (i.e., there is no subgroup
AI G with G = tG @ A). Let us first generalize one of the constructions we
and so a + tG is divisible by every prime q. El
have already studied.
We restate Lemma 7.20 for abelian groups.
Definition. Let K be a possibly infinite set and let {A,: k E K ) be a family of
groups1 indexed by K. The direct produd (or complete direct sum or strong Lemma 10.3. If G is an abelian group and A I G, then the followitzg statements
direct sum), denoted by n,,,
A,, is the group whose elements are all "vec-
tors" (a,) in the cartesian product of the A, and whose operation is
are equivalent.
(i) A is a direct summand of G (there is a subgroup B I G with A n B = 0 and
A + B = G).
The direct sum (or weak direct sum), denoted by
n,, zk,,
A,, is the subgroup of
A, consisting of all those elements (a,) for which there are only finitely
(ii) There is a subgroup B 5 G so that each g E G has a unique expression
+
g = a b with a E A and b E B.
(iii) There exists a homomorphism s: GIA -t G with vs = I,,,, where v: G -,
many k with a, # 0. G/A is the natural map.
If the index set I< is finite, then n,,, xkE,
A, = A,; if the index set I< is
(iv) There exists a retraction n: G -, A; that is, n is n homomorphism with
n(a) = a for all a E A.
These constructions make sense for nonabelian groups as well. They have already arisen, for
example, in our remark in Chapter 7 that different wreath products K 2 Q (complete and re- The following criterion is a generalization of Exercise 2.75 (which charac-
stricted) arise when Q acts on an infinite set !2. terizes finite direct sums).
3 10 10. Abelian Groups Basics 311
Lemma 10.4. Let (A,: k E K] be a family of subgroups of a group G. The Theorem 10.7 (Primary Decomposition). Every torsion group G is a direct sum
following statements are equivalent. of p-primary groups.
(i) GzCkEXAk. 1
(ii) Every g E G has a unique expression of the form I Pro05 For a prime p, define
where a,
(iii) G = (U,,,
E A,, the k are distinct, and a, # 0 for only finitely many k.
A,) and, for each j E K, A j n <UkzjAk)= 0.
1
1
L
(Gpis called thep-primary component of G.) The proof of Theorem 6.1, nzutatis
murandis, show that G z Z,
b,. O
Theorem 10.5. If V is a vector space over a field I<, then, as an additive group, ProoJ If q : G 4 H is a homomorphism, then y(G,) 5 H, for all primes p. In
V is a direct sum of copies of K. particular, if ip is an isomorphism, then ip(G,) 5 H, and q-'(H,) G, for all
p. It follows easily that q 1 G, is an isomorphism G, 4 H,.
HPE.oo$ Let X be a basis of V. For each x E X, the one-dimensional subspace Conversely, assume that there are isomorphisms q,: Gp -+H, for all primes
Kx spanned by x, is, as a group, isomorphic to K. The reader may check, p. By Theorem 10.4(ii), each g E G has a unique expression of the form g =
using Lemma 10.4, that V = C,,,KX. C,a,, where only a finite number of the a, # 0. Then q : G 4 H , defined by
y ( x a,) = C qp(ap),is easily seen to be an isomorphism. B
There is a notion of independence for abelian groups,
! Because of these last two results, most questions about torsion groups can
Defil~lliticen.A finite subset X = (x,, . . . , x,) of nonzero elements of a group G be reduced to questions about p-primary groups.
is independent if, for all mi E Z, x m i x i = 0 implies mixi = 0 for each i. An Here are two technical results about direct sums and products that will be
infinite set X of nonzero elements in G is indepenbnt if every finite subset is useful.
independent.
Proopf. The argument is similar to the one just given if one defines
p,:nlEK A, -+ H as the projection of a "vector" onto its kth coordinate. El
PuooJ If u E F, then uniqueness of the expression u = x m x x shows that
y: uHZ mxf (u) is a well defined function. That y is a homomorphism ex-
tending f is obvious; y is unique because homomorphisms agreeing on a set
of generators must be equal.
Here is a fancy proof. For each x E X, there is a unique homomorphism
10.1. Let {A,: k E K ) be a family of torsion groups. yx: ( x ) 4 G defined by m x w i n f ( x ) . The result now follows from Lemma
(i) The direct sum Eke, A, is torsion.
10.6 and Theorem 10.10. E l
(ii) If n is a positive integer and if each A, has exponent n (i.e., nA, = 0 for all k),
thenn,,, A, is torsion.
Corollary 10.12. Every (abelian)group G is a quotient of a free abelian group.
10.2. If x E G, then any two solutions to the equation ny = x differ by an element z
with nz = 0. Conclude that y is unique if G is torsion-free. ProoJ Let F be the direct sum of j G I copies of Z,and let x, denote a generator
10.3. If G is a torsion-free group and X is a maximal independent subset, then G / ( X ) of the 9th copy of Z, where g E G. Of course, F is a free abelian group with
is torsion. basis X = {x,: g E GI. Define a function f : X -+ G by f(x,) = g for all g E G. ,
Definition. An abelian group G has generotors X and relations A if G z FIR, The group Z ( p W )has other interesting properties (see Exercise 10.5 below),
where F is the free abelian group with basis X , A is a set of Z-linear combina- and we shall return to it in a later section.
tions of elements of X, and R is the subgroup of F generated by A. If X can
be chosen finite, then G is calledfinitely generated. Theorem 10.14. Two free abelian groups F = Exex
(x) and G = EYE(y)
XI = 1 YI.
are isomorphic fi and only if I
EXAMPLE
10.1. G = Z6 has generator x and relation 6x.
ProoJ Since 1x1= I YI, there is a bijection f : X + Y c G, and f determines a
EXAMPLE
10.2. G = Z6 has generators {x, y), and relations {2x, 3 ~ ) .
homomorphism cp: F + G with cp(x) = f(x) for all x E X. Similarly, there is a
EXAMPLE10.3. G = Q has generators {x,, ..., x,, ...) and relations homomorphism $: G -,F with $(y) = f -l(y) for all y E Y. But cp$ and $9
{x, - 2x2, x, - 3x3, ..., x,-, - nx,, ...). are identities because each fixes every element in a basis, and so cp: F -+ G is
EXAMPLE 10.4. If G is free abelian with basis X, then G has generators X and an isomorphism.
no relations (recall that 0 is the subgroup generated by the empty set). The Conversely, if p is a prime, then V = F/pF is a vector space over Z,. We
claim that = {x + pF: x E X) is a basis of V. It is clear that spans V.
etymology of the term free should now be apparent.
Assume that C [m,] (x + pF) = 0, where [m,] E Z,and not all [m,] = [O]. If
We have just seen that one can describe a known group by generators and m, is a representative of [m,], then Em,(x + pF) = 0. In F, this equation
relations. One can also use generators and relations to construct a group becomes zm,x E pF; that is, there are integers n, with C m x x = x p n x x .
with prescribed properties. Independence of a basis gives m, = pn, for all x, and so [m,] = [0] for all x.
This contradiction shows that X is independent, and hence it is a basis of K
Theorem 10.13. There is an infinite p-primary group G = Z(pW)each of whose We have shown that dim FIpF = 1x1 = 1x1. In a similar way, one shows that
proper subgroups is finite (and cyclic). dimF/pF=IYI,sothatIXI=IYI.
ProoJ Define a group G having Definition. The rank of a free abelian group is the cardinal of a basis.
generators: X = {x,, x,, .. . , x,, ...I Theorem 10.14 says that two free abelian groups are isomorphic if and
and only if they have the same rank. The reader will not be misled by the analogy:
vector space-free abelian group; dimension-rank.
relations: {px,, xo - px,, x, - px,, . . .,x,-, - px,, ...). It is clear that if F and G are free abelian, then
Let F be the free abelian group on X, let R < F be generated by the relations,
+
and let a, = x, R E FIR = G. Then pa, = 0 and a,-, = pa, for all n 2 1, so
that pn+'a, = pa, = 0. It follows that G is p-primary, for pt+l z;=,m,a, = 0,
where nz, E 72. A typical relation (i-e., a typical element of R) has the form:
for a basis of F @ G can be chosen as the union of a basis of F and a basis
of G.
m, and m,,, = pm, for all n > 1. Since R 5 F and F is a direct sum, m,, = 0
for large n. But m,,, = pl'm, for all n, and so m, = 0. Therefore, 1 = mop, and
+
this contradicts p 2 2. A similar argument shows that a, 0 for all n. We
now show that all a , are distinct, which will show that G is infinite. If a, = a,
for k > n, then a,-, = pa, implies a, = pk-na,, and this gives (1 - pk--")a,=
0; since G is p-primary, this contradicts a, # 0.
Let H 5 G. If H contains infinitely many a,, then it contains all of them,
and H = G. If H involves only a,, ... , a,, then H < (a,, .. ., a,) 5 (a,). Remark. The converse is also true.
Thus, H is a subgroup of a finite cyclic group, and hence H is also a finite
cyclic group. Ell ProoJ Let X be a basis of F. For each x E X, surjectivity of a provides b, EB
3 16 10. Abelian Groups Free Abelian Groups 3 17
with P(b,) = a(x). Define a function f : X -+ B by f(x) = b,. By Theorem to the Axiom of Choice (see Appendix IV). Let (x,: k E I<) be a basis of F,
10.11 there is a homomorphism y: F -+B with y(x) = b, for all x. It follows and assume that K is well-ordered.
that fly = cc, for they agree on a generating set of F: if x E X, then py (x) = For each k E K, define Fi = (xj: j < k) and Fk = (xj: j < Ic) = F; @ (x,);
P(b,) = a(x). El define Hi = H n FL and Hk = H n F,. Note that F = 0 F, and H = U H,.
Now Hi = H n FL = & n FLYand so
Corollary 10.16. If H 5 G and G/H is free abelian, then H is a direct summand
of G; that is, G = H @ K, where K < G and K z G/H.
ProoJ Let F = G/H and let P: G -+ F be the natural map. Consider the
diagram By Corollary 10.14, either Hk = Hi or H, = Hi @ (h,), where (h,) r Z. We
claim that H is free abelian with basis the set of all h,; it will then follow that
rank(H) i rank(F), for the set of h, has cardinal < I K I = rank(F).
U
Since F = F,, each h E H (as any element of F) lies in some F,; define
p(h) to be the smallest index k for which h E F, (we are using the fact that K
is well-ordered). Let H* be the subgroup of H generated by all the 12,. Sup-
pose that H* is a proper subgroup of H. Let j be the smallest index in
where 1, is the identity map. Since F has the projective property, there is a
homomorphism y: F -+ B with by = 1,. Define K = im y. The equivalence of (p(h): h E H and h $ H*),
(i) and (iii) in Lemma 10.3 gives B = ker P @ im y = H @ I<. and choose h' E H, h' 4 PI* with p(hl) = j. Now ,u(hl)= j gives h' E H n 4, so
that
We give two proofs of the next result. The first is a special case of the h' =a + r?zhj, a E Hj and nz E Z.
second, but it contains the essential idea; the second involves infinite methods
which, though routine, may obscure the simple idea. Thus, a = h' - mhj E H, a 6 H* (lest h' E H"), and p(a) < j, a contradiction.
Therefore, H = H*.
Theorem 10.1'7. Every subgroup H of a free abelian group F of finite rank n is By Lemma 10.4(ii), it remains to show that linear combinations of the h,
itseEffree abelian; moreover, rank(H) < rank(F). are unique. It suffices to show that if
(ii) Every subgroup H of a finitely generated abelian group G is itself finitely fore, H is isomorphic to a nonzero subgroup of Z,and hence it is infinite
generated. Moreover, if G can be generated by r elements, then H can be cyclic.
generated by r or fewer elements.
10.8. Prove that the multiplicative group of positive rationals is free abelian (of Theorem 146.20 (Fundamental Theorem). Every finitely generated abeliaiz
countably infinite rank). (Hint. Exercise 1.52(ii).) group 6 is a direct sum of primary and infinite cyclic groups, and the nuinber
of summands of each kind depends only on G.
10.9. If F is a free abelian group of rank n, then Aut(F) is isomorphic to the multi-
plicative group of all n x n matrices over Z with determinant = 1. + ProoJ Theorem 10.19 shows that G/tG is free abelian, so that Corollary 10.16
10.10. An abelian group is free abelian if and only if it has the projective property. gives G = tG @ F, where F r GltG. Now tG is finitely generated, being a
summand and hence a quotient of G, and Exercise 6.18(ii) shows that tG is
10.11. If F is a free abelian group of rank n and H is a subgroup of rank k < n, then
F/H has an element of infinite order. finite, The basis theorem for finite abelian groups says that tG is a direct sum
of primary cyclic groups.
f
10.12. (i) If A + B 3 C 5 D is an exact sequence of free abelian groups, prove that The uniqueness of the number of primary cyclic summands is precisely
B r i m f Okerh. Theorem 6.11; the number of infinite cyclic summands is just rank(G/tG), and
(ii) If n 2 1 and 0 -,F, -,... -,F, -,F, -+ 0 is an exact sequence of free abelian so it, too, depends only on G.
groups of finite rank, thenx;='=,
rank(Fi) = 0.
10.13. Prove the converse of Corollary 10.16: If a group G is (isomorphic) to a direct The next result will give a second proof of the basis theorem.
summand whenever it is a homomorphic image, then G is free abelian.
10.14. A torsion-free abelian group G having a free abelian subgroup of finite index is Theorem 10.21 (SimuBtaneous Bases). Let H be a subgroup of finite index in a
itself free abelian. free abelian group F of finite rank n. Then there exist bases (y,, . . . ,y,)
of F
and (h,, . . ., h,) of H such that hi E (yi) for all i.
Proof. Write G as FIR, where F is free abelian of finite rank n, say. By can be extended to a homornorphisin cp: B 4 D; that is, the following diagral?~
Theorem 10.21, there are bases {y,, . ..,y,) and {h,, ...,h,) of F and R, commutes:
respectively, with hi = kiyi for all i. By Theorem 2.30, G z Gi. &I x7=,
10.15. If F is a free abelian group of finite rank n, then a subgroup H of F has finite
index if and only if H is free abelian of rank n.
10.16. Let (x,, ..., x,) be a basis of a free abelian group F. If k,, ..., k, are inte- Proof. We use Zorn's lemma. Consider the set Y of all pairs (S, h), where
gers with gcd(k,, ..., k,) = 1, then there are elements y,, ..., y, such that A 5 S < B and h: S -+ D is a homomorphism with hlA = f. Note that 9 #
+ +
( k ,x, - - - k,x,, y,, ...,y,) is a basis of F. @ because (A,f ) E Y. Partially order 9 by decreeing that (S, h) 5 (S', h') if
S 5 S'and h' extends h; that is, Iz'lS = h. If % = {(S,, ha)) is a simply ordered
Sa and = U, ha (this makes sense if one
10.17. Let F be free abelian of rank n and let H be a subgroup of the same rank. Let
(x, , .. .,x,) be a basis of F, let (y,, ...,y,) be a basis of H, and let yj = miixi-
subset of 9, define (g, h) by S =Ua
Prove that if
realizes that a function is a graph; in concrete terms, s _ $,~ then s E Sa for
[F : HI = ldet[mii]l. some a, and i(s) = ha(s)).The reader may check that (S, h) E 9 and that it is
an upper bound of % By Zorn's lemma, there exists a maximal pair (M, g) E
(Hint. Show that Idet[rnij] 1 is independent of the choice of bases of F and of H.) 9.We now show that M = Byand this will complete the proof.
Suppose that there is b E B with b 4 M. If M' = (My b), then M < MI, and
so it suffices to define h': M' 4 D extending g to reach a contradiction.
Divisible and Reduced Groups Case 1. M n (b) = 0.
In this case, M' = M @ (b), and one can define lz' as the map rn + lzb H
A reader of Chapter 1, asked to give examples of infinite abelian groups, s(m).
probably would have responded with Z, Q, R, and C.We now study a com-
mon generalization of the latter three groups. Case 2. M n (b) # 0.
If k is the smallest positive integer for which kb E M , then each y E M' has
Definition. k group G is divisible if each x E G is divisible by every integer a unique expression of the form y = m + tb, where 0 < t < k. Since D is
divisible, there is an element d E D with kd = h(1cb) (kb E M implies h(kb) is
rz > 2; that is, there exists g, E G with ng, = x for all n 2 2.
defined). Define h': M' 4 D by m + tb c g(m) + td. It is a routine calculation,
left for the reader, that h' is a homomorphism extending g.
EXAMPLE 10.5. The following groups are divisible: Q; R; C;the circle group T;
Z(pW);the multiplicative group F x of all nonzero elements of an algebraically
Corollary 161.24. If a divisible group D is a szrbgrotrp of a group G, then D is a
closed field F (in particular, @ ").
direct summand of G.
10.6. Every quotient of a divisible group is divisible.
EXAMPLE
ProoJ Consider the diagram:
EXAMPLE 10.7. If {A,: k E K ) is a family of groups, Then each ofx,. A, (and
nkEKA,) is divisible if and only if every A, is divisible.
D
?'\.
10.8. A torsion-free divisible group G is a vector space over Q.
EXAMPLE
\
\
Note that dG is a fully invariant subgroup, for every image of a divisible We show, by induction on n 2 1, that if y E H has order p", then y E im @,
group is divisible. If n = 1, then y E N[p] = im q I im 0.Suppose now that y has order pnfl.
Since p"y E N[p], there is x E G with @(x)= pity; since G is divisible, there is
Lemma 10.25. For any group G, dG is the unique maximal divisible subgroup g E G with png = x. Thus, pn(y - @(x))= 0, so that induction provides z 6 G
sf 6 . with @(z) = y - @(g).Therefore, y = @(y + g), as desired.
ProoJ It suffices to prove that dG is divisible. Let x E dG and let n > 0. Now Theorem 10.28. Every divisible group D is a direct sum of copies of Q and of
x = dl + ... + d,, where each di E Di, a divisible subgroup of G. Since Di is copies of Z(pm)for various primes p.
+
divisible, there is y, E D, with ny, = di for all i. Hence y, + . . - y, E dG and
n(yl + + y,) = x, as desired. dI! ProoJ It is easy to see that tD is divisible, so that D = tD @ V, where V r
DltD. Now V is torsion-free and divisible, so it is a vector space over Q, by
Defi~aition.A group G is reduced if dG = 0. Example 10.8; by Theorem 10.5, V is a direct sum of copies of Q.
For every prime p, the p-primary component G of tD is divisible (it is a
Of course, G is divisible if and only if dG = G. summand of a divisible group). Let r = dim G[p] (as a vector space over Z,),
and let H be the direct sum of r copies of Z(pm). Now H is a p-primary
Theorem 10.26. For every group G, there is a decomposition divisible group with G [p] r H [p], and so G r H, by the lemma. EJ
G=dG@R. Notation. If D is a divisible group, let 8,(D) = dimQ DltD and let J,(D) =
where R is reduced. DCpl.
The proof of the next theorem is left as an exercise.
PYQQ$Since dG is divisible, Corollary 10.24 gives the existence of R. If D < R
is divisible, then D < R n dG = 0, by Lemma 10.25. Theorem 110.29.If D and D' are divisible groups, then D r D' if and only if
6,(D) =. 6,(D1) and, for all primes p, 6,(D) = 6,(D1).
The reader should compare the roles of the subgroups tG and dG. Every
abelian group G is an extension of the torsion group tG by a torsion-free There is an analogy between theorems about free abelian groups and theo-
group (but tG need not be a direct summand); G is an extension of the rems about divisible groups that may be formalized as follows. Given a com-
divisible group dG by a reduced group, and dG is always a direct summand. mutative diagram containing exact sequences, then its dual d ~ g r a mis the
Recall that if G is a group, then G[n] = (x E G: nx = 0). diagram obtained from it by reversing all arrows. For example, the dual
diagram of 0 --+ A -+ B is B --+ A --+ 0, and this leads one to say that "sub-
Lemma 10.27. I f G and H are divisible p-primary groups, then G r H if and group" and "quotient group" arc dual notions. The notion of short exact
only if G[p] r H[p]. sequence is self-dual, Theorems 10.9 and 10.10 show that "direct sum" and
"direct product" are dual, and the projective property is dual to the injective
ProoJ Necessity follows easily from the fact that q(G[p]) < H[p] for every property (suggesting that free abelian groups are dual to divisible groups).
homomorphism q : G + H. The next result should be compared to Corollary 10.12.
For sufficiency, assume that q : G [p] -,H [p] is an isomorphism; com-
posing with the inclusion H [p] c+ H, we may assume that cp: G [p] --+ H. The Theorem 10.30. Every group G can be imbedded in a divisible group.
injective property gives the existence of a homomorphism @: G -, H extend-
ing q ; we claim that @ is an isomorphism. ProoJ Write G = FIR, where F is free abelian. Now F = Z Z , SO that F I
(i) @ is injective. Q (just imbed each copy of Z into Q). Hence G = FIR = Z)/R 5
(zQ)/R, and the last group is divisible, being a quotient of a divisible
(z
We show by induction on n 2 1 that if x E G has order pn, then @(x)= 0.
If n = 1, then x E G [PI, SO that @(x)= cp(x) = 0 implies x = 0 (because q is group. El
injective). Assume that x has order pnfl and @(x)= 0. Now @(px)= 0 and
I The next result should be compared to Exercise 10.12.
px has order pn, so that px = 0, by induction, and this contradicts x having I
order pnf '. i
! CoroEllary BO.31. A grozrp G is divisible if and only if it is a direct sunzi?laizdof
(ii) @ is surjective. 1
any group co~ztainingif.
i
324 10. Abelian Groups Torsion Groups 325
PrmJ Necessity is Corollary 10.24. For sufficiency, Theorem 10.30 says that Torsion Groups
there is a divisible group D containing G as a subgroup. By hypothesis, G is
a direct summand of D, and so G is divisible. Torsion groups can be quite complicated, but there are two special classes of
torsion groups that are quite manageable: divisible groups and direct sums of
cyclic groups. We shall prove that every torsion group is an extension of a
direct sum of cyclics by a divisible. The proof involves a special Icind of
10.18. Show that the group G/tG in Theorem 10.2 is divisible. subgroup that we now investigate.
10.19. If 0 -t A -+ B -+ C -+ 0 is an exact sequence and if A and C are reduced, then B
is reduced. Definitions. A subgroup S 2 G is a pawe subgroup if, for every integer 1.1,
10.20. (i) If G is the group in Exercise 10.6, then G/(a,) is a direct sum of cyclic S n nG = rzS.
groups.
(ii) Show that G is reduced. It is always true that S n nG T: nS, and so it is only the reverse inclusion
10.21. (i) Prove that Q/Z r z,
Z(pm).(Hint. Use Exercise 10.5.)
(ii) Prove that (Q/Z)[n] r Z,.
that is significant: if s E S n nG, then s E nS; that is, if s E S and s = rzg for
some g E G, then there exists s' E S with s = rzs'.
10.22. Prove that a group D is divisible if and only if it has the injective property.
(Hilzt. (n) < Z for all n 2 1; extend homomorphisms (n) -+ D to homomor- EXAMPLE
10.9. Every direct summand is pure.
phisms Z 4 D.)
10.23. (i) A group G is divisible if and only if G = pG for all primes p.
+
Let G = A @ B. If a E A and a = ng, then g = a' b', for a' E A and b' E B.
Wow nb' = 0, for nb' = a - rza' E A n 3 = 0. Hence a = rza' and A is pure.
(ii) A p-primary group is divisible if and only if G = pG. (Hint. Use Exercise
1.31.)
EXAMPLE
10.10. If S 2 G and G/S is torsion-free, then S is pure.
10.24. If G and H are groups, prove that G r H if and only if dG r dN and G/dG r
H/dH. If s = ng, then g + S E G/S has finite order; since G/S is torsion-free,
10.25. The following conditions on a group G are equivalent: g + S = S, and g E S.
(i) G is divisible;
(ii) Every nonzero quotient of G is infinite; and EXAMPLE
10.11. tG is a pure subgroup of G that may not be a direct summand
(iii) G has no maximal subgroups. of G.
10.26. If G and H are divisible groups each of which is isomorphic to a subgroup
of the other, then G r H. Is this true if we drop the adjective "divisible"? By Theorem 10.1, G/tG is torsicn-free, and so Example 10.10 shows that tG
10.27. If G and H are divisible groups for which G @ G r H @ H, then G r H. is pure. It follows from Theorem 10.2 that tG need not be a direct summand.
10.28. (i) Prove that the following groups are all isomorphic: R/Z; the circle group
n,
'If; Z(prn);R 0(Q/Z); @ x .
(ii) Prove that t(CX)E Q/Z.
Lemma 10.32. Let S be a pure subgroup of G, and let v: G -+ G/S be the rzatural
map. If y E GIs, then there is x E G with v ( x ) = y sttclz that x arzcl y have the
10.29. Prove that every countable abelian group G can be imbedded in
Dir QS @ (Q/Z) for all i.
x~"=,~,
where
sa.me order.
some g E G. In G/T, S = rzg (where bar denotes coset mod T), and so there is Theorem 80.36 (Kilealikoat, 1945). Every torsion group G has a basic subgroup,
+
s' E S with S = nS'; that is, there is t E T with s = ns' t. Thus t = n(g - s'), and so G is an extension of a direct sum of cyclic groups by a divisible group.
and the purity of T gives t' E T with ng - ns' = nt'. Hence s = ng =
+
n(sl t'). But s' + t' E S, because T I S, and so S is pure in G. PuooJ Let G = Gp be the primary decomposition of G. If G, has a basic
Conversely, suppose that S is pure in G. If S E SIT and S = rzg in G/T, then subgroup of Bp, then it is easy to see that B, is a basic subgroup of G. Thus,
+ +
ng = s t for some t E T. Since T 5 S, we have s t E S, and purity gives we may assume that G is p-primary.
s' E S with s + t = ns'. Therefore, S = nS' and SIT is pure. If G is divisible, then B = 0 is a basic subgroup. If G is not divisible, then it
contains a pure nonzero cyclic subgroup, by Lemma 10.34; that is, G does
Lemma 10.34. A p-primary group G that is not divisible contains a pure non- have pure-independent subsets. Since both purity and independence are pre-
zero cyclic subgroup. served by ascending unions (see Exercise 10.28(i)),Zorn's lemma applies to
show that there is a maximal pure-independent subset X of G. But Lemmas
Proof. Assume first that there is x E G[p] that is divisible by pk but not by 10.6 and 10.33 show that B = (X) is a basic subgroup.
pk+l,and let x = pky.We let the reader prove that (y) is pure in G (Exercise
1.31 shows that one need check only powers of p). The following theorem was proved by H. Priifer in 1923 for G countable;
We may, therefore, assume that every x E G[p] is divisible by every power the general case was proved by W. Baer in 1934.
of p. In this case, we prove by induction on k > 1 that if x E G and pkx = 0,
then x is divisible by p. If k = 1, then x E G[p], and the result holds. If Corollary 10.37 (Priifer-Baer). If G is a group of bounded order (i.e., nG = 0
p"+lx = 0, then pkx E G [PI, and so there is z E G with pk+lz= pkx. Hence for some n > 0), then G is a direct surn of cyclic groups.
pk(pz - x) = 0. By induction, there is w E G with pw = pz - x, and x =
p(z - w), as desired. Remark. Were G nonabelian, we would say "G has finite exponent" instead
We have shown that G = pG, and so Exercise 10.25(ii)gives G divisible, a of "G is of bounded order."
contradiction. Ed
DeGr~ition.A subset X of a group G is pure-independent if it is independent Proof. By Theorem 10.28, a bounded divisible group must be 0. Therefore, if
and (X) is a pure subgroup of G. B is a basic subgroup of G, then GIB = 0 and B = G. Eil
Lemma 10.35. Let G be a p-primary group. If X is a maximal pure-independent Assume that G is a direct sum of p-primary cyclic groups. Let B, be the
subset of G (i.e., X is contained in no larger such), then G/(X) is divisible. direct sum of all those summands of order p", if any, so that G = B, @
B, @ .. . When G is finite, we proved (in Chapter 6) that d, = dim p"G/pnf 'G
Proof. If G/(X) is not divisible, then Lemma 10.34 shows that it contains a is the number of cyclic summands of order 2 pn+l, so that the number of
pure nonzero cyclic subgroup (7); by Lemma 10.32, we may assume that cyclic summands of order precisely pn+l is just d,, - dn+,. This formula
y E G and 7 E G/(X) have the same order (where y t-+ 7 under the natural does not generalize to infinite groups because one cannot subtract infinite
map). We claim that (X, y) is pure-independent. cardinals.
Now (X) 5 (X, y) 5 G, and (X, y)/(X) = (7) is pure in G/(X); by If G is an infinite direct sum of p-primary cyclic groups, it is still true that
,
Lemma 10.32, (X, y) is pure in G. d, is the number of cyclic summands of order >_ pn+l.How can we distin-
Suppose that my + z r n i x i = 0, where xi E X and m, mi E Z. In G/(X), this guish those elements in pnG coming from cyclic summands of order pn+l from
equation becomes my = 0. But y and 7 have the same order, so that my = 0. those cyclic summands of larger order? The elementary observation that a
Hence 1 mixi = 0, and independence of X gives mixi = 0 for all i. Therefore cyclic summand (a) has order pn+l if and only if pna has order p suggests that
(X, Y) is independent, and by the preceding paragraph, it is pure-indepen- we focus on elements of order p; that is, replace pnG by pnG n G[p].
dent, contradicting the maximality of X.
Definition. If G is a p-primary group and rz 2 0, then
Definition. A subgroup B of a torsion group G is a basic subgroaap if:
(i) B is a direct sum of cyclic groups;
(ii) B is a pure subgroup of G; and Lemma 10.38. If G is a direct sum of p-primary cyclic groups, then U (n, G) is
(iii) G/B is divisible. the number of cyclic summands of order pnf l.
Torsion Groups 329
328 10. Abelian Groups
Proof. Let Bn be the direct sum of all those cyclic summands of order pn, if
+ +
v: G -+ G/(S nG) be the natural map. The group G/(S nG) is of bounded
any (in the given decomposition of G), so that G = B, @ B, @ . . @ Bk @ . . .; order (it has exponent n) so that it is a direct sum of cyclic groups, by Corol-
let bk be the number of summands in B, (of course, bk may be 0). It is easy to
+
lary 10.33. Write G/(S nG) = xi{Zi), where Zi has order ,; for each i,
choose xi E G with v(xi) = xi. Now
see that
G[p] = B, @ pB2 @ p 2 ~ @ , . - -@ p k - ' ~ , @ - - . riXi = si + ng,,
and where si E S and gi E G. But ri divides (the exponent) n, so that
pnG = pnB,,+,@ . . . @ pnBk@ .. . .
si = ri(xi - (n/ri)gi).
Hence, for all n 2 0,
Since S is pure, there is ti E S with si = riti. Define
and so
n GCpl) r P " ~ + I .
(pnGn GCPI)/(P"+~G Now v(y,) = Zi and riyi = ng,. Let K be the subgroup generated by nG and
Therefore, U{n, G) = dim(pnBn+,)= b,,,, as desired. all the y,; we shall show that G = S @ PC.
(i) S n K = 0.
Theorem 10.39. If G and H are direct sums of p-primary cyclic groups, then
G z H if and only if U(n, G) = U{n, H) for all n 2 0.
x
Let s E S n K ; since s E K, s = miyi + nh; since s E S, V(S)= 0. Thus, 0 =
znziZi, and independence gives mixi = 0; hence, I;. divides mi for all i. We
have chosen yi so that riyi E nG, hence miyi E nG. Therefore, s = iniyi + 1
Proof. The numbers U (n, G) depend only on G and not upon the decomposi- nh E nG. Since S is pure, there is s' E S with s = izs' E nS = 0.
tion. B!
(ii) S + K = G.
1
Theorem 10.660. Any two basic subgroups of a p-primary group G are
isomorphic.
If g E G, then v(g) = liZi. Since v ( x liyi) = liZi, we have g - liyi E
+ 1 +
ker v = S nC; say, g - liyi = s nh. Thus, g = s + (nh + liyi)E
S-t-K. El
x1
Proof. Let B be a basic subgroup of G. The number bn of cyclic summands of
B of order pn is equal to the number of such summands of Blpn+'B, and so it C o r ~ l l ~ 10.42.
ry If tG is of bounded order, then tG is a direct szrnzmaizd of G.
suffices to show that this latter quotient depends only on G. In particular, tG is a direct sz.lmmand when it is finite.
We claim, for every n 2 1, that G = B + pnG. If g E G, then divisibility of
+ +
G/B gives g B = pnx B for some x E G, so there is some b E B with g = Cabroliary 10.43. A torsion group G that is not divisible has a p-primary cyclic
direct summand (for some prime p).
b + p"x E B + pnG. It follows that
G/pn+'G = (B + pnCIG)/pn+'G Pvoo/:Since G is not divisible, at least one of its primary components, say, G,,
r B/(B n pn+'G) is not divisible. By Lemma 10.34, G, has a pure nonzero cyclic summand C,
and C must be a summand of G, by the theorem. El
= B/p"+'By by purity.
Therefore, B/pnflB is independent of the choice of B. Corolllary 10.44. An indecomposable group G is either torsion or torsion-3ee.
An example is given in Exercise 10.41 below showing that the divisible Proo$ Assume that 0 < tG < G. Wow tG is not divisible, lest it be a summand
quotient GIB, where B is a basic subgroup, is not determined by G. of G, so that Corollary 10.43 shows that G has a (cyclic) summand, contra-
Were is a condition forcing a pure subgroup to be a summand. dicting indecomposability. E3
Corollary 10.41 (PrEfer, 1923). A pure subgroup S of bounded order is a direct Mere are three lovely results (see Fuchs, Griffith, or Kaplansky for proofs).
summand. All countable torsion groups are classified by UZm's Tlzeorern (1933): if G is a
p-primary group, there is a transfinite version of the numbers U{ir, G) (the
Proof. Assume that S < G is pure and that nS = 0 for some n > 0. Let Ulin invariants) with n varying over ordinal nurnbers, and two countable
330 10. Abelian Groups Subgroups of Q 33 1
torsion groups are isomorphic if and only if their respective primary com- 10.41. Let G =
n 2 1) I
x,"=,
(a,), where n, has order pn+', and let B = (pa,, a,, - pa,,,,,
G. Show that B is a basic subgroup of G. As G is a basic subgroup of
ponents have the same Ulm invariants. (There are uncountable p-primary
itself, conclude that the quotient G/B, where B is basic in G, is not an invariant
groups having the same Ulm invariants which are not isomorphic; see Exer-
of G.
cise 10.39(ii) below.) A theorem of Priifer (1923) says that a countable p-
primary group G is a direct sum of cyclic groups if and only if pnG = 0
(this is false for uncountable groups, as is shown in Exercise 10.39(iii) below).
Mulikov (1941) has characterized direct sums of cyclic groups, and one conse- Subgroups of Q
quence of his criterion is that every subgroup of a direct sum of cyclic groups
is another such. The notion of rank can be generalized from free abelian groups to arbitrary
torsion-free groups.
(iii) Prove that G = t(n,"', Z,,) is not a direct sum of cyclic groups.
sion-free group of finite rank is just a subgroup of a finite-dimensional vector
10.38. Prove that a torsion group is indecomposable if and only if it is isomorphic to space'over Q; in particular, a torsion-free group of rank 1 is just a nonzero
a subgroup of Z(pm)for some prime p. subgroup of the additive group of rational numbers Q.
10.39. Show that n , Z , is not a direct sum of (possibly infinitely many) indecom- Mere are three subgroups of Q.
posable groups.
A: all rationals having squarefree denominators;
10.40. (Kapllarasky). In this exercise, G is an infinite group. B: all dyadic rationals; that is, all rationals of the form ~ 1 / 2 ~ .
(i) If every proper subgroup of G is finite, then G r Z(pm)for some prime p. C: all rationals whose decimal expansion is finite.
(ii) If G is isomorphic to every proper subgroup, then G r Z.
(iii) If G is isomorphic to every nonzero quotient, then G z Z(pm). No two of these groups are isomorphic. For example, A $ B because 3 con-
(iv) If every proper quotient is finite, then G z Z. tains a nonzero solution x to the system of equations 2kyk= x, while A does
332 10. Abelian Groups Subgroups of Q 333
not. One can also describe C as all rationals whose denominators are re- +
ply . . . ,pt, and hpi(y)= ei lzpi(x)for i = 1, . . . , t (we agree that co + k = co).
stricted to be powers of 10, and the same reasoning shows that A $ C and Thus, the result is true in this case.
B $ C. For the general case, note that if G is isomorphic to a subgroup of Q, then
there are nonzero integers m and rz with my = nx. Thus, the height sequences
Definition. Let G be a torsion-free group and let x E G. If p is a prime, then of y, my = nx, and x are all equivalent. D
the p-height of x, denoted by hp(x),is the highest power of p dividing x in G:
more precisely, if png,,= x is solvable in G for all n, then h,(x) = a ; if k is the As a result of the lemma, one may define the type z(G) of a torsion-free
largest integer n for which png = x is solvable in G, then h,(x) = k. group G of rank 1 as the equivalence class of the height sequence of any of its
nonzero elements.
Each nonzero x in a torsion-free group G determines its height seqeaence
h(x) = (h,(x), h3(x), . . . , h,(x), ...), which is a sequence of nonnegative inte- Theorem 10.47. If G and G' are torsion-free of rank 1, then G z G' fi
gers and the symbol a . For example, each of the groups Z,Q, A, Byand C and only fi z(G) = z(G1).
contains x = 1; its height sequence in each group is:
ProoJ If x E G and y : G -+ G' is a homomorphism, then hp(x) < Iz,(y(x)) for
all primes p; if y" exists, then h,(y(x)) I h,(y7'(q(x))) = hp(x). Hence, if y
is an isomorphism and x E G, then x and y(x) have the same height sequence,
so that z(G) = z(Gf).
For the converse, the hypothesis says that nonzero elements x E G and
x' E G' have equivalent height sequences. Let P be the finite set of primes p
for which hp(x) < h,(xl), and let Q be the finite set of primes for which
h,(x) > hP(x1)(of course, P or Q may be empty). For p E P, define e, =
Different elements in the same group G of rank 1 may have different height hP(x1)- hp(x) (the definition of equivalence says that both hp(x) and IzP(x1)
sequences. For example, the height sequence of x = 168 = 2 3 .3 . 7 in each of are finite); for q E Q, define f, = h,(x) - hP(xf).If m = n,,,
pep and n =
n,,,qfq, then it is easy to see that nzx and nx' have the same height
the groups above is:
z : (3, l,O, l,O,O ,...); sequence.
Let us now assume that both G and G' are subgroups of Q containing
Q: ( a , coycoya , . . .); elements y and y', respectively, having the same height sequence; let y = n/b
and y' = a'/bl. The subgroup (b/a)G of Q is isomorphic to G, and the sub-
A: (4, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, . ..);
group (b'la') G' is isomorphic to G'. Replacing G by (b/a) G and G' by (b'/a1)G',
B: ( a , 1,0, 1,0,0,0, ...); and we may assume that 1 lies in both G and G' and that it has the same height
C: ( a , 1, coy1,0,0,0, ...). sequence in each group. But it is now an easy exercise that G = G'. Etl
We have been led to the following definitions. There is an existence theorem complementing the uniqueness theorem just
proved.
Definition. A characteristic is a sequence of nonnegative integers and the
symbol co. Two characteristics are equiuabernt if: Theorem 18.48. For every type z, there exists n torsion-free group G of rank 1
with z(G)'= z.
(i) they have co in the same coordinates; and
(ii) they differ in at most a finite number of (other) coordinates.
HPuooJ If (lcZ,k3, . .. , kp, . . .) is a characteristic in z, define G as the subgroup
An equivalence class of characteristics is called a type. of Q generated by all rationals of the form l/pe, where e I k, if lc, is finite,
and e is any positive integer if Ic, = co. It is easy to see that the height
Lemma 10.46. Let G be a torsion-free group of rank 1. If x, y E G are nonzero, sequence of 1 E G is the given characteristic. El
then their height sequences are equivalent.
Torsion-free groups of rank 2 2 are not classified (though there do exist
Jf y = nx, where ~z = p ; ~ . .. p?, then Iz,(x) = h,(y) for all primes p #
PYOQ.~; several kinds of description of them). After L. Fuchs (1971) showed that there
334 10. Abelian Groups Character Groups 335
are indecomposable groups of all ranks I., where r is smaller than the first 10.45. (i) Show that if q :Q * Q is a (group) homomorphism, then there exists q E Q
strongly inaccessible cardinal (should such exist), S. Shelah (1974) showed with q(x) = qx for all x E Q.
that indecomposables of every rank r exist. (ii) If G and G' are subgroups of Q and if q: G -+ G' is a homomorphism, then
There are groups of infinite rank that are not direct sums of indecomposable there is q E Q with q ( x ) = qx for all x E G. (Hitzt. Use the injective property
groups. Every group of finite rank is either indecomposable or a direct sum of 69.)
of indecomposables; if all the summands have rank 1, then R. Baer (1937) 10.46. If G is torsion-free of rank 1 and type z, prove that End(G) is a subring of Q
showed that the summands are unique to isomorphism; otherwise, the sum- and find its type.
mands need not be unique; indeed, not even the ranks of the summands are 10.47. If R and S are subrings of Q, then R r S as rings if and only if R s S as abelian
determined. B. Jbnsson (1957) introduced the notion of quasi-isomorphism2: groups (by definition, both R and S contain 1). Conclude that there are un-
two torsion-free groups of finite rank are quasi-isomorphic if each is iso- countably many nonisomorphic subrings of Q.
morphic to a subgroup of the other having finite index. There is a corre-
sponding notion of indecomposable: a group is strongly indecomposable if it 10.48. Give an example of nonisomorphic torsion-free groups of rank 1 having iso-
morphic endomorphism rings.
is not quasi-isomorphic to a direct sum of two nonzero groups. He proved
that every torsion-free group of finite rank is quasi-isomorphic to a direct 10.49. Let A denote the dyadic rationals and let B denote the triadic rationals:
sum of strongly indecomposable summands and that these summands are
unique in the sense of the Krull-Schmidt theorem. B = (q E Q: q = 0/3~,a E Zand k 0).
Let G be the subgroup of Q @ Q generated by
Definlitio~m.If G is an abelian group, then its endomorphism ring End(G) is the ((a, 0): a E A) u ((0, b): b E B ) v (($, $)).
set of all endomorphisms of G with composition as multiplication and point-
+
wise addition (if y, $ E End(G), then y $: g t-,y(g) + +(g)). Prove that G is an indecomposable group of rank 2.
10.50. (i) Use Theorem 10.45 to show that p(A) = dim(V), where V is a vector space
There is a remarkable theorem of A.L.S. Corner (1963). Let R 'be a over Q of smallest dimension containing AItA.
countable ring whose additive group is torsion-free and reduced; then there (ii) If 0 -,A -,B -, C -,0 is an exact sequence of abelian groups, prove that
exists a countable group G, which is also torsion-free and reduced, with P(B) = P(A) +
End(G) E R. In the proof of the Krull-Schmidt theorem, we saw a close
connection between decompositions of a group and endomorphisms, and
one can thus use Corner's theorem to produce strange examples of torsion-
free groups from pathological rings. For example, there are nonisomorphic Character Groups
countable torsion-free groups, each isomorphic to a direct summand of the
other; there is a countable torsion-free group which has no indecomposable In Chapter 1, we raised the twin questions of describing groups and of de-
direct summands. scribing homomorphisms, and we now focus on the latter.
10.42. If G is torsion-free of rank 1 and x E G is nonzero, then G/(x) is torsion. is a homomorphism T(q): T(A) -+ T(B)such that:
Describe G/(x) in terms of the height sequence of x. (Hint.G/(x) IQ/Z.)
ti) T t L ) = Iq-4);
10.43. If A and B are subgroups of Q, show that there is an exact sequence 0 -, (ii) if 0: B -, C, then T(9q) = T(e)T(cp);and
AnB+A@B--+A+B-+O. (iii) if $: A -, B, then T(y + $1 = T(q) + T($).
10.44. If G is a subring of Q, then G is also a torsion-free group of rank 1. Show that
the height sequence of 1 consists of 0's and a's. EXAMPLE
10.12. If G and A are abelian groups, then
Non1(G, A) = (homomorphisms q : G -+ A);
In his disseriation submitted in 1914 (which was not well lcnown because of World War I),
F.W. Levi defined the characteristic of an element in a torsion-free group, classified the sub- Hom(G, A) is an abelian group under pointwise addition: if cp, E Hom(G, A), +
groups of Q, introduced quasi-isomorphism, and gave the first examples of torsion-free groups + +
then cp $: g I-+ q(g) $(g). (If A = G, then Hom(G, G) is just the additive
having different direct sum decompositions into indecomposables. group of the endomorphism ring End(G).)
10. Abelian Croups Character Groups
if cp: A 4 By define T(q): Hom(G, A) -+ Hom(G, B) by a I-+qa, where a E There are also right exact functors in Homological Algebra.
Hom(G, A). The reader should verify that T is a covariant functor.
EXAMPLE 10.13. The iskentidy fidmctor J: d --+ d , defined by J(A) = A and Theorem 110.49. If G is a group, then S = Mom( , G) and T = Hom(G, ) are
J ( q ) = cp, is a covariant functor. left exact functors.
EXAMPLE 10.14. The torsion subgroup defines a covariant functor t: d --+ d. HPk'6soJ We shall prove that S is left exact; the reader may prove that T is left
Define t(A) to be the torsion subgroup tA, and if cp: A -+ B, then define exact.
t(q) = cpltA.
In a similar way, the maximal divisible subgroup defines a covariant
functor d: d' -+ d. 0 -
We must show exactness of
Hom(C, G) 3Hom(B, G) 3Hom(A, G);
that is, we must show that S(P) is injective, im S(P) 5 ker S(a), and
Definition. A function S: d 4 d is a contr'davcgriant (additive) Janctov if, for ker S(a) < irn S(P).
every homomorphism q : A 4 Bythere is a homomorphism S(q): S(B) 4 S(A)
such that: (i) ker S(Q) = 0.
Iff: C -+ G and S(P)f = fp = 0, then f annihilates im P; as Q is surjective,
(i) s ( l ~ )= ~s(A); i m p = Cand f =0.
(ii) if 8: B + C, then S(0q) = S(q)S(B); and (ii) im S(Q) I ker S(a).
(iii) if t,b: A + Bythen S(q + $) = S(q) + S($). Iff: C 4 G , then S(a)S(/?)f = fpa = 0 because pa = 0.
(iii) ker S(a) < im S ( P ) .
Note that contravariant functors reverse the direction of arrows. Suppose that g: B 4 G and S(a) = ga = 0, so that g annihilates im a. De-
fine g,: C -+ G by g,(c) = g(b), where P(b) = c (/I is surjective). Now g, is
EXAMPLE
10.15. If G is a fixed group, define S: at' -+ d by well defined: if j?(bf) = c, then b - b' E ker P = im a; that is, b - b' = aa, and
S(A) = Hom(A, G); so g(b - b') = ga(a) = 0. But S(P)g, = g,Q = g, for if b~ B and Q(b) = c,
theng+$(b)=g,(c)=g(b).
if q: A + B y define S(q): Hom(B, G) 4 Hom(A, G) by P H P ~ ,where j3 E
Hom(B, G). The reader can verify that S is a contravariant functor. Here is the answer to the question when "+ O" occurs at the right end of
the functored sequence.
To see how functors behave, one must recast definitions in a form recog-
nizable by them. For example, instead of saying that an isomorphism is a Theorem 10.50. A group G is free abelian if and only if9for every exact se-
homomorphism q : A --+ B that is an injection and a surjection, one should quence 0 --+ A 5 B +
B
C + 0, there is an exact sequence
say instead that it is a homomorphism for which there exists 8: B 4 A such
that
840 = 1, and q 8 = 1,.
ProoJ Assume that G is free abelian. To prove that T(P) is surjective, we
We can now see that if cp is an isomorphism and T is a functor (contra or co), must show that if g E Hom(G, C), there is f E Hom(G, B) with T(P)f = g;
then T(q) is also an isomorphism: just apply T to the pair of equations above. that is, Qf = g. Let us draw a diagram.
-
P
B -+ C implies exactness of
0 T(A) -% T(B) 2T(C);
P
a contravariant functor S is lefr exact if exactness of (x;*): A B + C -+ 0
338 10. Abelian Groups Character Groups
339
The projective property of G (Theorem 10.15) gives the existence off (indeed, Theorem 10.54. If m E 8 and 01,: A A is multiplicatiorl by my then
--+
this is how the projective property was born). T(n1,): T(A) -+ T(A) is also multiplication by m.
Conversely, a similar argument shows that a group G for which T(P)
is always surjective must have the projective property. But Exercise 10.10 ProoJ By Exercise 10.51 below, the result is true when m = 0. If m > 0, then
shows that such a group must be free abelian.
T(mA)= T(lA + ..- + I,)
Theorem 10.511. A group G is divisible if and only if, for every exact sequence
= T(1,) + ... + T(1,)
0 -+ A -% B -% C -+ 0, there is an exact sequence
= TO, + . + TO,
*
-
-~T(A).
ProoJ Use the injective property and Exercise 10.22.
The reader may easily see that T(- 1,) = - lTcA,,
so that the result is true for
Theorem 10.52. Given a group G and a family of groups {A,: j E J), then all m E Z. El
Hom
(jeJ
A,, G z
) n jeJ
Hom(Aj, G). EXAMPLE 10.16. For every group G, Hom(G, Q) is torsion-free divisible, and
hence it is a vector space over Q.
Proof. For each jOE J , let i,, ~t CjsJA, be the inclusion. Define
direction by (f;)
n
z G) -+ Hom(A,, G) by f r (fi,). Define a map $ in the reverse
8: ~ o m (A,,
rf, where f is the unique map 1
A, -+ G for which fi, =
By Exercise 10.31, H = Hom(G, Q) is torsion-free divisible if and only if
rn, is an automorphism for all m # 0. Thus, the result follows from Theorem
10.54.
4 for all j (Theorem 10.10). The reader may check that 8 and $ are The same argument shows that Hom(Q, G) is also a vector space over Q.
inverses. lB
If the index set J is finite, then the functor Hom( , G) sends the finite direct EXAMPLE
10.17. Hom(Z, G) 2 G for every group G.
sum x7=, A, into the direct sumx;=, A, Hom(Aj, G); that is,
It is easy to see that f H f (1) is an isomorphism.
Hom
(
x )z 1
j
A,, G
jll
Hom(A,, G).
EXAMPLE
10.18. For every group G,
Theorem 10.53. Given a group G and a family of groups {A,: j E J], then Nom(Zn, G) E G[n] = ( g G:~ ng = 0).
Hom G,
( n )z njeJ
A,
jcJ
Hom(G, A,). Apply the (contravariant) functor S = Hom( , G) to the exact sequence
0 -+ Z Z -+ Z, -+ 0, where the first map is multiplication by n, to obtain the
n
Proof. For each j, E J, let pjo: A, -+ A, be the projection onto the joth
coordinate. An argument similar to that of Theorem 10.52, using Theorem
exact sequence -
n
10.11, shows that the map 8: Hom(G, A,) 4 Hom(G, A,), defined by
f w (p, f ), is an isomorphism. 'El
fl Thus Hom(Z,, G) E ker S(n). But there is a commutative diagram
If the index set J is finite, then the functor Hom(G, ) sends the (finite)direct
sum x;=, A, into the direction sum z7=,
Hom(G, A,); that is,
Hom G,
( C A,
j:l ) g 1 Hom(G, A,).
j:,
If m is an integer and A is a group, let m,: A -+ A be multiplication by m; where the downward arrows are the isomorphisms of Example 10.17. It fol-
that is, m,: a Hma. Note that m, = 1, + - - .+ 1, (m addends) if m > 0. lows easily that ker S(n) 2 ker n = GCn].
340 10. Abelian Groups Character Groups 34 1
I
Remark. There is another common definition of character group: = c Theorem 10.59. For every group G, the evaluation map E: G + G** is an injec-
c
Hom(G, T). Since T 2 C ", by Exercise 10.28(i), we see that r G*. The
tion; fi G is finite, then E is an isomorphism.
character groups 6 arise in Pontrjagin duality, where G is assumed to be a
locally compact abelian topological group and is the group of all continu-
ous homomorphisms (when G is a discrete group, then every homomorphism Proof. If x E ker E, then Ex(q)= cp(x) = 0 for all q E G*; by Theorem 10.58,
is continuous). x = 0, and so E is an injection. If G is finite, then G** r G, by Theorem 10.56,
The following properties of character groups were used in our discussion so that / G** 1 = I GI and E is an isomorphism.
of the Schur multiplier in Chapter 7.
(ii) If G = CpSp
isomorphic.
Z,, then Hom(G, z,,,
7,) and x
Hom(G, $) are not ' CHAPTER 11
(iii) Hom(Z, xPEp n
7,) and Hom(7, 7,) are not isomorphic.
Free Groups and Free Products
10.56. Let f:A 4 B be a homomorphism. Show that f *: B* -,A* is a surjection
(where A* = Hom(A, Q/Z) and f *: q H qf for every q E B*) if and only iff is
an injection; show that f *: B* 4 A* is an injection i f and only i f f is a sur-
jection. Conclude that f * is an isomorphism if and only if f is an isomorphism.
10.57. Consider the commutative diagram of not necessarily abelian groups in which
the rows are exact sequences (thus, the kernels are assumed to be normal
subgroups):
is a word, called the empty word, and it is also denoted by 1. Since lxEl0 Ix-'/ and IX-'~ 0 oxE/are both equal to the identity 1,: F -,F, it
follows that IxElis a permutation of F with inverse Ix-']. Let SF be the sym-
Since words contain only a finite number of letters before they become metric group on F, and let 9 be the subgroup of SF generated by [XI =
constant, we use the more suggestive notation for nonempty words: (1x1: x E X). We claim that F is a free group with basis [XI. Note that there
is a bijection (: [XI -+ X, namely, I x 1 I-+ x.
An arbitrary element g E F (other than the identity) has a factorization
+
where xi E X, E, = + 1, - 1, or 0, and E, = 1. Observe that this spelling of a
(*I g = IxE,lI 0 jxPJ 0 - - - 0 /xnE,I,
word is unique: two sequences (a,) and (bi)are equal if and only if ai = b, for
all i. The length of the empty word is defined to be 0; the length of w = where ci = f1 and IxEland IX-'~ are never adjacent (or we can cancel). Such
xi1x?.. .x> is defined to be n. a factorization of g is unique, for g(1) = x;'x?. ..xnE,, and we have already
noted that the spelling of a (reduced) word is unique.
Definition. If w = x", . ..x? is a word, then its inverse is the word w-l = To see that F is free with basis [XI, assume that G is a group and that
xnEn...xTEf. f : [XI -, G is a function. Since the factorization (*) is unique, the function
q: 9-,G, given by q(lx",\ 0 lx?l 0 -.-o 1x21) = f(lx?1l)f(lx?I)... f(lx?l), is
Definition.A word w on X is reduced if either w is empty or w = x",x?. ..x,"., well defined and extends f. Since [XI generates P, it suffices to show that q
+
where all xi E X, all E, = 1, and x and x-I are never adjacent. is a homomorphism, for uniqueness of cp would then follow from the fact that
two homomorphisms agreeing on a generating set must be equal.
The empty word is reduced, and the inverse of a reduced word is reduced. Let w and u be reduced words on [XI. It is obvious that q(w 0 u) =
Definition. A sabword of w = x", x? ...x,". is either the empty word or a word w)cp(u) whenever the word wu (obtained from w 0 u by deleting vertical
rs) is reduced. Write w = w' 0 v and u = v-' 0 u", as in the defini-
oftheformv=xFi ...x?,wherel < i < j < n .
tion of juxtaposition. Now q(w) = q(wl)q(v) and q(u) = q(v-')q(uU) =
Thus, v is a subword of w if there are (possibly empty) subwords w' and w" u)-I q(uN)(because w' 0 v and v-I 0 u" are reduced). Therefore, q(w)q(u) =
with w = w'vwN.A nonempty word w is reduced if and only if it contains no w')q(v)q(v)-'q(u") = q(wf)q(u").On the other hand, q(w 0 u) = q(wr 0 u")
subwords of the form xEx-'or xO. q(w')q(uU)(because w' 0 u" is reduced), and so q is a homomorphism.
There is a multiplication of words: if w = x",x? . . . x,". and u = y f l yi2.. .y>, We have shown that 5" is a free group with basis [ X I . Since 5" -+ F,
then wu = x",x?. . .x$yflyi2.. .yim. This multiplication does not define a defined by IxB1I 0 Ix?l 0 0 I x ~ n I ~ x ~...
- - a l xx~,isabijection
? with[([X]) =
product on the set of all reduced words on X because wu need not be reduced (([XI) = X, Exercise 1-44shows that we may regard F as a group isomor-
(even when both w and u are). One can define a new multiplication of reduced phic to F ; thus, F is a free group with basis X (moreover, X generates F
words w and u as the reduced word obtained from wu after cancellations. because [XI generates 9 ) .
More precisely, there is a (possibly empty) subword v of w with w = w'v
such that v-' is a subword of u with u = v-lu" and such that wfu" is reduced. Corollary 11.2. Every group G is a quotient ofa free group.
Define a product of reduced words, calledjuxtaposition, by
Proof. Construct a set X = (x,: g E G) so that f: x, t-+ g is a bijection X G.
-+
A relation1 r E A is often written as r = 1 to convey its significance in the holds, for each element in G has a factorization x ' y j ~with 0 5 i < n and
quotient group G being presented. 0 < j < 2. Thus, 1 GI = 212,and we are now entitled to write G z D,,.
There are two reasons forcing us to define R as the normal subgroup of F A description of a group by generators and relations is flawed in that the
generated by A: if r E A and w E F, then r = 1 in G implies wrw-' = 1 in G; order of the presented group is difficult to determine. This is not a minor
we wish to form a quotient group. difficulty, for we shall see in the next chapter that it is even an unsolvable
problem (in the logicians' precise sense) to determine, from an arbitrary
EXAMPLE
11.1. G = Z6 has generator x and relation x6 = 1. presentation, the order of the presented group. Indeed, it is an unsolvable
problem to determine whether a presentation defines a group of order 1. The
reader should also see the next section on coset enumeration.
A free group F = (x) on one generator is infinite cyclic, and (x)/(x6)
Z,. A presentation of G is (x 1x6).
Let us continue the list of examples.
EXAMPLE
11.2. Another presentation of G = Z6 is EXAMPLE
11.4. The group of quaternions has presentations
Z6 = ( X , ~ /=X1,y2
~ = 1, XYX-'Y-' = 1). Q = (a, bla4 = 1, b2 = a2, bab-l = a-l)
and
When we described a presentation of Z6 as an abelian group in Example
Q = (x, y lxyx = y, x2 = y2).
10.2 (i.e., when we viewed Z, as a quotient of a free abelian group), the only
relations were x3 and y2. Now we must also have the commutator as a
In each case, an argument is needed to show that the presented group has
relation to force the images of x and y to commute in FIR.
order 8.
EXAMPLE
11.3. The dihedral group D2, has a presentation 11.5. Given positive integers 1, m, and n, define
EXAMPLE
D2,,= (x, ylxn = 1, y2 = 1, yxy = x-l). P(1, rn, n) = (s, tls' = t m= (st)" = 1).
It is acceptable to write a relation as yxy = x-l instead of xyxy = 1. In Example 11.3 shows that P(n, 2,2) = D,, and, using Exercise 3.52, one can
particular, compare the presentation of D6 with that of Z6 in Example 11.2. show that P(2, 3,3) r A,, P(2,3,4) 2 S,, and P(2, 3, 5) r A,. These groups
We have passed over a point needing more discussion. By definition, D,, is are called polyhedral groups, and they are finite only in the cases just listed
a group of order 2n having generators S and T satisfying the given relations. (see Coxeter-Moser).
If G = FIR, where F is the free group with basis (x, y) and R is the normal EXAIMPEE
11.4. The braid grd~apBm has the presentation
subgroup generated by (x*, y", xyxy), does G have order 2n? We have seen
various concrete versions of D,,; for example, Theorem 3.3 1 displays it as the
symmetry group of a regular n-gon. The definition of free group gives a Braid groups were introduced by E. Artin (1925) and are related to knot
surjective homomorphism q: F -,D2, with q(x) = S and q ( y ) = T, More- theory.
over, R < ker q , because S and T satisfy the relations, so that the third
EXAMPLE11.7. A free abelian group G with basis X has presentation
isomorphism theorem gives a surjection FIR -+F/ker 9;that is, there is a
surjection2 G = FIR -+ D,,. Hence, [GI >_ 2n. The reverse inequality also G = (Xlxyx-ly-l = 1 for all x, y E X);
a free group F with basis X has presentation
Many authors use the words "relation" and "relator" interchangeably.
W. von Dyck (1882) invented free groups and used them to give the first precise definition of F = (XI@).
presentations. The version of the third isomorphism theorem used here is often called von Dyek's
Theorem: Let G have a presentation Having proved that free groups exist, let us now consider their uniqueness;
G = (xl, ..., Xnlrj(x1,..., x,),j E J ) that is, when are two free groups isomorphic.
so that G = FIR, where F is the free group with basis (x,, ...,x,) and R is the normal subgroup
generated by the 5. If H is a group with H = (y,, ..., y,) and if q(y,, ...,y,) = 1 for all j, then Lemma 11.3. If F is a free group with basis X, then F/Ffis a JFee abelian group
there is a surjective homomorphism G -+ H with X ~ Hyi for all i. with basisir, = (xFf: x E X).
348 11. Free Groups and Free Products Semigroup Interlude
Proof. Assume that A is an abelian group and that f : X, -+ A is a function. homomorphism y: F -+ B making the diagram below commute (i.e., fly = a):
Define f,: X -+ A by x I-+ f(xF'). Since F is free with basis X, there is a
F
homomorphism q: F -+ A extending f,. But F' < ker q, because A is abelian, // I
so that there is a homomorphism @: F/F'-+A, defined by wF't+q(w),
extending f.
We claim that the extension 4 is unique. Suppose that 0: F/F' -+ A and
0(xFf)= f(xF'). If v: F -+ F/F' is the natural map, then 8v: F -+ A is a
homomorphism with E)v(x)= 8(xFf)= f (xFf)= q(x) for all x E X. Since X is Proof. The proof is identical to that given for free abelian groups in Theorem
a basis of F, Ov = q = q v ; since v is surjective, 8 = 4. Therefore, F/F' is free 10.15. H
abelian with basis X,.
We shall see in Exercise 11.46 below that the converse of Theorem 11.6 is
Theorem 11.4. Let F and G be free groups with bases X and Y, respectively. also true: a group G is free if and only if it has the projective property.
Then F E G if and only if 1x1= I YI.
Proof. If q: F -+ G is an isomorphism, then F/F' g GIG'. By the lemma, F/F' Semigroup Interlude
is free abelian with basis X, = (xF': x E X). As IX , I = I X I, it follows that
I XI = rank(F/Ff).Similarly, I YI = rank(G/Gf),and so IX I = I YI, by Theorem We are now going to construct free semigroups; the formal definition is no
10.14. surprise.
If I XI = I YI, there is a bijection f : X Y which, upon composing with the
-+
inclusion Y c,G, may be regarded as a function X -+ G. Since F is free with Definition. If X is a subset of a semigroup Z, then C is afree semigroup with
basis X, there is a unique homomorphism q: F -+ G extending f. Similarly, basis X if, for every semigroup S and every function f : X -+ S, there exists a
there is a unique homomorphism $: G -+ F extending f -': Y -,X. The com- unique homomorphism cp: C -+ S extending f.
posite $cp: F 4 F is a homomorphism which fixes X pointwise; that is, $40
extends the inclusion function I : X + F. But the identity 1, also extends I ,
and so uniqueness of extension gives 11/50 = IF. Similarly, q11/ = I,, so that
q : F -+ G is an isomorphism. H
where [a] denotes the equivalence class of a E S (this operation is well defined 11.10. The dicyclic group DC, is the group having the presentation
because r is a congruence). DC, = (r, S,tlr2 = s2 = tn = rst).
There are two general constructions of congruences. The first arises from a (i) If n = 2m-2,then DC, r Q,, the generalized quaternion group (see Exercise
homomorphism cp: S -+ T of semigroups; define a = b if cp(a) = cp(b). This 4.40).
congruence is called ker 9,and it is straightforward to prove the first isomor- (ii) Show that DC, has order 4n.
phism theorem: 11.11. Show that (o,o, ...c~,)"+'E Z(B,,,), where Bmis the braid group (see Example
S/ker cp r im cp 11.6). It is known that Z(B,) is the infinite cyclic group generated by this
element.
(if S and T are groups and K = (s E S: ~ ( s= ) 11, then ker cp is the equiva-
11.12. (i) Show that a free semigroup with a basis having at least two elements is not
lence relation on S whose equivalence classes are the cosets of K). Here is a commutative.
second construction. As any relation on S, a congruence is a subset of S x S. (ii) Show that a subsemigroupof a free semigroup need not be free. (Hint. Find
It is easy to see that any intersection of congruences is itself a congruence. an appropriate subsemigroup of the multiplicative semigroup of positive
Since S x S is a congruence, one may thus define the congruence generated integers.)
by any subset E of S x S as-theintersection of all the congruences containing
E. If C is the free semigroup with basis X and if (w, = ui: i E I} is a family of
equations, where w,, u, E X, then define = to be the congruence generated by
((w,, u,): i E I} c X x C. The quotient semigroup X/= is said to have the
Coset Enumeration
presentation The method of coset enumeration, distilled by Todd and Coxeter (1936) from
(XI wi = ui for all i E I). earlier particular cases, is a mechanical way to find the order of a given group
from a presentation. It does not always work (nor can any such algorithm
always work, as we shall see in the next chapter), but it does work whenever
the presented group is finite. The method rests on the following elementary
11.1. Use presentations to prove the existence of the nonabelian groups of order p3, lemma.
where p is prime. (See Exercise 4.32.)
Lemma 111.7. Let G be a finite group, X a set of generators of G, H IG
11.2. Prove that a free group of rank 2 2 is a centerless torsion-free group.
a subgroup, and Hw,, . .., Hw,, some distinct cosets of H. If U:=, Hw, is
11.3. Prove that the group G = (x, ylxm,yn)is infinite when m,n 2 2. closed under right multiplication by every a E X u X-', then G = Hw,, U;=,
11.4 (Baer). Prove that a group E has the injective property if and only if E = 1. [G : PI] = n, and 161= nlHI.
(Hint. D.L. Johnson). Let A be free with basis (x, y) and let B be the semidirect
product B = A x (z), where z is an involution acting by zxz = y and zyz = x.) PmoJ If Y is any nonenpty subset of G with Yu c Y for all cs E X u X-',
then Y = G (because X generates G and w E Y for every word w on X). In
11.5. Let X be the disjoint union X = Y u Z. If F is free with basis X and N is the
normal subgroup generated by Y, then FIN is free with basis (zN: z E 2). particular, G = U:=, Hw,, so that every coset of H must appear as Hwi for
some i; that is, [G : HI = n. Ed
11.6. Show that a free group F of rank 2 2 has an automorphism cp with cp(cp(w))=
w for all w E F and with no fixed points (cp(w) = w implies w = 1). (Compare We illustrate the method in a specific case before describing it in general.
Exercise 1.50.) Let G be the group having the presentation
11.7. If H a G and G/H is free, then G is a semidirect product of H by GIN. (Hint. G = (s, tls3 = t2 = 1, tst = s2).
Corollary 10.16 and Lemma 7.20.)
Write each of the relations as a word with all exponents IfI 1:
11.8. Let G be a group, let {ti: i E I) c G, and let S = (ti: i E I) 5 G. If there is a
sss; tt; tsts-'s-l.
homomorphism 9:G 4 F (where F is the free group with basis X = {xi: i E I))
with cp(ti)= xi for all i, then S is a free group with basis (ti: i E I). For each of these relation words, begin making a relation table by putting a
11.9. The binary tetrahedral group B is the group having the presentation vertical line under each of its letters.
B = (r, s, tlr2 = s3 = t3 = rst).
(i) Prove that rst E Z(B) and that B/(rst) r A, (the tetrahedral group).
(ii) Prove that B has order 24.
(iii) Prove that B has no subgroup of order 12.
I
354 11. Free Groups and Free Products Coset Enumeration 355
but the auxiliary table already contains Notice the hypothesis "If the procedure ends"; one does not know in ad-
vance whether the procedure will end.
There is a gereralization of the algorithm from which the name "coset
enumeration" arises. Consider the binary tetrahedral group (of order 24)
This is an instance of coset collapse; delete row 7 and replace all other occur- given in Exercise 11.9:
rences of 7 by the smaller number 6, including the entries in the auxiliary
B = (r, s, tlr2 = s3 = t3 = rst).
table. Continuing this procedure ultimately leads to the completed tables
First rewrite the presentation to display relations equal to 1:
B = (r, s, tlr-lst = r-2s3 = r-I s-It2 = 1).
One could use Theorem 11.8 to show that B has order 24, but tables with 24
rows are tedious to do. Instead, let us choose a subgroup H 5 G for which
generators are known. For example, we might choose H = ( s ) in this exam-
ple (cyclic subgroups are simplest). The idea is to use a slight variant of
Theorem 11.8 to enumerate the cosets of H in G (instead of the elements of G).
This is done as follows. In addition to relation tables, draw subgroup genera-
tor tables, one for each generator of H. For example, there are two such tables
if we choose H = (rst, s ) ; there is just one such table if we choose H = ( s ) .
The procedure now stops because all the relation tables are complete. New tables consist of one row, and they are called complete once all their
According to the next theorem, the conclusion is that the presented group G squares are filled without drawing any new rows under them. In our example,
has order 6 (of course, G r S,). there is just one subgroup generator table, and it is already complete.
1, the completed relation tables can be used to construct the regular represen- Definition. Let G be a group and let X be a set of generators of G. The
tation of G. For example, we saw above that the presentation of G = S,, Cayley graph r = T(G, X) is the directed graph with vertices the elements
G = (s, tls3 = t2 = 1, tst = s2), of G and with a directed edge from g to h if h = gx for some x E X.
The first column of the first table displays the values of right multiplication
by s (as a permutation of { 1, ...,6)), and the first column of the second table
does this for t. Right multiplication by s and t are:
s ++ (1 2 3)(4 5 6) and t ++ (1 4)(2 6)(3 5), 3 2
so that the right regular representation has R, = (1 3 2)(4 6 5) (because Figure 11.1
R,: i t-, is-') and R,= (1 4)(2 6)(3 5). More generally, when one enumer-
ates the cosets of a subgroup H of G, then one obtains the representation of
G on the cosets of H (the construction above differs from that of Theorem The Cayley graph of a group and a generating set is always defined, wheth-
3.14 only in giving the representation on the right cosets of H instead of on er or not coset enumeration can be completed. Notice that the Cayley graph
the left cosets as in that theorem). does depend on the choice of generating set. For example, a loop is an edge of
The information contained in completed relation tables can also be used to the form (u, u). If we take G itself as a generating set, then F(G, G) contains
draw a directed graph. the loop (1, I), while r(G,X) has no loops if 1 8 X. The Cayley graph is
the beginning of a rich and fruitful geometric way of viewing presentations
Defi'aanitioira.A da'recbedgraph T is a set V, called ~ertiws,together with a subset (see Burnside (1911), Dicks and Dunwoody (1989), Gersten (1987), k p d o n
E c V x V ; ordered pairs (u, v) E E are called directed edges. A directed and Schupp (1977), and Serre (1980)).
graph yields an associatedgvaph T':both I-' and IT' have the same vertices,
and u and v are called adjacent in T' if u fi v and either (u, u ) or (u, u) is a
directed edge in T.
One can picture a finite directed graph r by drawing V as points and 11.13. (i) In the presentation of the binary tetrahedral group B given above, show
that s has order 6 in B.
drawing an arrow from u to v if (u, v) E E. In contrast to graphs, which have (ii) Use coset enumeration relative to the subgroup H = (s) to compute the
at most one edge between any pair of vertices, a directed graph may have two order of B.
edges between a pair of vertices, one in each direction (given u, u E V, it may . - , cosets of H.
(iiil Find the remesentation of B on the (right)
\ I
happen that both (u, u) and (u, u) E E). However, even if both (u, v) and (v, u)
11.14. Describe the group G to isomorphism if G has the presentation
are directed edges in l?, there is only edge between them in the associated
graph IT'. (There is a notion of multigraph, directed or nondirected, which (q, r, S,tlrqrW'= q2, rtr-' = t2,s-lrs = r2, tst-' = s2,rt = tr).
allows many edges between a given pair of vertices, but we do not need 11.15. Let (XIA) be a presentation of a group G. Show that the Cayley graph T(G, X)
them here.) has no loops if and only if 1 $ X.
358 11. Free Groups and Free Products Presentations and the Schur Multiplier
Definition. The degree of a vertex v in a graph lr is the number of vertices The definition of exact sequence
adjacent to it; the degree of a vertex v in a directed graph I'is its degree in the
. . - + A $B-%c+...
associated graph T'.A graph or directed graph is regular of degree k if every
vertex has the same degree, namely, k. I
(the image of each homomorphism is equal to the kernel of the next one)
makes sense if the groups are nonabelian. Of course, every image, being a
11.16. If X is a finite generating set of a group G with 1 4 X, then the Cayley graph kernel of a homomorphism, must be a normal subgroup.
T(G, X) is regular of degree 2 1x1.(Hint. If g E G and x E X, then (gx-', g) and
(g, gx) are directed edges.)
Lemma 11.9. Let v: U -, Q be a central extension of a group K = ker v by a
11.17. Draw the Cayley graph T(G, X) if G is a free abelian group of rank 2 and X is group Q. If Q is perfect, then U' is perfect and v / U':U' -+ Q is surjective.
a basis.
11.18. Draw the Cayley graph T(G,X) if G is a free group of rank 2 and X is a basis. Proof. Since v is surjective, v(U1)= Q'; as Q is perfect, v(U1)= Q, and v ]U' is
surjective. If u E U, there is thus u' E U' with v(uf)= v(u); hence, there is
z E K < Z(U) with u = u'z. To see that U' is perfect, it suffices to show that
U' < U". But if [u, v] is a generator of U', then there are u', u' E U' and
Presentations and the Schur Multiplier I
central elements z,, z, with [u, v] = [u'z,, v1z2] = [u', v'] E U". iB
The Schur multiplier M(Q) of a group Q is discussed in Chapter 7 (the reader
is advised to reread the appropriate section); it is related to presentations of Theorem 11.10. If Q is a perfect finite group and fi Q r FIR, where F is free,
Q because of the following isomorphism. then M(Q) E (R n F')/[F, R]. Moreover, F'/[F, R] is a cover of Q.
Hopf's Formula. If Q r FIR is a finite3 group, where F is free, then Proof. Since R a F, we have [F, R] IR; moreover, [F, R] a F. There is
M(Q) r (R n F')/[F, R]. thus an exact sequence
1 -+ R/[F, R] -+ FIEF, R] 4 FIR 4 1,
Remark. An "aspherical" topological space X has the property that its
homology groups are completely determined by its fundamental group which is plainly a central extension. It is easily checked that (F/[F, R])' =
n,(X). Hopf (1942) proved that H,(X) r (R n F')/[F, R], where F is free and F'/[F, R]. Since Q = FIR is perfect, Lemma 11.9 gives an exact sequence 5
FIR E n,(X). Schur (1907) proved that M(Q) r (R n F')/[F, R] when Q is (with v' the restriction of v)
finite (i.e., Schur proved Hopf's formula in this case!). Comparison of Hopf's 5: 1 -+( R n F')/[F, R] -+ F1/[F,RJ % F/R -+ 1
formula to Schur's theorem led Eilelnberg and Mac Lane to their creation of
Cohomology of Groups; the homology group H,(X) of the aspherical space (for ( R nF1)/[F, R] = (R/[i;,R]) n (F'/[F, R]) = ker v'). Let us denote
X is the homology group H2(n,(%), Z) of the fundamental group nl(X). (R n F')/[F, R] by K. As F'/[F, R] is perfect, by Lemma 11.9, we have
When nl(X) is finite, H2(z1(X),Z)is isomorphic to the second cohomology K 5 (F'/[F, R])'. Therefore, the transgression 6: K* -+ M ( Q ) is injective, by
group H2(n,(X), C x )= M(n,(X)). Lemma 7.64. But Q is finite, by hypothesis, so that M(Q) is also finite, by
Theorem 7.60; hence K is finite and K r K*, by Theorem 10.56. To see that
We will prove Hopf's formula for all finite groups Q, but we first consider 6 is surjective, it suaces, by Lemma 7.63, to prove that the central extension
a special class of groups. has the projective lifting property. Consider the diagram with exact rows
- - I' -
Every simple group is perfect. The proofs of Theorems 8.13 and 8.23 show
that the groups SL(n, q) are perfect unless (n, q) = (2,2) or (2, 3).
1,- Cx GL PGL 1.
Let us explain the finiteness hypothesis in Hopf's formula. In Chapter 7, we defined M(Q) as
the cohomology group H2(Q, C '). Nowadays, after defining homology groups of Q, one defines
M(Q) as the second homology group H2(Q,Z). There is always an isomorphism H2(Q,Z) r
Since F is free, it has the projective property (in the diagram in Theorem 11.6,
(H2(Q, Cx))*, where * denotes character group. When Q is finite, the abelian group H ~ also S let a = zn); there exists a homomorphism a: F -+ GL making the diagram
finite, and hence it is isomorphic to its own character group, by Theorem 10.54. commute; moreover, since the bottom extension is central, it is easy to see
i
Presentations and the Schur Multiplier 361
360 11. Free Groups and Free Products
Proof. Consider the portion of the proof of Theorem 11.10 showing the exis-
tence of a map F'/[F, R] -+ GL making the diagram commute; this portion
holds if one replaces the central extension 1 -t C x GL 4 PGL -+ 1 by any
-+
central extension and the map z by any map. In particular, one may replace
the central extension by 1 L -+ V Q -+ 1 and the map i by l p , where V is
-+ -+
where of: u[F, R] H o(u) for all u E F. Since Q is perfect, we may replace the
a central extension of L by Q. Thus, it only remains to prove the uniqueness
top row by 6 and the downward map a' by its restriction i = dlF'/[F, R].
of such a map.
Thus, z can be lifted, 5 has the projective lifting property, and the injection
Let v: U -, Q and p: V -+ Q be the given surjections. Suppose that a,
6: K* -+ M(Q) is also a surjection, as desired. Finally, F'/[F, R] is a cover of
Q, by Lemmas 7.63 and 7.64. W p: U -+ V are homomorphisms with pa = v = pP. If u E U, then pa(u) = pP(u),
so that a(u)/3(u)-' E ker p I Z ( V ) ; there is thus z E Z(V) with u(u) = p(u)z.
A central extension U of K by Q has the projective lifting property if, for Similarly, if u' E U', there is z' E Z(V) with a(ul) = P(ur)z'. Therefore,
every homomorphism T: Q -+ PGL, there is a homomorphism i : U -t GL a(Cu9 u l l ) = Ca(u), a(ul)l = [P(u)z, P(uf)z'l = CP(4, P(uf>l = P(C% u'l).
Since U is perfect, by Lemma 11.9, it is generated by all commutators. There-
making the following diagram commute:
fore, a = p, as desired.
1 -.C X - - 4
GL
1
PGL ------+ 1.
Of course, the bottom row is a central extension. Are there central extensions
central extension if and only if Q is perfect (see Milnor (1971), 55). More
generally, a possibly infinite group Q has a universal central extension if and
only if Q/Qf is free abelian (see Gruenberg (1970), p. 214).
of Q which have a projective lifting property with respect to other central Coroalary 11.12. Every finite perfect group Q has a unique cover U which is
extensions?
itself a finite perfect group.
Definition. A central extension U of Q is a gniversal central extension if, for
every central extension V of Q, there is a unique homomorphism ar making HProoJ By Theorem 11.11, the cover U = Fr/[F, R] is a universal central
the following diagram commute: extension of Q; if a central extension V of it by Q is a cover, then there is a
commutative diagram
We are now going to prove that Hopf's formula holds for every (not neces-
sarily perfect) finite group Q.
11. Free Groups and Free Products resentations and the Schur Multiplier
Lemma 11.313. If Q is a finite group and Since R/[F, R1 is central in F/[F, R], it follows that R/S g
l-+K-+E-+Q-+l (R/[FYRI)/(S/[F, R1) is central in F/S E (F/[F, R])/(S/[F, R]); moreover, the
definition of S gives (RICF, R])/(S/[F, R]) 2 (R n F')/[F, R]. Finally, R/S =
(R n F')S/S I FrS/S = (FIS)'.
-
is a central extension, then K n E' is finite.
(ii) By Lemma 11.13, R/S is finite. By Lemma 7.64, the transgression
pmo$ since K I Z(E),we have [E : Z(E)] I CE : KI = lQ1 < a.Thus Z(E) 6: (R/S)* M(Q) is an injection, so that I(R n F')/[F, R]J = 1 R/SI =
has finite index in E, and so Schur's Theorem (Theorem 7.57) gives E' finite. I(R/s>*l IM(Q)I.
Therefore K n E' <_ E' is also finite.
Theorem 11.17 (Schur, 1907). If Q is a finite group with Q = FIR, where F is
Lemma 11.14. ~fQ = FIR is a finite group, where F is free, then there is a a finitely generated free group, then
central extension
1 -,R/[F, R] 4 F/[F, R] Q -, 1. -+
M(Q) z (R n F')/[F, R].
Moreover, if F is finitely generated, then R/[F, R] is also finitely generated. Proof. Let 1 -+L+ U 5 Q -+ 1 be a central extension with L 5 u',let
I , ...,Y,) be a basis of F, and let v: F -+Q be a surjective hornomor-
proof. We have already noted (in Theorem 11.10) that the sequence is a ism. For all i, choose ui E U with n(ui) = v(yi). Since F is free with basis
central extension. NOW F finitely generated implies that FIEF, R1 is finitely yl, ..., y,), there is a homomorphism cr: F -, U with .no. = v. Now L =
generated. As Q is finite, R/[F, R] 5 FIEF, R1 is a subgroup of finite index, L n U' 2 Z(U) n U' I(D(U),by Theorem 5.49. Therefore,
and so Lemma 7.56 shows that R/[F, R] is finitely generated. ill
u = ( ~ 1 .,..,u,, L) l (u1, .. .,u,, (D(U)) = (ul, ...,u,),
Lemma 11.15. Let Q = FIR be a finite group, where F is a finitely generated by Theorem 5.47, so that a is surjective.
free group. The torsion subgroup of R/[F, R] is (R n F')/[F, R], and there is a If a E L, then a = a(w) for some w E F (for a is surjective), and so 1 =
subgroup S with [F, R] 5 S 5 R, with S a F , and with = I[G(W)= v(a). Hence, w E ker v = R, and so a = a(w) E o(R); that is,
o(R). For the reverse inclusion, if r E R, then ncr(r) = v(r) = 1, so that
RICK R1 = (R n F')/CF, R] O S/[F, R]. E ker n = L. Thus, L = a(R). Note that cr([F, R]) = [o(F), a(R)] =
,L] = 1, because L is central, so that a induces a homomorphism
Proof. Let T = (R n F')/[F, R]. Since T = (R/[F, R]) n (F'/[F, R]), Lemma a: F/[F, R] -+ U. But Z((R n F')/[F, R])) = o(R) n o(F') = L n U' = L, and
11.13 shows that T is finite, and so T 5 t(R/[F, R]). For the reverse inclu-
0 I@ n P')/CP, Rll 2 ILI.
sion, note that (R/[F,R])/T E (R/[F,R])/((R n F')/[F, R ] )s R/(R n F') z By Theorem 7.66, there is a central. extension
F'RIF' I FIF', which is free abelian. By Corollary 10.16, there is a subgroup
S with [F, R] si: S si: R such that R/[F, R] = T @ S/[F, R]. Therefore, l+L+U+Q-+l
t(R/[F, R]) = (R n F')/[F, R]. Finally, R/[F, R] 5 Z(F/[F, R]), so that all with L 2 M(Q) and L s U'.Therefore, Lemma 11.16(ii) gives
.
its subgroups are normal in F/[F, R]; in particular, S / [ F , R] a FIEF, R] and
S a F . FR4 IM(Q)I = ILI 5 I@ n F')ICF, RI l 2 lIlrf(Q)l-
Lemma 11.16. Let Q be a finite group and let Q = FIR, where F is a finitely Returning to Lemma 11.16 with K Z (R n F')/[F, R], the injection
generated free group. 6: K* -+ M(Q) must be surjective, and so M(Q) 2 (R n F)/[F, R].
(i) There is a central extension Corollary 11.18. For every finite group Q, if Q = FIR, where F is a finitely
l-+K-,E-,Q+l generated free group, then (R n F)/[F, R] is independent of the finite presen-
tation FIR of Q.
with K <_ E' and with K (R n F')/[FY R].
(ii) j(R n F')/[F, R1 I 2 I M(Q)I. Proof: We have (R nF)/[Fy R] sz M(Q), and the Schur multiplier M (Q) is
defined independently of a presentation.
proof: (i) Choose S, as in Lemma 11.15, with S 4 F, [F, R1 5 S 5 R, and
R/[F, RI = (R n F)/[F, R] 0S/[F, R]. Consider the exact sequence Definition. If 21 is a finitely generated abelian group, let d(A) denote the
1 -+ R/S -+ F/S -+ Q -+ 1- number of elements in a smallest generating set of A; that is, A can be gener-
364 11. Free Groups and Free Products Presentations and the Schur Multiplier
Proof. We have R' = [R, R] 5 [F, R] 5 R, since R F, so that R/[F, R] is Corolany 11.21. If Q is a finite group having a presentation with n generators
abelian. The proof is completed by showing that it is generated by the cosets and r relations, then
of the y's. Now R is generated by (fyif -': f E F, i = 1, . . . ,I) (R is the normal d(l%f(Q))-< i. - a.
subgroup of F generated by { y,, . .. , y,)). But fyif -'y;' E IF, R], so that
fyif [F, R] = yi[F, R], as desired. 3 Proof: Since Q is finite, Q/Qf is finite and p(Q/Qt) = 0.
Theorem 11.20. If Q has a finite presentation Since d(M(Q)) 2 0, it follows that r 2 n for every finite presentation of a
finite group Q; that is, there are always more relations than generators. We
Q = (XI,. - . , x ~ I Y I ~~ r ) , give a name to the extreme case.
then M(Q) is finitely generated, d(M(Q)) d r, and
Definition. A group is balanced if it has a finite presentation with the same
n - r 5 p(Q/Qr)- d(M(Q)).
number of generators as relations.
Proof: Let F be free with basis (x,, . . ., x,), and let R be the normal subgroup
generated by { y, , ...,y,). By Lemma 11.19, there is an exact sequence of 11-22. If Q is a finite balanced group, then M(Q) = 1.
finitely generated abelian groups
(1) 0 -+(R n Fr)/[F, R] -t R/[F, R1-+ R/(R n F') 0. +
Therefore, d(M(Q)) = d((Rn F')/[F, R]) 5 r (by Exercise 10.7, an easy con-
The converse of this corollary is false.
Galois Theory: there is a bijection from the family of all covering spaces X
mapping onto a topological space X and the family of all subgroups of the all its vertices in L already lies in L. Thus, a full subcomplex L is determined
fundamental group a,(X). This theory was used by Baer and Levi to Prove by its vertices Vert(L).
the Nielsen-Schreier theorem: Every subgroup of a free group is itself free. For example, if s is a simplex, then the subcomplex Is],consisting of and
We mimic the topological theorems here in a purely algebraic setting. all its nonemPtY subsets, is full. For each q 2 0, the q-skeleton, defined by
Kq = {simplexes s E K: dim(s) < qj,
Definition. A K (or abstract simplicial Complex) is a family of
is a subcomplex. Thus, Vert(K) = KO c K1 = KO {all l-simplexes) c
empty finite subsets, called simplexes, of a set V = Vert(K), called vertices, K 2 K 3 C ... If dim(K) = n and q < n, then Kq is not a full subcomplex.
such that:
(i) if v E I/, then (v) is a simplex; Definition. An edge in a complex K is an ordered pair E = (u, v) of (not neces-
(ii) if s is a simplex, then so is every nonempty subset of 3. sarily distinct) vertices lying in a simplex. If u and v are vertices in a complex
368 11. Free Groups and Free Products j Fundamental Groups of Complexes 369
K, then a path a of length n from u to v is a sequence of n edges Definition. The connected subcomplexes Ki occurring in the disjoint union
a = (u, vl)(vl, v2) - - - (vn-2, v,,-l)(vn-l, 4. K = U Ki are called the components of K.
Call u the origin of a and denote it by o(a); call v the end of a and denote it by We are now going to define a multiplication of paths reminiscent of juxta-
e(a). A closedpath at u is a path a for which o(a) = e(a). position of words in a free group.
Definition. A complex K is connected if there is a path between any pair of its Definition. If a = E ~ ... E, and p = q, ...q, are paths in a complex K, where
vertices. the E, and qj are edges, and if e(a) = o(P), then their prodrsct is the path
and e(a) = o(P), then the reader may check that aP I.a'P'; that is, if Theorem 11.27.
e(a) = o(P), then multiplication of path classes, given by (i) If (K, v) is a complex with basepoint, and if L is the component of K
containing v, then
n(K, u) = n(L, v).
is well defined. (ii) If K is a connected complex with basepoints v and v', then
If K is a complex and v E Vert(K), then the trivial path at v is (v, u). If
E = (u, u), define E-I = (v, u) and, if a = E, ...E,, is a path, define its inoersepath n(K, u) r a(K, u').
a-I = ...E;'.
Proof. (i) Since every (closed) path with origin v has all its vertices in Vert(L),
Lemma 61.25. The set of all path classes of a complex K has the following the underlying sets of the two groups are equal. As the multiplications on
properties: each coincide as well, the groups themselves are equal.
(ii) Since K is connected, there is a path y in K from v to u'. Define
(i) if o [a] =u and e [a] = v, then
f : a(K, V)-+a(K, v') by [a] H [y-'1 [a] [y] = [y-lay]. Note that the latter
multiplication takes place in the groupoid of all path classes in K; the prod-
uct, however, lies in n(K, 0'). It is a simple matter, using Lemma 11.25, to
.
check that f is an isomorphism with inverse [PI ct [y] [PI [y-'1.
and
Definition. If K and L are complexes, then a simplicial map q: K -+ L is a
Gal = [(u, 41. function q: Vert(K) -+ Vert(L) such that (quo, qv,, ...,qv,) is a simplex in L
(ii) if a, P, and y are paths and one of ([a] [PI) [y] or [a] ([PI [y] ) is defined, whenever (v,, v,, . .,v,) is a simplex in K. A sirnplicial map q is an isomor-
then so is the other and they are equal. phism if it is a bijection whose inverse is also a sirnplicial map.
Proof. Straightforward. 8% The identity on Vert(K) is a simplicial map. It is easy to see that the
composite of simplicial maps, when defined, is a simplicial map. If q: K -+ L
The set of all path classes in K with its (not always defined) multiplica- is a sirnplicial map and (v,, v,, ...,v,) is a simplex, then there may be re-
tion is called a groupoid. We extract groups from a groupoid in the obvious peated vertices in the simplex (quo, qv, ,..., qv,].
way. Let q : K -* L be a sirnplicial map. If E = (u, v) is an edge in K, then qe =
(qu, qv) is an edge in L (because (rpu, rpv) is a simplex in L). If a = . .. E,, is
a path, then define
- -
DeGni~ow.A basaigoimt of a complex X is some chosen vertex v. The Jurlda-
mentalgroup of a complex with basepoint v is
a(K, v) = ([a]: a is a closed path at v). which is a path in L. If u P are paths in K, then q a qP in L,for if (u, v, w)
is a simplex in K, then (qu, qv, qw) is a simplex in L.
Theorem 11.26. For every vertex v in a complex K,n(I<, v) is a group with
identity the path class of the trivial path at v. Theorem 11.28. If q : K -+ L is a simplicial map, then q,: n(K, v) n(L,qv),
-+
Proof. Routine. 88
Remark. There is a topological space IK I which is the "geometric realization"
of a complex K , and a(K, v) is isomorphic to the fundamental group of IKI I
defined in Algebraic Topology (see Rotman (1988), Theorem 7.36). Definition. A path a = E, ...E,, is reduced if either a is trivial or no ci = (u, v) is
The next result shows that the fundamental group of a connected complex adjacent to its inverse (v, u) and no is a trivial path. A circuit is a reduced
does not depend on the choice of basepoint. closed path.'
372 11. Free Groups and Free Products Fundamental Groups of Complexes 373
Let us show that every path a in a complex is homotopic to either a Definition. A subcomplex T of a complex K is a maximal tree if T is a tree
-
reduced path or a trivial path. If a contains a subpath (u, v)(v, u), then a d, which is contained in no larger tree in K.
where a' is obtained from a by replacing (u, v)(v, u) by the trivial path (u, u). If
a' is not trivial and a' contains a trivial path (u, u), then a' a", where a" is Lemma 11.30. If K is a connected complex, then a tree T in K is a maximal
obtained from a' by deleting (u, u). These steps can be iterated. Since each tree if and only if Vert(T) = Vert(K).
path obtained is shorter than its predecessor, the process eventually ends,
and the last path is either reduced or trivial. In particular, every closed path Proof. Suppose that T is a maximal tree and there exists a vertex v 4 Vert(T).
is homotopic to either a circuit or a trivial path. Choose a vertex vo in T; since K is connected. There is a path E , ...8, in K
~ , Since v, is in T and v is not in IS there
from vo to u = v,; let gi = ( u ~ -vi).
Definition. A tree is a connected complex of dimension < 1having no circuits must be an i with vi-, in T and vi not in T. Consider the subcomplex T'
(the only zero-dimensional tree has a single vertex). obtained from T by adjoining the vertex vi and the simplex {vi-,, vi). Clearly
T' is connected, and any possible circuit in 7''must involve the new vertex ui.
Let us show that if u and u are distinct vertices in a tree T, then there is a There are only two nontrivial edges in T' involving ui, namely, E = ( u ~ -vi) ~,
unique reduced path from u to v. Connectivity provides a path a from u to u, and E-f, and so any closed path involving vi as an "interior" vertex is not
which we may assume is reduced. If P f a is another reduced path from u to reduced, while any circuit at vi would yield a circuit in T at vi-, . Thus T'is a
v, then a and p contain a (possibly empty) subpath y such that a = a'y, tree properly containing T, contradicting the maximality of T.
p = Ply, and the last edge of a' is distinct from the last edge of P . It follows The proof of the converse, similar to that just given, is left to the
that a1/3'-I is reduced, and hence it is a circuit in T.This contradiction shows reader.
that a = p.
Definition. A complex K is simply connected4 if it is connected and n(K, v) = Every complex K has a maximal tree (this is obvious when K is finite, and
1 for some v E Vert(K). a routine Zorn7slemma argument shows it to be true in general). Usually, a
complex has many maximal trees.
By Theorem 11.27(ii), this definition does not depend on the choice of
basepoint v in K. efinition. Let K be a complex and let 9 = {Xi: i E I) be a partition
Every tree T is simply connected: we have just noted that every closed path of Vert(K). The quotient complex K / 9 has vertices the subsets 4, and
is homotopic to either a circuit or a trivial path, and there are no circuits in simplex if there are vertices uij E Xij such that {ui,. .., uiq)
a tree.
Theorem 11.29. Let L be a simply connected subcomplex of a complex M.If a Of course, one can construct a quotient complex of K modulo an equiva-
is a closed path in K at v all of whose edges lie in L, then [a] = 1 in n ( K , v). lence relation on Vert(K), for the equivalence classes partition Vert(K).
This is true, in particular, when L is a tree.
EXERCISES
Pro05 The inclusion 'p: Vert(L) Vert(K) is a simplicia1 map L -t K, and
it induces a homomorphism 9,: n(L, v) --+ n(K, u). The hypothesis gives 11.25. Prove that a complex K is connected if and only if its 1-skeleton K1is con-
'p,([a]) = ['pa] = [a], SO that [a] E im p',. But L simply connected gives nected.
n(L, v) = 1, hence [a] = 1. 11.26. If s is a simplex, then the complex Is1 (consisting of s and all its nonempty
subsets) is simply connected.
If L is a subcomplex of a complex K , then the homomorphism
11.27. Prove that the inclusion K% K induces an isomorphism n(K2,u) r n(K, v).
p
' ,:n(L, v) -t n(K, v ) induced by the inclusion 'p: Vert(L) c,Vert(K) need
Conclude that every fundamental group arises as the fundamental group of a
not be injective. For example, it is easy to see that a 2-simplex K is simply 2-complex.
connected, but we shall soon see that its perimeter is not.
11.28. Let In be' the 1-complex having vertices {to,..., tn} and simplexes {to,t, j,
Some authors do not insist that simply connected complexes be connected. For them, a com- {t,, t,), ..., (tn-,, t,}. Prove that a path in a complex K of length n is a
plex is simply connected if all its components are simply connected in our sense. simpliclal map In4 K.
374 11. Free Groups and Free Products Tietze7sTheorem 375
11.29. Let T be a finite tree. If v(T) is the number of vertices in T and e(T) is the Since T is a maximal tree in K, there is a unique reduced path A, in T from
number of edges in T, then w to each v E Vert(T) - (w} = Vert(K) - (w}; define 1, = (w, w). ~ e f i n ea
v(T) - e(T) = 1. function f : X -,n(K, w) by
11.30. Prove that a 1-complex K is simply connected if and only if it is a tree.
(u, C~,(U,v)A,ll
11.31. (i) Let K be a complex and let T and S be trees in K. If T n S # 0, then T n s
is a tree if and only if T n S is connected. (which is the path class of a closed path at w), and let rp: F -+ n(K, w) be the
(ii) If {q:i E I ) is a family of trees in a complex K with q n Zj a tree for all i unique homomorphism it defines. We claim that R I ker 9.
and j, then U is a tree.
Type (a): If (u, v) is in T, then the path A,(u, v)l;' lies in T, and hence
-
11.32. Let K be a 1-complex with basepoint w, let T be a tree in K, and let (u, v) be an
edge not in T. If a = al(u, v)a" and a = P(u, v)/?" are closed paths in K at w
with a', a", p', and p" paths in T, then a P.
11.33. Let G be a free group of rank 2 with basis X. Show that the graph associated
[AU(u,v)A;'] = 1 in n(K, w), by Theorem 11.29.
Type (b): If (u, v, x) is a simplex in K, then
Tietze9stheorem gives a presentation for the fundamental group of a con- p-la = 6-'(za, x)-' (u, u) (v, x)S E R.
nected complex. There is thus a homomorphism 8:z(X, w ) -+F ( K , T ) given by
Definition If T is a maximal tree in a connected complex I<, then F ( K , T )is O: .E,] -@(El. . .E,) = - .. E,,R.
the group having the presentation: . ..E,] E z(K, w), then
Let us compute composites. If
generators: all edges (u, v) in K;
.E,R) = R). ..(D(E,R)
relations: Type (a): (u, v) = 1 if (u, v) is an edge in T;
Type (b): (u, v)(v, x) = (u, x) if (u, v, x) is a simplex in K. = Crp(~1). -.d & , ) l
Theorem 11.31 (H. Tietze, 1908). If K is a connected complex and T is a
maximal tree in K, then
n(K, w) 2 F ( K , T).
because A, is a trivial path. Therefore, 00 is the identity. We now compute
ark. Since K is connected, different choices of basepoint w for K yield the other composite. If (u, v) is an edge in K, then
isomorphic groups. @@((u,v)R) = @(rp(u,4 )
PPOO$Let F be the free group with basis X = all edges (u, v) in K and let R
be the normal subgroup of relations, so that Y(K, T) = FIR.
376 11. Free Groups and Free Products Covering Complexes 377
But A, and A,' lie in R, since their edges do, so that Definition. If I is a set, then a bouquet of 1 1 circles is the 1-complex BI
with distinct vertices {u,, v,: i E I) v (w) and 1-simplexes (w, ui), {w,vi), and
A,(u, v)Ayl R = A,(U, v)R = (u, v)R,
{v,, u,) for all i E I.
the last equation arising from the normality of R (Exercise 2.30(ii)). The
composite Od,thus fixes a generating set of F ( K , T), hence it is the identity. Corollary 11.33. If I is a set and BI is a bouquet of I circles, then n(BI, w) is a
Therefore, n(K, w) z T ( K , T). free group ofrank I I I.
Corollary 11.32. If K is a connected 1-complex, then n(K, w) is a free group. Proof. It is easy to see that P3, is a connected 1-complex and that all the
Moreover, if T is a maximal tree in K, then 1-simplexescontaining w form a maximal tree. Therefore, n(BI, w) is free with
basis
rank n(K, w) = I { 1-simplexes in K not in T) I;
{ C ( w , ~ i ) ( ~ i , v i ) ( v i , ~ ) I : i E I881) .
indeed, F has a basis consisting of all [d,(u, v)A;'], where one edge (u, u) is
chosen from each 1-simplex (u, v) 4 T. In Exercise 11.14, we gave a presentation of the trivial group G = 1. Using
Tietze's theorem, we see that fundamental groups of simply connected com-
Proof. By the theorem, it suffices to examine F ( K , T). The relations of Type plexes produce many such examples.
(a) show that Y ( K , T) is generated by those edges (u, v) in K which are not in
T. A smaller generating set is obtained by discarding, for each 1-simplex
{u, u), one of the two edges (u, u) or (v, u), for (v, u)R = (u, V)-'R in Y ( K , T).
If {u, v, w) is a simplex in K, then at least two of the vertices are equal, for Covering Complexes
dim K = 1. Thus, the relations of Type (b) have the form:
The last section associated a group to a complex; in this section, we associate
a complex to a group.
with p 1 .Ti:5 -,s an isomorphism for each i E I. The map p is called the projec-
tion and the simplexes 5, in are called the sheets over s.
Notice that every simplex Sin R is isomorphic to a simplex in K; it follows 1-simplex, (G, iJ) is an edge, and p(G, 6) = (w, v). To prove uniqueness, sup-
that dim = dim K. pose that (G, ii) is also a lifting (so that {W, ii) is a 1-simplex).Then {W, u") and
The picture to keep in mind is {I?, ii) are sheets over {w, v) that are not disjoint, contradicting the definition
of covering complex. Therefore, ii = 5.
If n > 1, then a = (w, v)P, where p is a path of length n - 1 beginning at v.
By the base step, there is a unique (W,6)lifting (w, v); by induction, there is a
unique lifting fl of P beginning at L Thus, (G, iJ)fl is the unique lifting of a
beginning at 15. Bll
Proof. It suffices to prove that if (6, iJ)(5,3) is a lifting of (u, v)(v, x) and if
\
.- s = {u, v, x) is a simplex in K, then (6, $2) is a simplex in I?. Let S =
PI {u", ii', 3') be the sheet over s containing 5 and let t" = {ii, u"",1")be the sheet
over s containing u", where pu" = pu"" = v and pii = pu"' = u. Now (ii, 6 ) and
~a s
(ii, 6") are liftings of (u, v) beginning at 12, so that uniqueness of lifting gives
u" = u"". The sheets S and t" over s are not disjoint, and so s" = t"; that is, u" = u"",
ii' = ii, and 1' = 3". A similar argument comparing s" with the sheet over s
containing 3 shows that 1 = 3'. E I!
Figure 11.5
Theorem 11.36. Let p: I? -+ K be a covering complex, and let W be a basepoint
in d with p(G) = w. Then p,: n(x, 6 ) + n(K, w) is an injection.
EWLE 11.8. Let K be the "circle" having vertices (v,, v,, vz) and 1-
simplexes {v,, v,), (v,, v,), and {v,, v,), and let d be the "line" having Proof: Assume that [A], [B] E x(W, G) and that p,[A] p#[B]; that is,
vertices {ti: i E Z) and 1-simplexes {ti, ti+, ] for all i E Z.Define p: + K by [PA] = [pB]. If a = pA and P = pB, then A = a" and 43 = P. The hypothesis
p(t,) = v,, where j E i mod 3. The reader may check that p: 17 -+ K is a --
gives ar /3, and so Lemma 11.35 gives A = oi -- = B; that is, [A] = [B].
6 FTa
covering complex.
Theorem 11.34. Let p: 3 -+ K be a covering complex, and let G be a basepoint What happens to the subgroup p,n(W, G) as the basepoint is changed?
in I? with p(W) = w. Given a path a in K with origin w, there exists a unique
path oi in l? with origin W and with poi = a. Theorem 11.37. Let p: I? -+ K be a covering complex, and let G be a basepoint
in d with p(G) = w. If p(u")= w, then p,n(I?, G) and pp,(l?, ti) are conjugate
Remark. One calls a" the liffing of a because of the picture subgroups of n(K, w). Conversely, if H a(K, w) is conjugate to p,n(E, W),
then H = p,n(I?, 6) for some P with p(ii) = w.
l?
I;--tK
Ip Proof. Since is connected, there is a path B from G to 2. Then P = pB is a
closed path at w, [PI E n(K, w), and Theorem 11.27(ii)gives
[B-'1n(I?, G) [B] = n(I?, 6);
hence I
with origin @, and if e(p) = ii, then p(ti) = w. By Theorem 11.27(ii), ing diagram commutes:
[P-'1n(R, @) [PI = n(E, ti),
so that p,n(R, ti) = p#([fl-']n(K, +)[PI) = [alPen(k, @)[a]-' = H, as
desired. W
[B-'AB] and [a] I-,[P-lap], respectively. It is easy to check that the follow- is a lifting of a having origin @. W
382 11. Free Groups and Free Products The Nielsen-Schreier Theorem 383
Corollary 11.42. If K is a connected complex, then K, is a connected complex. U simply connected (Exercise 11.34 below), and it can be shown that
Cov(U/K) E z(K, W) (note that @ov(U/I<)is defined without choosing a
Proof. There is a path in K, from 6 to every Wa. Ril basepoint). It is true that U is a aniuersal covering complex in the sense that
whenever q: I? -+ K is a covering complex, then there is a projection r: U -t
Theorem 11.43. If K is a connected complex with basepoint w, and if n 2 I? which is a covering complex of K. (One may thus regard U as the analogue
n(K, w), then p: K , -,K is a covering complex with p,(K,, 6 ) = n. of the algebraic closure of a field k, for every algebraic extension of k can be
imbedded in E.) Moreover, the function I? c @ov(U/I?)is a bijection from
Proof. If s is a simplex in K, then p' = pl [s, Wa] is an isomorphism [s, Wa] -+ s the family of all covering complexes of K to the family of all subgroups of the
if and only if it is a bijection. To see that p' is an injection, suppose that fundamental group n(K, w). For proofs of these results, the reader is referred
WP,Wy E [s, Wa] and e(B) = p(%P) = p(Wy) = e(y). Thus, P = ap' and y = ayl, to my expository paper, Rocky Mountain Journal of Mathematics, Covering
where p' and y' are paths wholly in s, and complexes with applications to algebra, 3 (1973), 641-674.
EXERCISES
([a] [p' yf-l] [a-'1 E [ol]n(s, e(a))[a-'1 = 1, by Theorem 11.29). Thus,
11.37. Let p: I? + K be a covering complex. If L_is a connected subcomplex of K and
[fly-'] = 1 E n, P =, y, %$? = Wy, and pf is an injection. To see that p' is a
if is a component of p-'(L), then pl L: L -+L is a covering complex.
surjection, let u be a vertex in s and let a' be a path in s from e(a) to v. Define
p = aaf,and note that p(%P)'= e(P) = v. 11.38. (i) if p: I? -+ K is a covering complex and T is a tree in K, then p-l(T) is a
If s is a simplex in K, then it is easy to see that disjoint union of trees. (Hint: Show that every component of p-'(T) is a
tree.)
(ii) Show that there is a maximal tree of I? containing p-'(T). (Hint: Use
Exercise 11.30.)
as sets; but since s is a full subcomplex of K, its inverse image is a full
11.39. Let p: I? -+ K be a covering complex, and suppose that there are j points in
subcomplex of K,, and so it is completely determined by its vertices. To every fiber p-'(v), where v is a vertex in K. Show that there are exactly j sheets
prove that p: K , -,K is a covering complex, it remains to prove that the over each simplex s in K.
sheets are painvise disjoint. If Wy E [s, %a:] n [s, WP], then y 5, aa' and y r,
Pp', where a' and p' lie wholly in s. It follows that e(al) = e(p') and, as in the 11.40. (i) Every connected complex K has a universal covering space p: I? -+ K; that
preceding paragraph, [aollP'-'p-'] = [afl-l]. But [aalp'-lP-'] = [yy-'1 = is, K is simply connected. (Hint. Let n be the trivial subgroup of n(K, w).)
(ii) If K is a connected 1-complex,then its universal covering complex is a tree.
1 E x, SO that a =, p, %a = %P,' and [s, %a] = [s, %'PI. (This last result may well have been the impetus for the "Bass-Serre the-
Finally, we show that p,n(K,, 6 ) = n. If a is a closed path in K a t w, then ory" of groups acting on trees (see Serre, 1980).
p: K , -,K being a covering complex implies, by Theorem 11.34, that there is
a unique lifting d of a having origin G. But we constructed such a lifting A in
Lemma 11.41, so that a" = A and e(d) = e(A) = %'a.The following stata~ments
are equivalent: [a] E p,n(K,, 6); [a] = [PA], where [A] E x(K,, 6); e(A) = The Nieken-Schreie-s Theorem
o(A) = 6 ; %a = 6 ; [a(w, w)-'1 E n; [a] E n. This completes the proof. !Bl
In 1921, J. Nielsen proved that every finitely generated subgroup H of a free
Remark. Here is a sketch of the analogy with Galois Theory. If p: I? -+ K is group F is itself free (he also gave an algorithm deciding whether or not a
a covering complex, then a simplicia1 map q:i? 2 i? is called a covering map word a in F lies in H). In 1927, 0. Schreier eliminated the hypothesis that H
(or deck transformation) if pq = p. The set Cov(K/K) of all covering maps is be finitely generated. There are, today, several different proofs of this theo-
a group under composition. rem, some "algebraic" and some "geometric." The first geometric proof was
Recall that if k is a subfield of a field K, then the Galois group Gal(K/k) is given by R. Baer and F.W. Levi in 1936, and this is the proof we present.
defined as the set of all automorphisms a: K -+ K which fix k pointwise. To There is another elegant geometric proof, due to J.-P. Serre (1970), using the
say it another way, if i: k +K is the inclusion, then Gal(K/k) consists of all notion of groups acting on trees.
those automorphisms a of K for which ai = i. In the analogy, therefore, all
arrows are reversed. Theorem 11.44 (?Xielsen-Schreier). Every subgroup H of a free group F is
Every connected complex K has a covering complex p: U -+ K with itself@ee. -
384 11. Free Groups and Free Products The Nielsen-Schreier Theorem 385
Proof. If F has rank 111, and if K is a bouquet of II1 circles, then Corollary Here is a notion that arose in Schreier's proof of the subgroup theorem.
11.33 allows us to identify F with n(K, w). As in Theorem 11.43, there is
a covering complex p: KH -+K with p#z(KH,6 ) = H. NOWp# is an injec- Definition. Let F be a free group with basis X, and let H be a subgroup of F.
tion, by Theorem 11.36, so that H r z(KH,G). But dim(K) = 1 implies A Schreier transversal of H in F is a right transversal S with the property that
dim(KH)= 1, and so n(KH, G) is free, by Corollary 11.32. W +
whenever x", x y ...x,". lies in S (where xiE X and g i = I), then every initial
segment xE1xy . .. x? (for k 5 n) also lies in S.
Theorem 11.45. I f F is a free group of finite rank n and H is a subgroup of
finite index j, then rank(H) = jn - j + 1. We will soon prove the existence of Schreier transversals.
Proof. If K is a finite connected graph, denote the number of its vertices by Lemma 11.46. Let p: 3 -t K be a covering complex and let T be a maximal tree
u(K) and the number of its 1-simplexes by e(T). If T is a maximal tree in in K. If w is a basepoint in K, then each component of P-'(T) meets the fiber
K, the v(T) = v(K), by Lemma 11.30. We saw in Exercise 11.23 that P-"w)-
u(T) - e(T) = 1. By Lemma 11.30, the number of 1-simplexes in K - T is
ProoJ If C were a component of p - ' ( ~ )disjoint from the fiber, then w # p(C).
There would then exist an edge (u, u) with u E p(C) and v # p(C); of course,
If, now, Bn is a bouquet of n circles, then v(Bn)= 2n + 1 and e(Bn)= 3n. v E Vert(T) = Vert(K). By Theorem 11.34, this edge may be lifted to an edge
After identifying F with n(Bn,w), let p: KH + Bn be the covering complex (u", 3, where u" E C and v" # C. Since v" E pW1(T),this contradicts C being a
corresponding to H. By Corollary 11.39, j = [F : H] = Ip-'(w)]. Therefore, maximal connected subcomplex of p-'(T). IBs
v(K,) = jv(Bn) and, by Exercise 11.33, e(KH)= je(Bn).We compute the num-
ber of 1-simplexesin KH outside a maximal tree T: Theorem 11.47. Let F be a free group with basis X, and let H be a subgroup of
F. There exists a Schreier transversal S = (&Ha):a E F); moreover, a basis for
H consists of all those ha,, = l(Ha)xl(Hax)-' that are distinct from 1, where
x E X.
ProoJ5 Identify F with n(K, w), where K is a bouquet of circles, and let T be
a maximal tree in K. Let p: K H + K be the covering complex corresponding
to H and choose some % E p-'(w) as the basepoint in K,.
Corollary 11.32 completes the proof. @
! Let 7 be a maximal tree in X, containing p-'(T) (whose existence is
guaranteed by Exercise 11.32(ii)).For each vertex V in K H ,there is a unique
Remark. If K is an n-complex and bi denotes the number of its i-simplexes, reduced path A, in from $ to ?l In particular, there are such paths for every
then its Eulev-Poinear2 eharoeieristic x ( K ) iszy=,
j- l)'bi. Thus, rank(H) = V E p-'(w), and p,[lv] E x(K, w). We claim that the family
-x(~H)- S = (1) u (ail p,[Av]: V E p-'(7') and A, not in F)
We have shown that a subgroup H of a free group F is free; can we find a is a right transversal of H in n(K, w). Given a coset HCar], let oi be the lifting
basis of H? of a having origin G. If V = e(oi), then V E pW'(w) and [&A,'] E n(KH,G).
Recall that a right transversal of a subgroup H in a group F consists of one
Here is an algebraic proof of the existence of Schreier transversals. Define the length A(Hg) of
element chosen from each right coset Ha; denote the chosen element by a coset Hg to be the minimum of the lengths of its elements (relative to a basis X of F). We prove,
l(Ha). If F is free with basis X and if x E X, then both l(Hax) and l(Ha)x lie by induction on n 2 0, that every coset Hg with A(Hg) 2 n has a representative of the form
in flax, and so the element ha,, defined by x",x?. ..x,". each of whose initial segments is also a representative (of a coset of shorter length).
Begin by choosing 1to be the representative of H . For the inductive step, let A(Hg) = n + 1, and
let uxe E Hg be an element of minimal length, where E = $. 1. The coset H u has length n (or we
could find a shorter element of Hg), so that it has a representative v of the desired type, by
lies in H (these elements should be indexed by (Ha, x), but we have abbrevi- induction. Now Wg = (Hu)x" (Hv)xE,and so vxEis a representative of Hg of the desired type.
ated this to (a, x).) We are going to see that if a transversal of H in F is chosen An algebraic proof that the nontrivial ha,, form a basis of H,however, does not follow as
nicely, then the set of all nontrivial ha., is a basis of H. quickly from the existence of a Schreier transversal as it does in the geometric proof above.
11. Free Groups and Free Products The Nielsen-Schreier Theorem 387
11.41. Let G be a noncyclic finite group with G s FIR, where F is free of finite rank.
Prove that rank(R) > rank(F).
Figure 11.6
11.42. Let G have a presentation with n generators and r relations, where n > r. Prove
that G has an element of infinite order. Conclude that n < r when G is finite.
(Hint. Map a free group on n generators onto a free abelian group on n genera-
Applying p, gives [alp# [I,'] E p,n(KH, 8 ) = H,and so H [a] = Hp, [I,],
tors, and use Exercise 10.11.) Equality n = r can occur; for example, the group
as desired. Q of quaternions is a finite balanced group.
We now show that S is a Schreier transversal. Subdivide I, into subpaths:
I, = A, A,. ..A,, where each Ai contains exactly one edge not in p-'(T) (if 11.43. Prove that a free group of rank > 1 is not solvable.
there is no such subdivision, then I, lies wholly in P-'(T) c 'i and p,[A,] = 11.44. Exhibit infinitely many bases of a free group of rank 2.
1). If U;: = e(Ei), then Ui lies in some component Ci of p-'(7'). By Lemma
11.46, there is a vertex f( E Ci n p-'(w) and, since Ci is a tree, there is a unique 11.45. If F is free on {x, y), then {x, y-lxy, ...,y-"xyn, ...) is a basis of the subgroup
reduced path Pi in Ci from Ui to q. Consider the new path Dl D, . . .Dn,where it generates.
Dl = A,/3,, and Di = P;; AiPifor i 2 2; of course, I,-= Dl D, . . .Dn. For each 11.46. Prove that a group is free if and only if it has the projective property.
i, the initial segment Dl D, .. .Di is a path in the tree T from 8 to K. Since AVi
is also such a path, these paths are homotopic: [Ivi] = [Dl D, ...D,], and so 11.47. Use Theorem 11.45 to give another proof of Lemma 7.56: if G is a finitely
p#[D,D,.. .Di] lies in S for all i. But Exercise 11.26 shows that each pDi generated group and H is a subgroup of fmite index, then H is finitely
determines a generator (or its inverse) of n(K, w). Therefore, S is a Schreier generated.
transversal. 11.48. Show that a finitely generated group G has only finitely many subgroups of
By Corollary 11.32, a basis for n(KH,8 ) is any given (finite) index m. (Mint. There are only finitely many homomorphisms
cp: G -+S, (for there are only finitely many places to send the generators of G).
If H < G has index rn, then the representation of 6 on the cosets of W is such
since p, is an injection, a basis of H is the family of all a homomorphism q, and ker q 5 N.Apply the correspondence theorem to the
finite group G/ker q.)
11.49 (M. Hall). If G is a finitely generated group and H < G has finite index, then
where (U, V) is an edge corresponding to a 1-simplex {U, V ) not in and there is K I H with [G: K ] finite and with K char G. (Hint. If cp E: Aut(G),
D,,, 1: P(U, V)/3' for paths P and /3' having all edges in ? IH then [G : rp(H)] = [G :HI.By Exercise 11.48, there are only finitely many sub-
groups of the form q(H); let K be their intersection.)
Theorem 11.48. I f F is a @ee group of rank 2, then its commutator subgroup 9;' 11.50. If F is free and R a F, then FIR' is torsion-free, where R' = [R, R]. (Hint
is free of infinite rank. (Russet). First reduce to the case FIR cyclic of prime order p. Let x E F satisfy
x P E R'; if x E R, its coset has finite order in R/R'; if x 4 R, then x 4 F' (since
PmoJ If (x, y) is a basis of F, then Lemma 11.3 shows that F/F' is free F' I R), and X P .$ F', hence x P 4 R'.)
abelian with basis {xF',yF'). Therefore, every right coset of F'a has a unique 11.51. If F is a free group of rank 2 2, then its commutator subgroup F' is free of
representative of the form xmyn,where m, n E Z. The transversal l(F'a) = infinite rank.
1(F'xmyn)= xmynis a Schreier transversal (e.g., if m and n are positive, write
xmynas x . . .xy.. .y). If n > 0, then l(F'yn) = yn while l(F'ynx) # ynx. There- 11.52. Let F be free on {x, y), and define cp: F -+ S3 by q(x) = (1 2) and ~ ( y=
)
fore l(F'yn)xl(F'ynx)-' # 1 for all n > 0, and so there are infinitely many (1 2 3). Exhibit a basis for ker q.
ha,, # 1. BBI 11.53. If F is free on {a, b, c, d), prove that [a, b] [c, d l is not a commutator.
388 11. Free Groups and Free Products Free Products 389
Free Products Tltneorm 11.58. Let {A,: i E I ) be a family of groups. If P and Q are each a free
product of the A,, then P z Q.
We now generalize the notion of free group to that of free product. As with
free groups, free products will be defined with a diagram; that is, they will be Proof. Let j,: A, -+ P and k,: A, 4 Q be the imbeddings. Since P is a free
defined as solutions to a certain "universal mapping problem." Once exis- product of the A,, there is a homomorphism q: P -+ Q with qj, = k, for all i.
tence and uniqueness are settled, then we shall give concrete descriptions of Similarly, there is a map $: Q -+ P with $ki = j, for all i.
free products in terms of their elements and in terms of presentations.
The reader should compare this definition with Theorem 10.9, the analo-
gous property of direct sums of abelian groups. Both $q and 1, are maps making this diagram commute. By hypothesis,
there can be only one such map, and so $cp = 1,. Similarly, cp$ = lQ, and
Lemma 11.49. If P is a free product of {A,: i E I), then the homomorphisms j, so q : P 4 Q is an isomorphism.
are injections.
Because of Theorem 11.50, we may speak of the free product P of
Proof. For fixed i E I, consider the diagram in which G = A,, J;: is the identity {A,: i E I); it is denoted by
and, for k # i, the maps f,:A, -+ A, are trivial. P= * A,;
is1
P
if there are only finitely many A,'s, one usually denotes the free product by
/7A,
A, Theorem 11.51. Given a family { A , :i E I) of groups, a fiee product exists.
Then qj, = lAi,and so j, is an injection. MI
Proof. The proof is so similar to the proof of the existence of a free group
In light of this lemma, the maps j,: A, -+ P are called the irnheddings. (Theorem 11.1) that we present only its highlights,
Assume that the sets "A A, - {1) are pairwise disjoint, call (U,Af) u
EXAMPLE
11.9. A free group F is a free product of infinite cyclic groups. (1) the alphabet, call its elements letters, and form words w on these letters;
that is, w = a,. ..a,, where each a, lies in some A" {I). A word w is reduced
If X is a basis of F, then (x) is infinite cyclic for each x E X; define if either w = 1 or w = a,. .. a,, where each letter aj E A t and adjacent letters
j,: (x) F to be the inclusion. If G is a group, then a function f : X -+ G lie in distinct A" Let the elements of the free product be all the reduced
determines a family of homomorphisms f,: (x) -+ G, namely, xnI--+ f (x)". words, and let the multiplication be "juxtaposition." In more detail, assume
Also, the unique homomorphism q : F G which extends the function f
-+ that a, ...a,, and b, ...bm are reduced. If a, and b, lie in distinct Af, then
clearly extends each of the homomorphisms f,; that is, qj, = f, for all x E X. a, ...a,b, ...'bmis reduced, and it is the product. If a, and b, lie in the same
A"nd a, b, # 1 (i.e., a, b, E A#), then a, ...(a,b, ) ...bmis reduced and it is
Here is the uniqueness theorem. the product. If a, and b, lie in the same A# and a,b, = 1, then cancel and
390 11. Free Croups and Free Products The Kurosh Theorem 391
repeat this process for a, . ..an-, and b, ...b,-,; ultimately, one arrives at a 11.56. Prove that every group E can be imbedded in a centerless group, and use this
reduced word, and it is the product. It is easy to see that 1 is the identity and result to prove that E can be imbedded in Aut(H) for some H.
that the inverse of a reduced word is reduced; an obvious analogue of the van
11.57 (= 11.4). Prove that a group E has the injective property if and only if E = 1.
der Waerden trick can be used to avoid a case analysis in the verification of
(Hint (Humphreys).Show that E is not normal in the semidirect product H >a E,
associativity. where H is as in Exercise 11.56.)
If P is the free product of two groups A and B, and if f : A -t G and 11.58. The operation of free product is commutative and associative: for all groups
g: B --+ G are homomorphisms, then the homomorphism q: P + G in the def- A, B, and C.
inition of free product is given by A*B r B*A and A*(B*C) z(A*B)*C.
11.59. If N is the normal subgroup of A * B generated by A, then (A * B)/N r B
(compare Exercise 11.5).
Uniqueness of the spelling of reduced words shows that q is a well defined
function, and it is not difficult to show (as in the proof of Theorem 11.1) that 11.60. Show that there is a unique homomorphism of A, * - - - * A, onto A, x - - x A,
cp is a homomorphism. which acts as the identity on each Ai.
11.61. Let A,, ...,A,, B,, ..., Bm be indecomposable groups having both chain
Theorem 11.52 (Normal Form). If g E *,,,
A, and g # 1, then g has a unique conditions. If A, * - - * A, z B1 *. .- * Bm,then n = m and there is a permuta-
factorization tion a of (1,2, ...,n) such that B,(,, r Ai for all i.
g = a, . .. a,, 11.62. If G' is the commutator subgroup of G = *i,,
(compare Lemma 11.3).
Ai, then GIG' r z,,,(A,/A{)
where adjacent factors lie in distinct A#.
Definition. The infinite dihedral group D, is the group with presentation
Proof. The free product constructed in Theorem 11.51 has as its elements all
reduced words. W
11.63. (i) Prove that D, z Z,* Z,.
Theorem 11.53. Let (A,: i E I ) be a family of groups, and let a presentation of (ii) Prove that the Schur multiplier M(D,) = 1. (Hint. Theorem 11.20.)
A, be (XilAi),where the sets (Xi: i E I] are pairwise disjoint. Then a presenta- Definition. The modular group is PSL(2, Z) = SL(2, Z)/(rt I).
tion of *,, U A,).
I A, is ( U Xi]
11.64. (i) The group G with presentation (a, blaz = b3 = 1)is isomorphic to Z, * Z,.
PzooJ Exercise 11.54 below shows that if F, is the free group with basis Xi, (ii) Prove that PSL(2, Z) r Z, * Z,. (Hint. Exercise 2.17(ii).)
then F = *,, , ,,
Fiis the free group with basis U Xi.Let { j,: A,G %i,,Ai) (iii) Show that the Schur multiplier M'(PSE(2, Z)) = 1. (Bint. Theorem 11.20.)
.
be the imbeddings. If Riis the normal subgroup of Figenerated by the rela- 11.65 (Braer-kevi). Prove that no group G can be decomposed as a free product and
tions A,, and if v,: Fi-+Aiis a surjection with ker v, = R,, then the map as a direct product (i.e., there are not nontrivial groups with A* B = G =
q: F --+ *,,,
A, extending all F, -+A, ct *,,
I A, has kernel the normal sub- C x D). (Hint (P.M. Beurnam). If G = A* B and a E A and b E B are non-
group generated by U , A,. ,, trivial, then CG(ab)z ;2; if G = C x D, choose ab = cd, for c E C# and d E DK,
to show that CG(ab)is a direct product.)
One can give a second proof of the existence of free products by showing
that the group presented by ( U X i / U A,) satisfies the conditions in the
definition. The Kurosh Theorem
Kurosh proved that every subgroup of a free product is itself a free product;
we will now prove this theorem using covering complexes. To appreciate this
11.54. Assume that the sets {Xi: i E I) are pairwise disjoint. If F, is the free group with
geometric proof, the reader should first look at the combinatorial proof in
basis Xi, then *ieIF, is the free group with basis U,.,X,. Kurosh, vol. 2, pp. 17-26.
11.55. If a E A and b E B are nontrivial elements in A * B, then aba-l b-I has infinite
order. Conclude that A * B is an infinite centerless group. Theorem 1K54. Let K be a connected complex hauing connected subcomplexes
392 11. Free Groups and Free Products The ICurosh Theorem
Proof. For each i, choose a maximal tree 17. in K, containing T By Exercise 7T(KH,6 ) = n(E, fi) * * 7E(kij
(is,
U E Gij)
11.31(ii), T* = U, ,
, is a tree in K; it is a maximal tree because it contains
where Gij E pE1(w)n gij.Now n(z, G) is free, because dim(2) = 1. Since f is
every vertex of K.
By Tietze's theorem (Theorem 11.36), n(K,, wi) has a presentation (E,I A,),
where E, is the set of all edges in K iand A, consists of relations of Type (a):
(u, V)= 1 if (u, V)E T ; Type (b): (u, u)(v, x)(u, x)-' = 1 if (u, v, x) is a simplex
-
a maximal tree in k, u Tietze's theorem gives n(Riju fiij) z ~ ( k , ,G,)
for each i and j. By Exercise 11.37, pll?o: kij Ki is a covering complex, and
Theorem 11.36 shows that n(Rij, fiij) is isomorphic (via (P/k,),) to a sub-
group of n(Ki, w). Finally, Theorem 11.37 shows that this subgroup is equal
in K,. There is a similar presentation for n(K, w), namely, (EIA), where E is
to a conjugate of a subgroup of n(K,, w), as desired.
the set of all the edges in K, and A consists of all edges (u, u) in T* together
with all (u, v)(v, x)(u, x)-I 'with {u, u, x) a simplex in K. Theorem 11.53 says
that a presentation for ?r(K,,w,) is ( U Eil U A,). It follows that n(K, w) 2 Corollary 11.56. If G = A,, where each A, is torsion, then every torsion-
n(K,, w,), for E = U,,,
E,, T* = Vie,
7;, and (u, v, x) lies in a simplex fiee subgroup of G is a free group.
of K if and only if it lies in some K,.
ProoJ Every nontrivial subgroup of any A, contains elements of finite
In the next section we will prove that every group G is isomorphic to the order. RJl
fundamental group of some complex. Assuming this result, we now prove the
Kurosh theorem. Corollary 11.57. If G = A,, then every finite subgroup is conjugate to a
subgroup of some Ai. In particular, every element of finite order in G is conju-
Theorem 11.55 (Knrosh, 1934). If H 5 $,,,
A,, then H = F * (*A HA)for gate to an element of finite order in some A,.
some (possibly empty) index set A, where F is a @ee group and each HAis a
conjugate of a subgroup of some A,. ProoJ Every nontrivial free product contains elements of infinite order.
Pro@ Choose connected complexes Riwith n(Ri, w,) g Ai.Defme a new
The last corollary shows how dramatically the Sylow theorems can fail for
complex I( by adjoining a new vertex w to the disjoint union U Vert(K,) ,, infinite groups. If A and B are any two finite p-groups, then each is a Sylow
and new I-simplexes (w, w,) for ail i E I. If T is the tree consisting of these
p-subgroup of A * B; thus, Sylow subgroups need not be isomorphic, let
new simplexes, then Theorem 11.54 gives
alone conjugate.
We only state the following important result of Grushko (1940) (see
Massey for a proof using fundamental groups). If G is a finitely generated
But Tietze7stheorem (Theorem 11.36) gives n(Ki u T, w,) r n(Ki, wi) E A, for group, define p(G) to be the minimal number of generators of G. Grushko's
each i, so that theorem states that if A and B are finitely generated groups, then
n(K, w) r * A,.
ieI
P(A * B) = P(A) + P(B).
11.67. Prove that the modular group has a free subgroup of index 6. (Hint. The kernel commutative diagram
of Z, * Z3 + Z2 x Z3 is torsion-free.) B'A
11.68. Show that the commutator subgroup of the modular group is free.
11.69. Prove that the modular group contains a free subgroup of infinite rank.
11.70. (i) If f : A 4 G and g: B 9 H are homomorphisms, prove that there is a
unique homomorphism q : A * B + G * H with q ( A = f and q l B = g , where G is a group and f and g are homomorphisms. A pushout of this data
Denote cp b y f * g. is a solution (P,j', if)
(ii) Given a group A, show that there is a functor T with T(G)= A * G and, if B.A
'
g: G+H, then T(g) = l,*g: A * G - t A * H .
AnB c----, A Proofi It is easy to see that (P,j', it) is a solution, where P = (B * C)/N,jr(b) =
bN, and if(c)= cN.
Suppose that (G, f, g) is a solution of the data. The definition of free prod-
uct gives a unique homomorphism $: B * C -+ G with $ IB = f and $1 C = g:
if b E B and c E C, then $(bc) = f (b)g(c). For all a E A,
where f and g are (not necessarily injective) functions agreeing on A n B, then
there is a (unique) function q: A u B -,X with qlA = f and qlB = g. We
have been led to the following definition. because fi = gj, and so N Iker $. Therefore, $ induces a homomorphism
9: P = (B * C)/N -,G with qjl(b) = q(bN) = $(b) =f(b) and qif(c)= q(cN) =
Defi~lition.Let A, B, and C be groups, and let i: A 4 B and j: A 4 C be (not $(c) = g(c). The map q is unique because P is generated by (the cosets of)
necessarily injective) homomorphisms. A solution (G, f, g) of the data is a B u C. It is plain that P has the desired presentation. 88
396 11. Free Groups and Free Products The van Kampen Theorem
follows that n(L, n L,, w) zz Z. Now L,, being isomorphic to the full
subcomplex of D(a) with vertices {r, q,, ..., qn-,}, is simply connected. The
inclusion j: M G L, induces an isomorphism n(K, w) -+n(L, ,w). Define a
function $ : Vert (L, ) -+ Vert(K) by $(v) = u for all v E Vert (K) and $(qi) =
qa(pi) for all i. It is easy to check that $ is a simplicial map and that
j$: L, --+ L, is homotopic to the identity. Since rc is a functor, the induced
map $, is the inverse ofj,. The proof is completed by Corollary 11.62, for the
image of the infinite cyclic group n(L, n L,, w) is generated by [a].
\ae A /
where N is the normal subgroup generated by [a].
Let T be the tree in K with vertices {w, ux: x E X}, let ea
be the full sub-
ProoJ Define L, to be the full subcomplex of Ka with vertices Vert(K)v complex with vertices {q:, qy, ...), and let @ be the full subcomplex with
{q,, ...,qn-,}, and define L, to be the full subcomplex with vertices {r, w, vertices {rayq:, q;, . ..). Define L, to be the full subcomplex with vertices
q,, ..., qn-,). Note that L, v L, = Ka and that L, n L, is the 1-complex Vert (B) u (U,, A Vert(P)), and define L, to be full subcomplex with vertices
with vertices {w, q,, .. .,qn-,). Since there is just one reduced circuit, it Vert(T) u (u Vert(&)). Each @ is simply connected, so that (with suitable
11. Free Groups and Free Products Amalgams
basepoints # ) n(L,, w) z n(Va@, #), by Theorem 11.34, and ?r(V @, #) 2 the following sense: if (X, a", p ) is any other solution, then there is a unique
+a n(@, # ) = 1, by Theorem 11.54; thus, n(L,, w) = 1. We now show that
homomorphism 0: X + D with a" = a' 0 and /3" = PO.
the inclusionj: B C+ L, induces an isomorphism n(B, v,) -+ n(L1, v,). Define
a function $: Vert(L,) -+ Vert(B) by $(v) = v for all v E Vert(B) and $(qq) = It is easy to see that if (D, a', p') is a pullback, then D is unique to isomor-
(o,(pq) for all a and i. It is easy to see that II/ is a simplicia1 map and that phism. One often abuses notation and calls the group D the pullback of
j$: L, -,L, is homotopic to the identity. Since n is a functor, the induced diagram (*). Some properties of pullbacks are given in Exercises 11.75 and
map $, is the inverse of j,. Now L, u L, = K and L, n L, = T u ( V a p ) , 11.76 below.
so that n(L, n L,, w) E n(VaQa, # ) . :*a n ( p , # ) is free of rank IAl. Pullbacks have already arisen in the discussion of the projective lifting
By Corollary 11.62, n(K, w) 2 n(L,, w)/N, where N is the image of property in Chapter 7: given a projective representation z: Q -+ PGL(n, C),
n(L, n L,,w). Therefore, n(K, w) r G, for they have the same presentation. then the pullback U of z and the natural map n: GL(n, C) + PGL(n, C) is a
I central extension which allows z to be lifted:
Corollary 11.65. A group G is finitely presented fi and only fi there is a finite 11.73. Prove that every finitely generated abelian group is finitely presented.
connected 2-complex K (i.e., Vert(K) is finite) with G E n(K, w). 11.74. Prove that a group having a presentation with a finite number of relations is
the free product of a finitely presented group and a free group.
Pro05 By Tietze's theorem, n(K, W) is finitely presented. Conversely, if G 11.75. Let A and B be subgroups of a group G, and let a and P be the respective
is finitely presented, then the complex M constructed in the theorem is inclusions. Show that A n B is the pullback.
finite.
11.76. Prove that the pullbaclc of diagram (*) always exists. (Hint. Define B =
There is a construction dual to that of pushout. A sohsim of the diagram ((a, b)JP(b)= a(a)) I A x 3, define a': (a, b) I-+ b, and define j3': (a, b) I-+ a.)
A
I
Amalgams
(*)
B-G P
la Amalgams arise from the special case of the van Kampen theorem in
which the maps ji,: n(L, nL,, w) -+n(Li, W ) induced from the inclusions
is a triple (D, a', p) making the following diagram commute: ji: L , n L, C+ Li (for i = 1,2) are injections. That an inclusion L ct K need
not induce an injection between fundamental groups can be seen when K is
simply connected and L is not. The advantage of this extra hypothesis, as
we shall see, is that a normal form is then available for the elements of the
pushout.
A, over I9 (often called the fiee product with amalgamated subgroup) is the and only x, or y, is allowed to be 1. We now give an algorithm assigning a
pushout of the diagram
- A,
normal form F(w) to each coset wN in the amalgam such that F(w)N = wN.
Let w = x,y,. If y, = 1, then x, = l(x,)b = F(w), where b E B,, and we are
done. If x, = 1, then w = y, = l(y,)b for b E B, and so l(y,)I9-'(b) = F(w) is
a normal form in wN. If x, # 1 and y, # 1, then
DeG~itiann.A normaBf~~rn
is an element of A, .i:A, of the form Therefore, la-' 1 = 1 al-' and each la1 is a permutation of M. If S, is the group
d(a,)E(a,) .. . i(a,) b, of all permutations of M , then a~ la1 is a homomorphism Ai -+ SM for
i = 1,2. In particular, if b E B, 5 A , , Ibl: M -t A4 is defined and (bl = lB(b)l.
where b E B,, n 2 0, the elements l(aj) lie in the chosen transversals of Bij in The defining property of free product allows us to assemble these two
Aij, and adjacent l(aj) lie in distinct A,. homomorphisms into a single homomorphism
In the special case that B, (and hence B,) is trivial, the amalgam is the free
product and every reduced word is a normal form. with q(l(a,)l(a,). ..l(an)b)= ]l(a,)/ 0 Il(a,)l 0 . - -0 ll(a,)( 0 (bl. For all b E B,,
Ibl = /I9(b)/ gives bI9(b-') E ker q, and so q induces a homomorphism
Theorem 11.66 (Normal Form). Let A, and A, be groups, let Bibe a subgroup iD: Al *, A2 = (A1 * A2)/N SM by
of A, for i = 1,2, and let 0: B, -+ B, be an isomorphism. Then for each element
wW E A, *, A,, there is a unique normal form F(w) with wM = F(w)N.
@(wN):1 f-, G(w), and so G(w) = F(w). Therefore, for each element wN of the If L, = (G, uAuF1) IK,, then
amalgam, there is a unique normal form F(w) with wN = F(w)N. !M
Theorem 11.67. Let A, and A, be groups, let B, and B, be isomorphic for there can be no equation in K,, a fortiori in L,, of the form
subgroups of A, and A,, respectively, and let 0: B, -,B, be an isomorphism. .gnu-lanu = 1.
g1~-1alug2u-1a2u..
(i) The (pushout)homomorphisms A,: A, -,A, *, A, are injectionsfor i = 1,2. Similarly, if L, = (G, uBv-l) 2 K,, then
(ii) If A: = /Zi(Ai),then (A;, A',) = A, *, A, and A; n A', = A,(B,) = A2(B2).
Proof. (i) If a, E A, is not 1, then F(a,) # 1 and @(a,N)# 1; but By Exercise 11.70, there is an isomorphism 8: L, -,L, with 0IG the identity
@(aiN)= q/Zi(ai)# 1 implies Li(ai)# 1, and so A, is an injection. and 0(u-'au) = v-I q(a)v.
(ii) It follows from A, *, A, = (A, * A,)/N that (A;, A',) = A, *, A,. If Define H = K, *, K,. By Theorem 11.67, H contains a subgroup isomor-
u E A; n A',, then there are a, E A, with a, N = u = a, N. Now F(a,) = I(a,)b phic to L, (and G 5 L,). For each a E A, u-lau = v-lq(a)v, so that if t E H is
and F(a,) = l(a,)b', so that the uniqueness of the normal form gives defined by t = uv-I, then
l(a,) = l(a,) and b = b'. But l(a,) = l(a,) can occur only when both are 1, lest
t-'at = q(a) for all a E A. ssll
we have equality of the distinct normal forms l(a,)l(a,) and l(a,)l(a,). Hence
bN = a,N = u = a,N = b'N, and u E A,(B,) = A,(B,). For the reverse If G is a countable group, then G is a homomorphic image of a free group
inclusion, it is easy to see that if b E B,, then bN E A; n A',. H F of countable rank: G r FIR. By Theorem 11.48, F can be imbedded in a
free group F* of rank 2. Were R a normal subgroup of F* (it is not!), then
In view of the last theorem, it is customary to regard the elements of
G = FIR would be imbedded in a group F*/R having two generators. This
A, *, A, as normal forms and the maps A, as inclusions. The statement of
proof is fictitious, but the theorem is true.
Theorem 11.67 now simplifies to (A,, A,) = A, *, A, and A, n A, = B, =
B,. This is the point of view taken in the next corollary.
Theorem 11.71 (Higman, Neumann, and Neumann, 1949). Every countable
Corollary 11.68. Let E r A, *, A, have amalgamated subgroup B. If y,, ..., group G can be imbedded in a group H having two generators.
y, E E with yj E Aij, where i, # i,,, ,and if yj # B for all j, then y, ...y, # 1.
Remark. This follows from Exercise 3.28 when G is finite.
Proof. Immediate from the normal form theorem.
Pro05 Let go = 1 and let go, g,, ..., g,, ... be a list of all the elements of G.
Thea~sem11.69 (Torsiioira TheadreM. An element in A, *, A, has finite order if Let H = G + F, where F is free with basis (x, y). Consider the subgroups of
and only fi it is conjugate to an element of finite order in A, or in A,. N:
A = (y, x-I yx, .. . , x-nyxn, ... )
ProoJ This follows easily from the normal form theorem. H
and
We are now going to apply amalgams to prove some imbedding theorems. B = (x, 9, y-'xy, ..., g,y-"xyn, ...).
The following two theorems are due to G. Higrnan, B.H. Neumann, and Now A is free with basis the displayed generators, by Exercise 11.45, and the
Hanna Neumann. map q : A -+ B given by
q:~-"yx"t-,g,y-~xy" forall n > 0
Theorem 11.70 (Hgman, Neumann, and Neumann, 1949). Let G be a group
and let 9:A B be an isomorphism between subgroups A and B of G. Then
-) is easily seen to be an isomorphism. Theorem 11.70 gives a group Hn
there exists a group H containing G and an element t E H with containing H and an element t E H" such that
q(a) = t-I at for all a E A. q(a) = t-I at for all a E A.
We claim that (y, t) I H" contains G, and this will-complete the proof. Now
Proof. Let (u) and (v) be (disjoint) infinite cyclic groups, and define groups x = q(y) = t-'yt E (y, t). Moreover, t-'x-"yxnt = q(x-"yxn) = gny-nxyn,
K,=G*(u) and K,=G*(v). and this shows that g, E (x, y, t) = (y, t) for all n > 1. lBss
406 11. Free Groups and Free Products HNN Extensions
Corollary 111.72. If G is a countable group, then there is a Zgenerator group E HNN Extensions
containing it such that, for all n 2 1, E contains an element oforder n if and
only if G contains an element of order n. There is another construction, closely related to amalgams, that we will use
in the next chapter to prove that there exists a finitely presented group having
Proof. Observe, in the proof of Theorem 11.71, that the Zgenerator group unsolvable word problem.
containing G is obtained in two steps. First, we formed the amalgam H = We adopt the following notation. If a group G has a presentation (XI A),
G *, F, where F is free. By the torsion theorem (Theorem 11.69), the only then
integers n which are orders of elements of finite order in H are those arising
GR = (G: YIA')
from G. The second step uses Theorem 11.70, where the ultimate group is a
subgroup of an amalgam K, *, K,, where each Ki H * Z,and the torsion denotes the group with presentation (X u YI A u A'), where it is understood
theorem applies again. H that X and Y are disjoint. In particular, if Y = 0, then we are merely
adjoining additional relations to G, so that GR is a quotient of G. For
Theorem 11.73 (B.H. Neumann, 1953). There are uncountably many non- example, in the notation of Theorem 11.58, the pushout P has the presenta-
isomorphic finitely generated groups. tion (B * CJi(a)j(a-'), a E A).
11.77 (Schupp). Prove that Corollary 11.68 implies the normal form theorem (Theo- The next theorem shows that HNN extensions appear in Theorem 11.70 of
rem 11.66). Higman, Weumann, and Weumann.
11.78. For every torsion-free group G, there exists a (necessarily simple) group H
containing G which has exactly two conjugacy classes. (Compare Exercise 3.4.) Theorem 8 8.74. The subgroup ( 6 ,t ) 5 K , *, K , in Theorem 11.70 is an NMN
11.79. Prove that there exists a 2-generator group G which contains an isomorphic
extension with base G and stable letter t.
copy of every countable abelian group. (Hint.Exercise 10.31.)
11.80. Prove that there is a Zgenerator group containing an isomorphic copy of BDuooJ Let us recall the notation of Theorem 11.70. Begin with a group G and
every finite group. two subgroups A and B isomorphic via an isomorphism cp: A -+ B. Let K, =
G * (u), K , = G * (v), L, = (G, u-'Au) _< G * (u), L2 = (G, v-'Bv) _<
11.81. Prove that a finitely presented group can be imbedded in a finitely presented G * (v), and 8: L, -+ L2 the isomorphism which carries each g E G into itself
group having two generators.
and which sends u-lau into v-'q(a)v. If a presentation of G is (XIA), then
11.82. Consider the diagram Theorem 11.58(ii) says that a presentation of the amalgam K, *, K, is
Note the resemblance between amalgams and HNN extensions. Both be-
(a x 0, b x 0), (a x 1, b x I), and (a x 0, b x 1). It follows easily that A x I
gin with a pair of isomorphic subgroups; the amalgam is a group in which the
is connected if A is connected.
two subgroups are made equal; the HNN extension is a group in which the For example, the cartesian product 1 x I has Zsimplexes pictured below.
two subgroups are made conjugate. This observation is important in further
study (see Dicks and Dunwoody, Lyndon and Schupp, Serre (1980), and
Stallings).
Here is a geometric context in which HNN extensions arise. Consider a
connected topological space X with homeomorphic disjoint subspaces A and
B, and let cp: A B be a homeomorphism. We are going to "add a handlem
-+
to X. Define a new space Xi2 as the quotient space of the disjoint union
X u (A x I) (where I is the closed unit interval) by identifying each a E A with
(a, 0) and each q(a) with (a, 1). The picture is as shown in Figure 11.8. Remark. If a = (w, a,). ..(a,, w) is a closed path in A, then a x 0 and a x 1
This construction can be carried out for complexes: the role of the closed are closed paths in A x I, where a x i = (w x i,a, x i) ...( a, x i, w x i) for
unit interval I is played by the l-simplex (also denoted by I) having two i E (0, 1). Moreover, if p is the edge (w x 1, w x 0), then
vertices 0 and 1. If we denote the vertices in Vert(A x I) by a x 0 and a x 1,
where a E Vert(A), then A x I is made into a complex by "triangulating" it: if
+
dim(A) = n, then dim(A x 1) = n + 1 and its (n 1)-simplexes are defined to
be all subsets of the form It is now easy to show that the injection j: A -+ A x I, given by a- a x 0,
induces an isomorphism
(a, x O,..., a i x O , a i x 1,..., a , I),
~
j,: n(A, w) 7 n(A x I, w x 0).
where (a,, ...,a,) is an n-simplex in A and 0 < i < n. Notice that if (a, b)
is a l-simplex in A, then A x 1 has edges (a x 0, a x I), (b x 0, b x I), Definition. Let A and B be disjoint subcomplexes of a connected complex
K , and let 9 : A -+ B be an isomorphism. The complex obtained by adding
a handle to I< is
Ki2= (K u (A.x 1[))/9',
Remark. It is this result that suggests the notation G Q A for HNN exten-
sions.
Notice that the definition of HNN extension involves two isomorphic sub-
groups A and B of a group G. In contrast to the geometric situation in
Theorem 11.75, there is no hypothesis that the subgroups be disjoint in any
sense; indeed, A = B is allowed.
We are going to generalize the definition of HNN extension so that it
involves a set of stable letters.
loop,
-
where y(a x 1)y-' is a closed path at w x 0 in B u y . But a x 1 = cp,a (be-
, that cr = a x 0 (yP)-' ycp,ay-'(y/3). Since y@ is a
cause a = cp(a) in K ~ )SO
where t = [yP] is a generator of the infinite cyclic n(yp, w). Finally, the injec-
tion j: a H a x 0 induces a isomorphism If there is only one stable letter p, then we can recapture the original
definition of HNN extension by setting {aj:j E J ) = A (there is now no need
j,: n(A, W)z n(A x I, w x 0). to have the first index i) and bj = cp(aj) for all j.
Thus, n(H, W)2 n(A, W)* (t), and [a] = t-' cp, [a] t, where cp,: n(A, w) -+
n(B u y, w) is induced by the isomorphism cp. Now use the presentation given EXAMPLE 11.10. If E is a group and F is a free group with basis {pi: i E I ) then
in van Kampen's theorem. ! I E * F is ~ ~ H extension
N N of E with stable letters (pi: i E I).
412 11. Free Groups and Free Products HNN Extensions 413
This is the "trivial" example in which all aij and bij are 1; of course, ER = Corollary 11.79. If K is a connected complex with basepoint w and if Kn is
E x (t) r E x Z in this case. obtained from K by adding a handle, then
n(K, w) 5 .n(K", w).
EXAMPLE 11.11. I f E = (X1A)and E" = (E;t/t-'wit = wi, ~ E I )where
, themi
are words on X, the E" is an HNN extension with base E and stable letter t. Here is a sharper version of Theorem 11.71.
In this case, A =B = ( a i , i E I), and the isomorphism p: A -,B is the Corollary 11.80. Every countable group G can be imbedded in a 2-generator
identity. group H = (t, x) in which both t and x have infinite order.
EXAMPLE 11.12. Let E be the free group with basis {w, x), and let E" have the Proof. Let F be a free group with basis (x, y). Enumerate the elements of
presentation ',
G: go = I, g ...,gn, . ..,and define
E" = (w, x, y, zly-lxy = w, y-lw-'xwy = xw-', z-'wxz = w). H = (G * F; tlt-'x-"yxnt = gny-"xyn,n 2 0).
Now E" has a presentation with base E and stable letters {y, z). The various The group H thus has a presentation with base G + F and stable letter t. In
subgroups are: A, = (x, w-'xw); By = (w, xw-I); AZ = (wx); 4 = (w). the proof of Theorem 11.71, we saw that
There is an isomorphism q,,:A, By with x F+ w and w-'xw F+ xw-l,
A = (y, x-' yx, ...,x-"yxn, ...)
-+
because both groups are free with bases the displayed generating sets; there is
also an isomorphism cp,: A, B, with w x w,~because both A, = (wx) and
-+ and
B, = (w) are infinite cyclic. It follows that En is an HNN extension with base B = (x, gly-lxy, ..., g,y-"xyn, ...)
E and stable letters {y, z). are each free with bases the displayed generators; there is thus an isomor-
phism cp: A -+B with cp(x) = y and cp(x-"yxn) = gny-"xyn for all n 2 1.
There are two natural questions about an HNN extension E" of E. Is E Therefore, H is an HNN extension of G * F, so that G G * F < H, and
imbedded in E"? Is there a normal form for the elements of E"? G I(t, x) IH, as in the proof of Theorem 11.71. Finally, x E F < H has
The next lemma shows that an HNN extension with several stable letters infinite order, for F is free, while t has infinite order, by Lemma 11.76.
can be viewed as the end result of a sequence of HNW extensions, each
involving a single stable letter. Notation. Let F be a free group with basis X , let N be a normal subgroup of
F, and let G = FIN. If w and w' are (not necessarily reduced) words on M,
Eernms 1137. If E" is an HNN extension of E with stable letters {p,, . . . ,p,), then we write
then there is a group E7 which is an HNN extension of E with stable letters w = of in G
(pl, ...,pn-,) such that E" is an HNN extension of Eb with stable letter p,,.
if wN = o'M in F/N. We write
PmoJ Define w r w'
E~ = ( E ; p l ,..., pn-llp;laijpi = bij, ~ El
1 5 i s n - 1 , j J). if w and w' have exactly the same spelling.
Theorem 11.78. If E" is an HNN extension with base E and stable letters For example, if X = (a, b, c), w = ac and w' = abb-'c, then w = ofin G
( p i , . ..,pn), then E can be imbedded in E". In particular, i f A and B are (even in F), but w f w'.
isomorphic subgroups of a group E and if p: A -+ B is an isomorphism, then In this new notation, if w is a word on X = {x,, ...,x,), then a word p is
E 5 E a, A. a subwovd of w if there are possibly empty words a and y with w = spy. A
word w involves xi if either xi or x i ' is a subword of w.
Proof. We prove the theorem by induction on the number n of stable letters. Definition. Let ER be an HNN extension with base E = (XIA) and stable
If n = 1, the result follows from Theorem 11.74. For the inductive step, the letters (pi: i E I). A pinch is a word of the form
lemma gives E" an HNN extension with base E b and stable letter p,. The
inductive hypothesis gives E < Eb, and the step n = 1 gives Eb < E". ld
414 11. Free Groups and Free Products HNN Extensions 415
if el < 0,interchange the symbols u and v in the last expression; continue this Proof. Since ap-' = 1 in E,' Britton's lemma says that the word a/?-'
rewriting process if ei+,,...,ekhave the same sign and e,,, has opposite sign, contains a pinch as a subword. As each of a and P (hence P-') are pi-reduced,
until all of o has been reassociated according to this scheme. Note that there the pinch must occur at the interface; that is, the subword pPym',sn-'p;fn is a
are conjugates v-'giv or u-'g,u wherever exponents change sign, and that pinch. It follows that the exponents emand -fn have opposite sign, and so
adjacent factors (in the new association) lie in distinct K,. Since o = 1 in the
amalgam, by hypothesis, Corollary 11.68 says that at least one of the factors em = f,.
The proof is completed by induction on maxim, n). In the pinch
must lie in the amalgamated subgroup H. Now the factors uv",vv",giu, giv, pfmymd;lP;fn, Britton's lemma says that
+
where E = 1, do not lie in H = (E, uW1Au)= (E, BV),because the sum
of the exponents of u or of v in any such word is not 0. Therefore, one of the
conjugates v-'giv or u-'giu lies in H. A conjugate v-'giv arises from an
416 11. Free Groups and Free Products HNN Extensions 417
where aGE A,, bGE B,, and h, = 1. If em= - 1, pn suffice to prove all $(ai) = 1. For notational convenience, let us denote
these by p2, . . p,.
- 9
Lemma 11.84. If a group G has a presentation 11.83. Let a E G have infinite order. Show that there is a group H containing G in
which ( a ) and (a2) are conjugate. Conclude that a conjugate of a subgroup S
(XI,. . - , x ~ I P I~, 2..-,
, Pn, .-.) may be a proper subgroup of S.
as well as a finite presentation 11.84 (Schupp). Use the normal form theorem for HNN extensions to prove the
normal form theorem for amalgams.
then all but a finite number of the relations pn = 1 in the first presentation are
superfluous.
Proof. Let G, be the group defined by the first presentation, let G, be the
group defined by the second presentation, and let cp: G, -+ G2 be an isomor-
phism with inverse $. Since +(ai) = 1 in G, for each i, it is a word on (finitely
many) conjugates of pn's; as there are only finitely many a,, only finitely many
Introduction 419
CHAPTER 12 words of length 1 in the order x, ,x;', ..., x,, xi1, then the words of length 2
in "lexicographic" order (as in a dictionary): x,x, < x,x;' < x,x, < ..-<
The Word Problem xy1xl < xf1xy1 < ... c x i l x i l , then the words of length 3 in lexicographic
order, and so forth. Use this ordering of words: o,, u,, o,, . .. to define the
list 9 whose kth question asks whether o,= 1 in G.
We illustrate by sketching a proof that a free group
problem. (Hint. Use the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian Definitionm. A quadruple is a Qtuple of one of the following three types:
groups.)
12.3. Sketch proofs that if each of G and H have a solvable word problem, then the
same is true of their free product G * H and their direct product G x H. qisjRq~,
12.4. Sketch a proof that if G = (x,, ..., x,lrj = 1,j 2 1) has a solvable word problem qisjLq,.
and if H is a finitely generated subgroup of G, then H has a solvable word
problem. (Hint. If H = (h,, ..., h,), write each hi as a word in the x.) A Turing machine T is a finite set of quadruples no two of which have the
same first two letters. The alphabet of T is the set (so, s,, . . .,s,) of all
s-letters occurring in its quadruples.
Turing Machines The three types of quadruples correspond to the three types of moves in
the informal description given above. For example, qisjRq, may be inter-
Call a subset E of a (countable) set Q "enumerable" if there is a computer that preted as being the instruction: "When in state qi and scanning symbol sj,
can recognize every element of E and no others. Of course, the nature of such move right one square and enter state q,." The "initial structure" of the
a well-behaved subset E should not depend on any accidental physical con- Turing machine is the set of all such instructions.
straints affecting a real computer; for example, it should not depend on the Recall that a word is positive if it is empty or if it has only positive
number of memory cells being less than the total number of atoms in the exponents. If an alphabet A is a disjoint union S u T, where S = IS,: i E I),
universe. We thus define an idealized computer, called a Turing machine, after then an s-word is a word on S.
its inventor A. Turing (1912-1954), which abstracts the essential features of a
real computer and which enumerates only those subsets E that, intuitively, Definition. An instantaneous description a is a positive word of the form a =
"ought" to be enumerable. aqiz, where a and z are s-words and z is not empty.
Informally, a Turing machine can be pictured as a box with a tape running
through it. The tape consists of a series of squares, which is as long to the left For example, the instantaneous description a = s2soq,s,s,s2 is to be inter-
and to the right as desired. The box is capable of printing a finite number of preted: the symbols on the tape are s2s,s5s2s,, with blanks everywhere else,
symbols, say, so, s,, ...,s,, and of being in any one of a finite number of and the machine is in state q , scanning s, .
states, say, q,, q , , ...,q,. At any fixed moment, the box is in some state qi as
it "scans" a particular square of the tape that bears a single symbol sj (we Defimifi0~1.Let T be a Turing machine. An ordered pair (a, P) of instanta-
agree that so means blank). The next move of the machine is determined by neous descriptions is a basic moue of T, denoted by
q, and sj and its initial structure: it goes into some state q, after obeying one CI p,
of the following instructions:
if there are (possibly empty) positive s-words a and a' such that one of the
1. Replace the symbol sj by the symbol sk and scan the same square. following conditions hold:
2. Move one square to the right and scan this square.
3. Move one square to the left and scan this square. (i) a = aqisjol and p = oq,skal,where qisjskq,E T;
The machine is now ready for its next move. The machine is started in the (ii) a = aqisjskafand /? = asjqzskd,where qisjRqlE T;
first place by being given a tape, which may have some nonblank symbols (iii) a = aqisj and /? = asjqrs0,where qisjRq, E T;
printed on it, one to a square, and by being set to scan some one square while
in "starting state" q,. The machine may eventually stop (we agree that qo (iv) a = askqisjaland /? = aq,s,sjd, where qisjLq, E T; and
means "stop"; that is, the machine stops when it enters state q,) or it may (v) a = qisjafand /? = q,s0s,a1,where qisjLq, E T.
continue working indefinitely.
Here are the formal definitions; after each definition, we shall give an infor- If a describes the tape at a given time, the state qi of T, and the symbol sj
mal interpretation. Choose, once and for all, two infinite lists of letters: being scanned, then P describes the tape, the next state of T, and the symbol
being scanned after the machine's next move. The proviso in the definition
s0,s1,s2,... and qo,q,,q2,.... of a Turing machine that no two quadruples have the same first two symbols
422 12. The Word Problem Turing Machines 423
means that there is never ambiguity about a machine's next move: if a -+ P a given word o lies in E: just feed o into each machine and let T and T' run
and a -+ y, then /?= y. simultaneously.
Some further explanation is needed to interpret basic moves of types (iii) Recall the informal discussion in the introduction. If 2 is a list of ques-
and (v). Tapes are finite, but when the machine comes to an end of the tape, tions, then a decision process for 2 is a uniform set of directions which, when
the tape is lengthened by adjoining a blank square. Since so means blank, applied to any of the questions in 9, gives the correct answer "yes" or "no"
these two rules thus correspond to the case when T is scanning either the last after a finite number of steps, never at any stage of the process leaving the
symbol on the tape or the first symbol. user in doubt as to what to do next. It is no loss of generality to assume
that the list 2 has been encoded as positive words on an alphabet, that E
Definition. An instantaneous description a is terminal if there is no instanta- consists of all words for which the answer is "yes," and that its complement
neous description P with a P. If o is a positive word on the alphabet of T,
-+ consists of all words for which the answer is "no." We propose that recursive
then T computes o if there is a finite sequence of instantaneous descriptions sets are precisely those subsets admitting a decision process. Of course, this
a, = q,o, a,, . .., a,, where ai -+ a,,,, for all i I t - 1, and a, is terminal. proposition (called Church's thesis) can never be proved, for it is a question
of translating an intuitive notion into precise terms. There have been other
Informally, o is printed on the tape and T is in starting state q, while attempts to formalize the notion of decision process (e.g., using a Turing-like
scanning the first square. The running of T is a possibly infinite sequence of machine that can read a two-dimensional tape; or, avoiding Turing machines
instantaneous descriptions q, co -,a, + a, -+ - . . This sequence stops if T altogether and beginning with a notion of computable function). So far, every
computes o ; otherwise, T runs forever. alternative definition of "decision process" which recognizes all recursive sets
has been proved to recognize only these sets.
Definition. Let S2 be the set of all positive words on symbols S = (s,, ...,s,).
If T is a Turing machine whose alphabet contains S, define Theorem 12.1. There exists an r.e. subset of the natural numbers N that is not
recursive.
e(T) = ( o E Ck T computes o ) ,
and say that T enumerates e(T). A subset E of S2 is r.e. (recursively Proof. There are only countably many Turing machines, for a Turing
enumerable) if there is some Turing machine T that enumerates E. machine is a finite set of quadruples based on the countable set of letters
(R,L, so, s, , . ..;q,, q, ,...). Assign natural numbers to these letters in the
The notion of an r.e. subset of Q can be specialized to subsets of the natural following way:
numbers N = (n E Z:n 2 0) by identifying each n E N with the positive word
s;". Thus, a subset E of N is an roe.subset sf N if there is a Turing machine
T with s, in its alphabet such that E = {n E N: T computes s;+l).
Every Turing machine T defines an r.e. subset E = e ( T ) c R, the set of all
positive words on its alphabet. Wow can we tell whether o E R lies in E? Feed If T is a Turing machine having rn quadruples, juxtapose them in some order
q, o into T and wait; that is, perform the basic moves q, o -+ a, a, -+ .- .
-+
to form a word w(T) of length 4m; note that T # T' implies w(T) # w(Tf).
If o E E, then T computes o and so T will eventually stop. However, for a Define the Godel number
given o , there is no way of knowing, a priori, whether T will stop. Certainly
this is unsatisfactory for an impatient person, but, more important, it
suggests a new idea. where pi is the ith prime and ei is the natural number assigned above to the
ith letter in w(T). The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic implies that
Definition. Let Cl be the set of all positive words on (so, s,, .. ., s,). A subset distinct Turing machines have distinct Godel numbers. All Turing machines
E of i2 is recursive if both E and its complement SZ - E are r.e. subsets. can now be enumerated: To, TI, . .., T,, . ..:let T precede T' if G(T) < G ( T f ) .
Define
If E is recursive, there is never an "infinite wait" to decide whether or not E = {n E N: T, computes s:+']
a positive word o lies in E. If T is a Turing machine with e(T) = E and if T' . . --
is a Turing machine with e(T1)= Q - E, then, for each o E Q, either T or T' (thus, n E E if and only if the nth Turing machine computes n).
computes o. Thus, it can be decided in a finite length of time whether or not We claim that E is an r.e. set. Consider the following figure reminiscent of
The Markov-Post Theorem 425
424 12. The Word Problem
words of length 2 in lexicographic order, then the words of length 3 in lexico- qisj = qlsk if qisjskq,E T,
graphic order, and so forth. Similarly, list all the words on {r,, . .., r,): p,, forallj? =0, 1, ..., M :
p,, .. . . As in the proof of Theorem 12.1, following the arrows in the figure
below enumerates E.
The first five types of relations are just the obvious ones suggested by the
It follows that a finitely presented group G has solvable word problem if basic moves of T; the new letter h enables one to distinguish basic move (ii)
and only if ( o E a: w # 1 in G ) is r.e. (in the definition of a Turing machine) from basic move (iii)and to distinguish
Recall the following notation introduced in Chapter 11. If o and of are basic move (iv) from basic move (v). One may thus interpret h as marking the
(not necessarily reduced) words on an alphabet X, then we write ends of the tape, so that the following words are of interest.
Definition. A word is h-special if it has the form hah, where a is an instanta-
neous description.
if o and o' have exactly the same spelling.
Suppose that a semigroup has a presentation Since T has stopping state q,, each hah (with a terminal) has the form
hcq,rh, where a and r are s-words and i is not empty. Therefore, the last
T = (Xlaj = pj, j E J). three relations allow us to write hah = q in T(T) whenever a is terminal.
If w and o' are positive words on X, then it is easy to see that o = w' in r if Lemma 12.3. Let T be a Turing machine with stopping state qo and associated
and only if there is a finite sequence semigroup
T ( T )= (4, h, so, sly -.. , SMY 40, 41, . - ., 4xlR(T)).
(i) Let o and o' be words on (so, s,, ..., s,, a,, q,, .. ., q N ) with o f q and
cot f q. If o -+ a' is an elementary operation, then o is h-special if and only
where wi -+ mi+, is an elementary operation; that is, either oiEE cajr and
mi+, = aDjr for some j, where c and r are positive words on X or wi+, = .Bji
and mi = eaji.
Let us now associate a semigroup to a Turing machine T having stopping
state q,. For notational convenience, assume that the s-letters and q-letters
if ofis h-special.
-
(ii) If o = hah is h-special, o' f q, and o -+ ofis an elementary operation of
one of the first five types, then o' hph, where either a -,P or j? -,a is a
basic move of T.
involved in the quadruples of T are so, s,, . .., s,, and q,, q,, ...,q,. Let q Proof. (i) This is true because the only relation that creates or destroys h is
and h be new letters. hq,h = q.
(ii) By the first part, we know that oris h-special, say, o' = hph. Now an
Definition. If T is a Turing machine having stopping state q,, then its asso- elementary move in a semigroup is a substitution using an equation in a
ciated semigroup T(T) has the presentation: defining relation; such a relation in T(T) of one of the first five types corre-
sponds to a quadruple of T, and a quadruple corresponds to a basic move.
Thus, either a -+j? or p -,a. 8le
where the relations R(T) are Lemma f 2.4.-Let T be a Turing machine with stopping state q,, let be the set
428 12. The Word Problem The Markov-Post Theorem
of all positive words on the alphabet of T, and let E = e(T). If o E Q, then define
oEE if and only if hq,oh =q in T(T).
Define q:Q Ti by w I+ hq,wh, and identify Q with its image $2, c a; the
-+
Proof. If o E E, then there are instantaneous descriptions a, = q,w, a,, .. ., subset E of Q is now identified with
a,, where a, -+ai+,, and a, involves q,. Using the elementary operations in
T(T) of the first five types, one sees that hq, o h = ha,h in F(T); using the last El = (hq,wh: o E E).
three relations, one sees that ha,h = q in T ( T ) . It is plain that El is a recursive subset of R, if and only if E is a recursive
The proof of sufficiency is of a different nature than the proof of necessity subset of Q. In this notation, Lemma 12.4 reads:
just given, for equality in T(T) is, of course, a symmetric relation, whereas
a -+ /? a basic move does not imply that /? -+ a is a basic move.
If hq,oh = q in T(T), then there are words w,, ..., co, on (h, so, s,, ..., s,, Now assume that T is the Turing machine T* (with stopping state q,) of
qO,ql, . ..,qN) and elementary operations Theorem 12.1, so that E, hence El, is r.e. but not recursive. Were E recursive,
then Exercise 12.9 would give El, hence E, recursive, and this is a contradic-
tion. Therefore, y = T(T*) has an unsolvable word problem.
By Lemma 12.3(i), each mi is h-special: o, = haih for some instantaneous (ii) Define
description a,. By Lemma 12.3(ii),either a, -+ a,,, or ai+, 4 a,. We prove, by
induction on t > 2, that all the arrows go to the right; that is, for all i It - 1,
S = {h-special words hah: hah = q in T(T*)).
a, -+ a,,, . It will then follow that q, o + a, -+ . .- -+ a, is a sequence of basic Were S a recursive subset of a,then 3 n Q, would be a recursive subset of Q,,
moves with a, terminal (for a, involves q,, the stopping state); hence T by Exercise 12.9. But n $2,= El. 81
computes o and w E E. It is always true that a,-, -+ a,, for a, is terminal and
hence a,-, t a, cannot occur. In particular, this shows that the induction For later use, we rewrite the generators and relations of the Markov-Post
begins when t = 2. Suppose that t > 2 and some arrow goes to the left. Since semigroup y (T*).
the last arrow a,-, -+ a, points right, moving backward until one reaches an
arrow pointing left gives an index i with Corollary 12.6.
(i) There is a finitely presented semigroup
-
But there is never ambiguity about the next move of a Turing machine, so
that a,-, = ai+, and oi-, = hai.-,h r ha,,, h wi+,. We may thus eliminate
mi and oi+,, thereby reducing rn, and the proof is completed by induction.
la
with an unsolvable word problem, where 6 , G,, Hi,
positive s-words and qil, qi, E (q, qO,. .., qNj.
Xi are (possibly empty)
(ii) There is no decision process which determines, for arbitrary qij and positive
s-words X and Y,whether XqijY = q in r.
Theorem 12.5 (Markov-Post, 1947).
(i) There is a finitely presented semigroup Proof. (i) Regard the generator h of the semigroup y = T(T*) as the last
s-letter and re-index these s-letters so that h = s,. The rewritten relations in
R(T*) now have the described form.
(ii) Let Q, be the set of all positive words on the rewritten generators of T,
with an unsolvable word problem.
let
(ii) There is no decision process which determines, for an arbitrary h-special
word hah, whether hah = q in y. = {XqijY: X, Y are positive words on rewritten
s-letters and Xq,, Y = q in r ) ,
Proof. (i) If T is a Turing machine with stopping state q, and with alphabet and let
A = {so,s,, . ..,s,), then let Q be all the positive words on A and let E =
e(T) c Q. Define Q to be all the positive words on A u {q, h, q,, q,, ...,qN}, S, = {s,as,: a = oqr, where o and r are positive
where q,, q,, ..., q, are the q-letters occurring in the quadruples of T, and words on so, ...,sM-, and sMas, = q in r}
12. The Word Problem The Novikov-Boone-Britton Theorem: Sufficiency of Boone's Lemma
s2
(remember that h has been rewritten as s,). Of course, is just the subset generators: q, q,, . . .,q,, so, . ..,s,, ri, i E I, X,t, k;
of the theorem rewritten in the new notation. Now A n Q2 = S2;since 3, is relations: for all i E I and all p = 0, . . ., M ,
not recursive. Exercise 12.9 shows that is not recursive. H
xsp = spx2,
1 1
risp = spxrix,
r1-1 &# qilGiri= iYTqi2Ki, A2
The word problem for groups was first considered by M. Dehn (1910) and by kri = rik,
A. Thue (1914). The solution was given by P.S. Novikov (1955) and, indepen-- kx = xk,
dently, by W.W. Boone (1954-1957) and by J.L. Britton (1958). In 1959,
Boone exhibited a much-simpler finitely presented group than any of those k(q-l tq) = (q-ltq)k.
previously given, and he proved it has an unsolvable word problem. In con- The subsets 8, c A, c A, of the relations are labeled for future reference.
trast to the "combinatorial" proofs of Novikov and Boone, Britton's proof
relies on properties of KNN extensions (which led him to discover Britton's If X and Y are s-words, define
lemma). In 1963, Britton gave a much simpler and shorter proof
group; we present his proof here, incorporating later impro (XqjY)* = X#qj Y;
Boone, D.J. Collins, and C.F. Miller, 111. We assure the reader where qj E {qy40, .- - q ~ ) .
Mathematical Logic required in the proof has already appeared; we need
only Corollary 12.6, a paraphrase of the Markov-Post theorem, that exhibits Definition. A word C is special if I: = X#qjY, where X and Y are positive
a particular finitely presented semigroup r with an unsolvable word s-words and qj E (q, qO,.. ., q,).
problem.
Remember that the proof is going to reduce equality of words in a group
to equality of words in a semigroup. It is thus essential to keep track of
exponents, for while arbitrary words make sense in a group, only positive
- -
If C is special, then E r X # q j x where X and Y are positive s-words, and
so Z* (X#qjY)* XqjY is a positive word; therefore, C* determines an
element of the semigroup T.
The reduction to the klarkov-Post theorem is accompllished by the fol-
words make sense in a semigroup.
lowing lemma:
-
Notation. If X zz sj: ...si; is a (not necessarily positive) s-word, then X" r
silel. . .si'm. Note that if X and Y are s-words, then (X")" X and (XY)'
X#Y#.
- Lemma 12.7 (BOOB+.Let T be a Turing machine with stopping state qo and
associated semigroup lr = T(T) (rewritten as in Corollary 12.6). If E is a
special word, then
k(C-l tC) = (E-I t C)k in B = B(T)
Recall, for every Turing machine T, that there is a semigroup l? = T(T)
with the presentation if and only fi C* = q in T(T).
Corollary 12.9. Let T be a Turing machine with stopping state q, enumerating Since wv = ov+, in r implies o,*= o*,, in B, by the relations labeled A,, it
a subset E of 0 (the set of all positive words on the alphabet of T). If o E: Q, follows, for each v, that
then o E E if and only if k(hw1q, oh) = (h-I q, oh)k in B(T).
a,* = Lvo;+,Rv i n g
Proof. By Lemma 12.4, co E E if and only if hq, o h = q in T(T). But, in B(T), for words L, and R, on some rivand x. The words L = L, ...L,-, and R =
R,-, ...R, are thus words on {x, ri, i E I), and
-
(hq,oh)* = h-lq,wh (which is a special word), and Boone's lemma shows
that (h-lql oh)# = hq, o h = q in T(T) if and only if k(h-I q, wh) = (h-lq1 wh)k oT = Lw:R in B.
in B(T). But oT = (C*)*= Z: and o,T zz q* q, so that
The proof below is valid for any Turing machine T with stopping state q,, C = LqR in@.
We abbreviate B(T) to B and T(T) to T. Since the generators t and k commute with x and all the ri, they commute
The proof of Boone's lemma in one direction is straightforward. with L and R. Therefore,
kz-1 tCk-lz-l t -1 c = k ~ - l q - lL-, t ~ q ~ kR-,
- l q-l L-I t-' L ~ R
Lemma 12.10.
= k ~ - l ~ - l t ~ k - l ~ -q~
lt-f
(i) If V is a positive s-word, then
= R-l(kq-l tqk-lq-'t-lq)R
ri V = VR . in B and rL:' V = VR' in 99,
where R and R' are words on (r,, x] with R positive. because the last word is a conjugate of a relation. W
(ii) If U is a positive s-word, then
U#r,' = LU* in B and U#ri = LfU# in B, Observe that the last relation of the group 93 appears only in the last step
of the proof.
where L and L' are words on (ri, x).
-
Pro05 We prove that riV = VR in @ by induction on m > 0, where V =
spl...sp,. This is certainly true when m = 0.If rn > 0, write V = V'sam;by
induction, riV ri Vspm= VfR'ssm,where R' is a positive word on (ri, x).
Using the relations xss = ssx2 and riss = ssxrix, we see that there is a posi-
tive word R on (ri, x) with R = RfsDm in a.
Cancellation Diagrams
We interupt the proof of Boone's lemma (and the Novikov-Boone-Britton
theorem) to discuss a geometric method of studying presentations of groups,
The proofs of the other three equations are similar. B essentially due to R. Lyndon, that uses diagrams in the plane. Sinc-,,we are
only going to use diagrams in a descriptive way (and not as steps in a proof),
Proof of Safficieacy in Boone9s Lemma. If 2 is a special word with C* = we may write informally. For a more serious account, we refer the reader to
Xqj Y = q in r, then there is a sequence of elementary operations Lyndon and Schupp (1977, Chap. V) with the caveat that our terminology
does not always coincide with theirs.
When we speak of a polygon in the plane, we mean the usual geometric
where, for each v, one of the words w, and w,+, has the form UFiqilGiV with figure including its interior; of course, its boundary (or perimeter) consists of
U and V positive s-words, and the other has the form UHiqi,KiK By the finitely many edges and vertices. A directed polygon is a polygon each of
lemma, there are equations in B: whose (boundary) edges is given a direction, indicated by an arrow. Finally,
given a presentation (XI A) of a group, a labeled divectedpolygonis a directed
polygon each of whose (directed)edges is labeled by a generator in X.
Given a presentation (XlA) of a group, we are going to construct a labeled
directed polygon for (almost) every word
where L' and R' are words on {r,, x). In a similar manner, one sees that there o = xgl ...x?,
are words L" and R on {ri, x) with
where x,, ..:, x, are (not necessarily distinct) generators and each ei = + 1.
For technical reasons mentioned below, o is restricted a bit.
434 12. The Word Problem Cancellation Diagrams 435
Definition. Let F be a free group with basis X. A word w E x;l.. .x,". on X presentation is cyclically reduced, for every word has some cyclically reduced
with each ei = +_ 1 is called fieely redtrsced if it contains no subwords of the- conjugate, and one may harmlessly replace a relation by any of its conju-
form xx-' or x-'x with x E X. gates. Every cyclically reduced relation thus yields a labeled directed polygon
A cyclic gerantpfation of w = X I I . . . x? is a word of the form called its relator polygon.
x? ...x,".x;t. .. xri-j.1 (by Exercise 3.8, a cyclic permutation of w is a conjugate We can now draw a picture of a presentation (XIA) of a group G (with
of it). A word w is cyclic~l> reduced if every cyclic permutation of it is freely cyclically reduced relations A) by listing the generators X and by displaying
reduced. a relator polygon of each relation in A. These polygons are easier to grasp
(especially when viewing several of them simultaneously) if distinct genera-
If w E x;' . ..x,". is cycli~allyreduced, construct a labeled directed polygon tors are given distinct colors. The presentation of the group B in Boone's
as follows: draw an n-gon in the plane; choose an edge and label it x,; label lemma is pictured in Plate 1 (inside front cover). There are six types of genera-
successive edges x,, x,, ...,x, as one proceeds counterclockwise around the tors: q; s; r; x ; t ; k, and each has been given a different color.
boundary; direct the ith edge with an arrow according to the sign of ei (we There is a presentation of a group called B, which is pictured in Plate 3.
agree that the positive direction is counterclockwise). For example, if k and x This group will occur in our proof of the Higman imbedding theorem.
commute, then the labeled directed polygon is the square in Figure 12.1. Another example is provided by an HNN extension: a relation involving a
stable letter p has the form apebp-"c, where e = f1. If the corresponding
relator polygon is drawn so that the p-edges are parallel, then they point in
the same direction.
Let D be a labeled directed polygon. Starting at some edge on the bound-
ary of D, we obtain a word w as we read the edge labels (and the edge
directions) while making a complete (counterclockwise) tour of D's boundary.
Such a word o is called a boundary word of D. (Another choice of starting
edge gives another boundary word of D, but it is just a cyclic permutation,
hence a conjugate, of w. A clockwise tour of D's boundary gives a conjugate
of o-'.)
Figure 12.1 Definition. A diagram is a labeled directed polygon whose interior may be
subdivided into finitely many labeled directed polygons, called regions; we
insist that any pair of edges which intersect do so in a vertex.
We quote the fundamental theorem in this context; a proof can be found
in Lyndon and Schupp.
Fundamental Theorem of Coanbinatoriall Group Theory. Let G have a finite
presentation (XI&),where A satisfies the following conditions:
(i) each 6 E A is cyclically reduced;
(ii) i f 6 E A, then 6-I E A;
(iii) i f 6 E A, then every cyclic permutation of 6 lies in A.
Figure 12.2
If w is a cyclically reduced word on X, then w = 1 in G if and only i f there is
a diagram having a boundary word o and whose regions are relator polygons of
As a second example, consider the last relation in Boone's group B: o = relations in A.
kq-' tqk-l q-' t-' q. The labeled directed polygon for w is the octagon whose
first edge is the top k-edge in Figure 12.2. If o is not cyclically reduced, this An immediate consequence of this theorem is a conjugacy criterion. As-
construction gives a polygon having two adjacent edges with the same label sume that w and w' are cyclically reduced words-on X, and consider the
and which point in opposite directions, and such polygons complicate proofs. annulus with outer boundary word w' and inner boundary word o, as in
However, there is no loss in generality in assuming that every relation in a Figure 12.3.
12. The Word Problem Cancellation Diagrams
Figure 12.3
Corollary. The elements o and ofare conjugate in G if and only if the interior
of the annulus can be subdivided into relator polygons.
The proof consists in finding a path ,ti' from o' to w and cutting along
/3 to form a diagram as in Figure 12.4. A boundary word of the new diagram
is w'/30-1,ti'-', and the fundamental theorem says that this word is 1 in G.
Conversely, if o'/3o-'/3-' = 1 in G, one may form an annulus by identifying
the edges labeled /3; that is, start with the diagram on the above right and
glue the p's together to obtain the annulus on the left.
Figure 12.5
Figure 12.5 pictures all of these equarioms; we have not drawn the subdivisions
of each interior polygon into relator polygons, and we have taken the liberty
of labeling segments comprised of many s-edges by a single label P: %, &/,, or
uv -
The reader should now look at Plate 2; it is a diagram having wiC) as a
boundary word. In the center is the octagon corresponding to the octagonal
relation w(q) = kq-' tqk-lq-' t-' q, and there are four (almost identical) quad-
Figure 12.4 rants as drawn above, involving either C or C-' on the outer boundary and
q or q-' on the octagon (actually, adjacent quadrants are mirror images). The
commutativity of k with x and each ri allows one to insert sequences of
An example will reveal how these diagrams can illustrate the various steps squares connecting k-edges on the outer boundary to k-edges on the octagon;
taken in rewriting a word using the relations of a given presentation. The similarly, the commutativity of t with x and each ri inserts sequences
proof of sufficiency of Boone's lemma requires one to prove, for a special connecting t-edges on the outer boundary with t-edges on th!: octagon. Since
word C, that the quadrants have already been subdivided into relator polygons, the four
quadrants together with the four border sequences, form a diagram. There-
w(C)r kZ-'tCk-'Z-'t-'Z= 1 inB. fore, w(Z) = 1 in B, as asserted by the fundamental theorem.
438 12. The Word Problem The Novikov-Boone-Britton Theorem: Necessity of Boone's Lemma 439
Define BAto be the group having the same presentation as B except that (i) B, is an HNN extension with base Bo and stable letters {so,. . .,s,);
the octagonal relation is missing. Now regard Plate 2 as an annulus having (ii') B, * Q is an HNN extension with base Boand stable letters {so,...,s,) v
the octagonal relation as the inner boundary word. This annulus has just (4, 40,- 9 qN);
been subdivided into relator polygons, and so the corollary of the fundamen- (ii) B, * Q is an HNN extension with base B, and stable letters {q,qo, ...,q,);
tal theorem says that w(Z) is conjugate to w(q) in BA.This last result is a (iii) B2is an HNN extension with base B, * Q and stable letters (ri: i E I);
reflection of the fact that the octagonal relation enters the given proof of the (iv) B3is an HNN extension with base B, and stable letter t; and
sufficiencyof Boone's lemma at the last step. (v) B is an HNN extension with base B3 and stable letter k.
each group is an HNN extension of its predecessor; moreover, B, * Q is an Since t commutes with the displayed relations, B3 is an HNN extension of
HNN extension of go.In more detail: B2, as in Example 11.11.
440 12. The Word Problem The Novikov-Boone-Britton Theorem: Necessity of Boone's Lemma 441
(v) Note that 8 has base a, and stable letter k: If the initial te in the pinch is tej, where j 2 1, then teDt-" r tejqRjq-'tej+l
with qRjq-l = R in B, for some word R on {x, ri, i E I ) . Since B2 I a , , by
Theorem 11.78, we may view this as an equation in 8,:
As in Example 11.1l , B is an HNN extension of 8 , . @
!
t e j q ~ j q -tej+l
l = teqRjq-lt-e = teRt-O in 8,.
Corollary 12.112. But the stable letter t in 9, commutes with x and all ri, so there is an
(i) The subgroup (s, x, ...,S , ~ XI
) 8, is a free group with basis the displayed equation
letters. qRjq-I = R i n 8 , .
(ii) There is an automorphism $ of 8,with $(x) = x-' and $(s,) = sofor all P. Hence, in 8 , ,
Proof. (i) This was proved in part (iii) of the above lemma. (q-l tejq)~j(q-l
tej+lq) = q-l teRtFeq
(ii) The function on the generators sending x r x-' and spHsp for all P = q-' Rq (for t commutes with x, ri)
preserves all the relations.
The reader should view Lemma 12.11 as preparation for the remainder of
the proof; it will allow us to analyze words using Britton's lemma, Theorem
11.81. There is thus a factorization of o in B3having smaller length, contradicting
the choice of n being minimal. Therefore, this case cannot occur.
Lemma 12-13. Let C be a fixed special word satisfying the hypothesis of
Bonne's lemma:
w ( C ) s kC-ltCk-'C-l~-lC = 1 i n 8 .
Then there are freely reduced words L, and L, on {x, ri, i E I ) such that
L,EL2 = q in @.,
where the Rj are (possibly empty) freely reduced words on {x, ri, i E I ) and
Figure 12.6
+
ej = 1. We assume co is such a word chosen with n minimal.
Since 8, is an HNN extension with base 8, and stable letter t, Britton's
lemma applies again, showing that w contains a pinch teDt-', and there is a
Geometrically, we have shown that the labeled directed annulus with outer
word R on (x, ri, i E I ) with D = R in 8,.
boundary word w(C) and inner boundary word the octagon w(q) contains a
If the pinch involves the first occurrence of the letter t in o , then teDt-" =
"quadrant" involving C on the outer boundary, q on the inner boundary, and
+
tCRoq-Ite1.Hence e = 1, el = - 1, tZRoq-Ite1= tRt-" and
internal paths L, and L, which are words on {x, ri, i E I ) . Of course, there are
two such quadrants as well as two "mirror images" of these quadrants which
equivalently, involve Z-I on the outer boundary and q-' on the inner boundary. More-
R-'XR0 = q in 8 , , over, the regions subdividing these quadrants are relator polygons corre-
sponding t o the relations A3; that is, they do not involve k-edges or t-edges.
which is of the desired form.
442 12. The Word Problem The Novikov-Boone-Britton Theorem: Necessity of Boone's Lemma
k-edges (and t-edges) on the outer boundary with k-edges (and t-edges) on the
-
inner boundary, for the internal paths of the quadrants involve only x and
r;s, all of which commute with k and with t.
Recall that Z X#qjY, where X and Y are positive s-words and qj E
{q, qO,. ..,q,). We have just shown that
for some freely reduced words L, and L, on (x, ri, i E I]. Rewrite this last
equation as
qi,
Lemma 12.14. Each of the words LIX#qj and qLzl Y-' is ri-reduced for every
i E I. Figure 12.7
+
ej = 1, ojis a word on (s,x, ...,sMx)for all j, V is reduced as a word in the
free product, and
xm= V in B, * Q.
Since xmE g l , one of the free factors of B, * Q, we may assume that V
does not involve any q-letters; in particular, V does not involve FTqilGi.
Therefore,
X" = Wo '(splx)f'...(sppx)fp in #,,
where each f, = 1. Since is an HNN extension with base go= (x) and Figure 12.8
stable letters (so, ...,s,), another application of Britton's lemma says that
the word x-"o,, which is 1 in B,, contains a pinch of the form s{xcspf7
+
where E = 1. Now inspection of the spelling of o,shows that it contains no sided "petal" in A; (Figure 12.7). There must be such a petal involving
such subword; we conclude that coo = 1, hence xm= 1. But x has infinite the q-letter on the quadrant's boundary. The lemma shows that the petal's
order (since Bo a , ) , and this contradicts rn # 0. We conclude that L,, and boundary must contain edges in Y and edges in X # (Figure 12.8).
hence L, X"qj, is ri-reduced. The following lemma completes the proof of Boone's lemma and, with
A similar proof shows that qL,' Y-' is also ri-reduced. d it, the Novikov-Boone-Britton theorem. In view of a further application
of it in the next section, however, we prove slightly more than we need
We know that the boundary word of each of the four quadrants is 1, so now.
that each quadrant is subdivided into relator polygons. The two words in the
lemma are sub-boundary words that do not flank either of the two q-edges; Lemma 62.15. Let L, and L, be words on (x, ri, i E I ) that are ri-reduced for
that is, neither of the q-edges is surrounded by other (boundary) edges on all i E I. If X and Y are freely reduced words on {so,..., s,) and if
both sides. As we are working within aA, the octagonal relator polygon is not
inside a quadrant. The only other relator involving a q-letter is the eight-
12. The Word Problem The Novikov-Boone-Britton Theorem: Necessity of Boone's Lemma 445
then both X and Y are positive and further assume that each uj is a reduced word on (sax, all p), for Corollary
12.12(i) says that this set freely generates its subgroup. Since o = 1 in B, * Q,
the normal form theorem for free products (Theorem 11.52) shows that each
"syllable" of o between consecutive qis is equal to 1 in B,. However, if
Remark. In our case, both X and Y are freely reduced, for X and Y are one views B, * Q as an HNN extension with base 9, and stable letters
positive (because C = XiliqjYis special), and positive words are necessarily (q, qO,...,qN)(as in Example 11.10, in which case the subgroups A and B are
freely reduced. I), then Britton's lemma says that o contains a pinch q;CqTE as a subword
with C = 1 in B, (of course, this case of Britton's lemma is very easy to see
h o o f . The previous lemma shows that LIX#qj = qLil Y-' in 93, and that
directly).
both words are ri-reduced. By Corollary 11.82, the number p 2 0 of r-letters
If a pinch involves the first occurrence of qj, then - E = a, = - 1 and
in L, is the same as the number of r-letters in L, (because no r-letters occur
outside of L, or L,); the proof is by induction on p.
If p = 0, then the equation LlX#qjYL2 = q is We claim that a pinch cannot occur at any other place in o.Otherwise, there
is an index v with a pinch occurring as a subword of (F,#qjGi)%,(Fi#qjGiP1.
If a, = +1, then a,,, = -1, the pinch is qjGiyG;lq;l, and GiuvGrl =
This equation involves no r-letters, and so we may regard it as an equation 1 in g,; if a, = -1, then a,,, = +1, the pinch is q;'&#-'uVFfqj, and
in B, * Q IB,, where Q = (q, q,, ...,qN). But the normal form theorem for &#-' uvFi#= 1 in 3,.In either case, we have u, = 1 in 93,. But u, is a reduced
free products (Theorem 11.52) gives qj = q and xmX#= 1 = Yxnin 3,. Since word on the basis (sex: all /I), and so u, = 1, contradicting the minimality of
B, is an HNN extension with base Bo = (x) and stable letters (so, ...,s,), t. We conclude that t = 1, a, = - 1, and
it follows from Britton's lemma that rn = 0 = n and that both X and Y are
empty. Thus, X and Y are positive and XqjY = qj = q in T.
Assume now that p > 0. By Lemma 12.14, the words LIX#qj and We have already seen that
qLil Y-' are ri-reduced for all i. Since B2 is an HNN extension with base
g, * Q and stable letters (ri, i E I), Britton's lemma gives subwords L, of L,
and L, of L, such that and so it follows from o being in the free product that
sax2s;' in B,, giving x E (x2), a contradiction. The first surviving letter of must see that X,#H,T and KiY, are freely reduced; that is, they contain no
G;' Y is thus positive, and so there is a subword Y, of Y beginning with a "forbidden" subwords of the form sps$l or si1se. NOWKi is a positive word
positive s-letter for which Y = Gi Y,. on s-letters, so that it contains no forbidden subwords; further, Y, E G,:' Y is
In a similar manner, one sees, after canceling all subwords of the form s s-I just a subword of Y (since the whole of Gi is eaten by Y), hence has no
or s;'s, (if any), that the first surviving letter of X#Frw1is negative; that Pis, forbidden subwords, by hypothesis. Therefore, a forbidden subword can
there is enough cancellation so that the whole of F:-' is eaten by X"). The occur in KiY, only at the interface. But this is impossible, for we have seen
proof is just as above, inverting the original equation X#$#-'u, x m= 1 in that Y, begins with a positive letter, namely, "the first surviving letter" above.
a,. There is thus a subword X, of X with X: ending in a negative letter and
such that X = X, Fi.
We have proved, in B, ,that 1 = xnu0G;' Y = xnuoG;' G, Y, ,and so -
A similar argument shows that X f H 5 s freely reduced.
By induction, both X, Hi and Ki Y, are positive. Hence, their subwords XI
and Y, are also positive, and hence X X , Fi and Y E Gi Yl are positive. The
inductive hypothesis also gives
the form rieCrie.There are thus two adjacent petals whose r-edges point in
opposite directions, and this contradicts the orientation of these petals (note
how the geometry of the plane enters).
Figure 12.11
4
Figure 12.9 Now focus on the top portion of the quadrant. The remainder of the proof
shows that the dashed paths comprised of s-edges can be drawn (actually, the
proof shows that the rightward path is X,# (followed by x-", which is incor-
porated into L,)and the leftward path is Y, (followed by xn,which is incorpo-
rated into L,). Induction says that one can repeat this construction, so that
the petals move down to the bottom q; thus the whole quadrant can be
subdivided into relator regions.
Aside from the group-theoretic proof just given (which is a simplification
of Britton's original proof), there are several other proofs of the unsolvability
of the word problem for groups: the original combinatorial proofs of
Woviltov and of Boone; a proof of 6.Higman's, which is a corollary of
his imbedding theorem. The proof of Higman's imbedding theorem that we
shall give in the next section uses our development so far, whereas Higman's
original proof does not depend on the Novikov-Boone-Britton theorem.
We must mention an important result here (see Lyndon and Schupp (1977)
for a proof). W. Magnus (1930) proved the Freiheitsatz. If G is a finitely
generated group having only one defining relation r, say, G = (x,, ...,xnlr),
then any subset of (xi, ...,x,) not containing all the xi involved in r freely
generates its subgroup. As a consequence, he showed (1932) that G has a
solvable word problem.
There are other group-theoretic questions yielding unsolvable problems;
let us consider another such question now.
Definition. A finitely generated group G = (XIA) has a solvable conjagacy
problem if there is a decision process to determine whether an arbitrary pair
Figure 12.10 of words w and co' on X are conjugate elements of G.
450 12. The Word Problem The Higman Imbedding Theorem
When G is finitely presented, it can be shown that its having a solvable in bijective correspondence with it via x ++xf,
conjugacy problem does not depend on the choice of finite presentation. A
group with a solvable conjugacy problem must have solvable word problem, X' = {xfIxE X),
for one can decide whether an arbitrary word o is (a conjugate of) 1; the and define a new presentation of G:
converse is false. We now indicate how this result fits into our account.
G = (X u X' /A',
xx', x E X),
Corollary 12.16. The group gAhas solvable word problem and unsolvable where A' consists of all. the words in A rewritten by replacing every occur-
conjugacy problem. rence of every x-' by xf. sl
Proof. Recall that gAis Boone's group 9f without the octagonal relation Definition. A group R is recursively presented if it has a presentation
w(q). A.A. Fridman (1960) and Boone, independently, proved that BAhas
solvable word problem (we will not present this argument). R = (ul, ...,urnlco= 1, o E E),
The following three statements are equivalent for any special word C: where each co is a positive word on u,, ...,urn,and E is an r.e. set.
(i) w(f3) = 1 in %
(ii) C* = 1 in r; The lemma shows that the positivity assumption, convenient for notation,
(iii) w(C) is conjugate to w(q) in gA. is no real restriction on R.
The necessity of Boone's lemma is (i) => (ii); in geometric terms, we have
already seen that the labeled directed annulus with outer boundary word
w(f3) and inner boundary word w(q) can be subdivided into relator polygons
corresponding to relations other than w(q); that is, using relations of BA.This 12.12. If a group R is recursively presented, then it has a presentation whose relations
form a recursive set of positive words. (Hint. If the given presentation is
proves (ii) => (iii). Finally, (iii) => (i) is obviously true, because w(q) = 1 in a.
The equivalence of (i) and (iii) shows that BAhas a solvable conjugacy prob- R =(ul,..., umlmk= l,k 2 0),
lem if and only if 93 has a solvable word problem. By the Novikov-Boone- where ( a k = 1, k 2 0) is an r.e. set of positive words, define a new presentation
Britton theorem, BAhas an unsolvable conjugacy problem. 811
(ul,..., u,, y l y = 1, y k o k = 1, k 2 O).)
12.13. Every finitely generated subgroup of a finitely presented group is recursively
presented. (Hint. Consider all words that can be obtained from 1 by a finite
The Higman Imbedding Theorem number of elementary operations.)
When can a finitely generated group be imbedded in a finitely presented 12.14. Every recursively related group can be imbedded in a two-generator recur-
group? The answer to this purely group-theoretic question reveals a har- sively presented group. (Hint.Corollary 11.80.)
monic interplay of Group Theory and Mathematical Logic. The proof we
present here is due to S. Aanderaa (1970). Theorem 12.18 (6.Higman, 8961). Every recursively presented group R can be
The following technical lemma is just a version of the "trick" which allows imbedded in a finitely presented group.
an arbitrary word on an alphabet to be viewed as a positive word on a larger
alphabet. With Exercise 12.13, Higman's theorem characterizes finitely generated
subgroups of finitely presented groups.
Lemma 12.17. Every group G has a presentation Assume that R has a presentation
in which every relation is a positive word on 'I/: If G is finitely generated (or where E is an r.e. set of positive u-words. There is thus a Turing machine T
finitely presented), there is such a presentation in which Y (or both Y and Y) is (with alphabet {so, ..., s,) containing {u,, ..., u,)) enumerating E; more-
finite. ,over, by Exercise 12.1l, we may assume that T has stopping state q,. We are
going to use the group g(T), constructed in Boone's lemma, arising from the
ProoJ If G = (XIA) is a presentation, define a new set X' disjoint from X and semigroup-F'(T).Now the original Markov-Post semigroup y(T) was rewrit-
452 12. The Word Problem The Higman Imbedding Theorem
ten as T(T) for the convenience of the proof of the unsolvability of the word
problem. For Higrnan's theorem, we shall rewrite y(T) another way. Of
course, this will engender changes in the generators and relations of W(T), (i) H3(T) is an HNN extension with base B,(T) and stable letter z.
and so we review the construction. Beginning with a Turing machine T with (ii) B'(7') W(T), and B'(T) is an HNN extension with base g3(T) and sta-
stopping state q,, we constructed y(T) with generators q, h, q,, . ..,q,, so, ..., ble letter K.
s,, and certain relations. The semigroup T(T) renamed h as the last s-letter;
thus, T(T) has generators q's and s's and relations those of y rewritten ac- Proof. As the proof of Lemma 12.11. IU
cordingly. Returning to the original notation (with h no longer an s-letter)
gives a group W(T) with generators: The next lemma shows how #(T) simplifies (6).
W(T) = (#; (T); k 1 kri = rik, i E I, kx = xk, k(q-' tq) = (q-I tq)k). Proof. Recall our analysis of 9 ( T ) in Lemma 12.11: Bl is an HNN extension
454 12. The Word Problem The Higrnan Imbedding Theorem 455
with base Bo and stable letters {so,..., s,); in our present notation, 3, has Since rc-'b,rc = biui in a 4 , the function 8: B4-+#(T)* R, defined by
stable letters {h, so, .. ., s,). It follows from Lemma 11.76 that (h, so, ..., sending each bi to 1, each ui to 1, and all other generators to themselves, is
s,) is a free group with basis {h, so, .. ., s,). Since B, 5 #(T), this last a well defined homomorphism (it preserves all the relations: bi = 1 implies
statement holds in #(T) * R. But {a,, ..., a,) c {so, . . ., s,), so that 1 = rc-' birc = biui = u,). The map 8 takes each of (K, a,b,, ...,a,b,) and
(a,, .. .,a,) is free with basis {a,, ... , a,). (K, a,, ...,a,) onto the subgroup (rc, a,, . ..,a,) < #(T) * R which, by the
We now show that {a,, . . . , a,, rc) freely generates its subgroup (a similar preceding lemma, is free on the displayed generators. By Exercise 11.8, each
argument that {a,, ...,a,, z) freely generates its subgroup is left to the read- of the two subgroups A and B of 9Y4 is free on the displayed generators, and
er). Otherwise, there is a word so the map q: A -+ B given above is a well defined isomorphism. III
Lemma 112.22. g4in an H N N extension with base #(T) * R and stable letters Proof. By Lemma 12.20, the relations rc-lw-'zwic = w-lzo, for all o E E, do
{b,, . -,bm)- hold in W'(T), and hence they hold in the subgroup A #(T). To see that
no other relations are needed, we shall show that if [ is a freely reduced word
Proof. It suffices to show there are isomorphisms q,: A, -+ B,, where c
on {K,a,, ...,a,, z) with = 1 in A, then [ can be transformed into 1 via
elementary operations using only these relations.
Step 1. [ contains no subword of the form zEwrc7where E = $. 1, q = f I,
Bi= (ul, ..., u,, a,, ..., a,, ku,"), and u E E.
a d cpi(uj)= %, qi(aj) = aj, and cpi(rc) = rcuil. Note that A i= Bin
It is easy to see that the given relations imply
It is easy to see, in g ( T )* R, that
Ai = (al, ..., a,, rc)*(u,, ..., u,)
If [ contains a subword z E w d ,then
= (a,, ..., a,, rc)*R.
By Lemma 12.21, (a,, ..., a,, rc) is freely generated by {a,, ..., a,, rc), so
[E cl ~ ~ ~ -+ [,
i ) Ol K
~ ~~ ~c - ~ ~ ~ ~ U ~ Z
that qi is a well defined homomorphism. Similarly, the map t,bi: A, -+ A,, giv- is an elementary operation. Cancel all subwords (if any) of the form yy-I or
en by $,(uj) = uj, $,(aj) = aj, and $,(rc) = rcu,, is a well defined homomor- y-' y, where y E z, rc, or some aj. With each such operation, the total number
phism. But $, is the inverse of q,, so that q, is an isomorphism and a4is an of occurrences of zEwhich precede some rcQoes down. Therefore, we may
HNN extension. W c
assume that is freely reduced and contains no subwords of the form zEoicV.
Step 2. [ involves both K and z.
Lemma 12.23.3, is an H N N extension with base B4 and stable letter d.
If [ does not involve rc, then it is a word on (a,, . .., a,, z). But this set
Proof. It suffices to show that there is an isomorphism c
freely generates its subgroup, by Lemma 12.21, and so being freely reduced
(P:A = < ~ , a l b,...,
l a,b,)-+B= (rc,a,, ..., a,)
c
and [ = 1 imply = 1. A similar argument shows that ( involves z as well.
Since 3'(T) is an HNM extension with base B$(T) and stable letter rc,
with cp(rc) = rc and q(aibi) = a, for all i. c
Britton's lemma says that contains a pinch rceVrc-", where e = f 1, and
456 12. The Word Problem The Higman Imbedding Theorem 457
there is a word D on {hrih-l, i E I, hxh-I, hq-lh-lq,zq;lhqh-l) with letter z. Assume now that neither V nor D involves z. Then V is a word on
{a,, .. ., a,) and D is a word on {hrih-', i e I, hxh-I); we may assume that D
has been chosen so that the total number of occurrences of r-letters is mini-
Choose D so that the number of occurrences of z in it is minimal. mal; moreover, we may assume that all adjacent factors equal to hxh-I are
collected as hxmh-'. It follows that the equation V = D holds in the subgroup
Step 3. D is z-reduced. @,(T), which is an FINN extension with base @, * (q, q,, ...,q,) and stable
Now g 3 ( T )is an HNN extension with base @,(T) and stable letter z. Let letters {r,, i E I).
us write Now V is ri-reduced for all i because V; being a word on {a,, ..., a,), does
6 = hq-lhdlq,, not even involve any r-letters. We claim that D is also ri-reduced for all i.
Otherwise, D (a word on {hrih-', i E I, hxh-'1) contains a pinch: there is thus
so that an index i with
hq-I h-l q, zqf hqh-I = 626-I. D = A, hr;h-'A, hr;'h-lA3,
If D, which is now a word on {hrih-l, i E I, hxh-', SzS-'), is not z-reduced,
then it contains a pinch. Since an occurrence of z can only arise from an
occurrence of 6zJw1,it follows that
-
where I = & 1 and A, involves no r-letters (just check the cases I = 1 and
I = - 1 separately); hence, A, hxmh-I (since it is freely reduced), and
D=D , 6 ~ ~ 6 - ~ ~ , 6 z - ~ 6 - ~ ~ , ,
The pinch in D is thus r;xmryL,and Britton7slemma concludes, depending on
where D, does not involve the stable letter z (just check the cases f = 1 and the sign of I, that xm is equal in 2, * (q, qo, ..., q,) either to a word on
f = - 1 separately); moreover, there is a word W on {q;'hrih-'q,, i e I, {F,XqilG,, sox, ...,sMx) or to a word on {HtqizKi, sox-', ...,sMx-I). As D
qllhxh-I q, ) with does not involve q-letters, xmis equal in B, to a word on either (sox, ...,
6-I D26 = W in @,(T) sMx)or {sox-', ...,s,x-l), and we have already seen, in the proof of Lemma
(the subgroups A and B in the HNN extension are here equal, and so we need 12.14, that this forces m = 0. Therefore, the pinch is r;riz, contradicting our
not pay attention to the sign off). From the presentation of B2(T),we see choice of D having the minimal number of r-letters. We conclude that both V
that z and W commute. Therefore, and D are ri-reduced for all i. By Corollary 11.82, D involves no r-letters
(because V involves none), and D is a word on hxh-l; that is, D = hxnh-I in
D = D , ~ ~ ~ W ~ - ~ G - ' D=
, D16W6-ID3 inB,(T), a,. In this step, V is assumed to be a word on {a,, ..., a,) c {so,.. .,sM),SO
contradicting our choice of D having the minimal number of occurrences of that the equation V = D holds in @, and
z. It follows that D is z-reduced.
Step 4. V is z-reduced. Recall that $7, is an HNN extension with base (x) and stable letters
{h, so, .. ., s,). If V involves aj for somej, then Britton's lemma gives a pinch
Otherwise, V contains a pinch zgCz-g, where +
aj"UajV,where v = 1 and U is a power of x (for aj is a stable letter). Now
h # aj, for h & {so, ...,sy), SO that this pinch must be a subword of V. But V
does not involve x, and so U = 1; therefore aj"aJTvis a subword of V; contra-
and W; a word on {q;'hrih-'q,, i e I, q~lhxh-lq,) (as above), commutes dicting ( and its subword V being freely reduced. It follows that V involves no
with z in B,(T). Wow V does not involve rc, so its subword C involves neither aj; as V is now assumed to be a word on a-letters, we have V = 1. Recall that
K. nor z. Since (, hence its subword V; is a word on {rc, a,, ...,a,, 23, it follows
V arose in the pinch rce VK-", a subword of [,and this, too, contradicts [ being
that C is a word on {a,, ...,a,). But (z, a,, ...,a,) < &(T) * R is a free freely reduced.
group with basis the displayed generators, by Lemma 12.21, and so C
commutes with z if and only if C -- 1. Therefore, the pinch T ~ C T=- ~ Step 6. V contains a subword zEVp, where VPis a positive a-word lying in the
contradicting ( being freely reduced. r.e. set E.
Step 5. Both V and D involve z. , Since D, a word on {hrih-', i E I, hxh-', hq-I h-'q, zq;' hqh-I ), involves z,
it must involve hq-' h-I q, zqll hqh-'. Write
Since V = D in W3(T) and both are z-reduced, Corollary 11.82 applies to
show that both of them involve the same number of occurrences of the stable
458 12. The Word Problem The Higman Imbedding Theorem
where a = 1 and the word in parentheses is the final occurrence of the long Pro@$ (i) It suffices to show that there is an isomorphism
word involving z in D; thus, A is a word on (hrihdl, i E I, hxh-I].
Since V involves z, we may write
cp: A = (rc, z, a,, .. ., a,) -+ B = (rc, zd, a,, ..., a,)
with V(K)= K,q(z) = td, and tp(aj) = a, for all j. Since
L,'h-'q,&hL2 =q inB2(T).
Note that Vph is freely reduced, for T/, is a freely reduced word on a-letters,
and h is not an s-letter, hence not an a-letter. By Lemma 12.15 (with X = h (for daid-' = aibi in B5 and ai and bj commute in g45 B,). Since K and
and Y = Vph),we have Y a positive word, so that its subword $/, is a positive commute in g 5 , we have
word on a-letters; moreover,
By Lemma 12.4, VpE E. Returning to (7), the birthplace of Vp, we see that
2". T/, is a subword of V. Indeed, V E V'z'p Vp, where V' is the initial segment
of V.
(because bi and uj commute and rc-I birc = biui)
Step 7. Conclusion.
Recall that V arose inside the pinch rce Vc-", which is a subword of [. From
c.
the previous step, we see that rce V'z'p T/,ic-" is a subword of In particular, [ (because o, = 1). We have shown that
+ +
contains a subword of the form z"corcq,where E = 1, rl = 1, and o E E.
c
But we showed, in Step 1, that contains no such subword. This completes
the proof. 4
and so o, = I, as desired.
Now %(T)* R is a flnaitely generated g o u p having a finite number of reia-
tions occurring in the presentation of 9 ( T )together with the (possibly infi- Let us review the proof of Rigman's theorem to try to understand
nitely many) relations above for R. Each step of the construction of g6from Aanderaa's construction. Certainly, some of the relations of g6are present to
g ( T ) * R contributes only finitely many new generators and relations. Thus, guarantee a chain of HNN extensions, for this gives an imbedding of R into
3 6 is finitely generated, and it is finitely presented if we can show that every g6.The proof of the last lemma, showing that g6is finitely presented,
relation of the form o, = 1, for o E E, is a consequence of the remaining amounts to proving, for o E E, that o, = 1 follows from the other relations;
relations in B6. that is, one can subdivide the labeled directed polygon with boundary word
By Lemma 12.20, ~ - ~ w - ' z w = o-'zw
~ for all o E E. Hence o, into relator polygons corresponding to the other relations in g6.E. Rips
has drawn a diagram (Plate 4) that helps explain the construction of g 6 .
Before we examine Plate 4, let us discuss diagrams in the plane from a
Since a commutes with K and with all a,, this gives different viewpoint, Regard the plane as lying on the surface of a sphere, and
assume that the north pole, denoted by co, lies outside a given diagram.
Otherwise said, we may regard a given planar diagram D having n regions to
actually have n + 1 regions, the new "unbounded" region (containing co)
As a-' zcr = zd, this gives
being the outside of D. We now propose redrawing a diagram so that the
unbounded region is drawn as an interior region. For example, assume that
12. The Word Problem The Higrnan Imbedding Theorem
h
Figure 12.12
k0
Figure 12.14
Figure 12.13
At this point, we omit some details which essentially require accurate We remarked at the beginning of this chapter that a finitely generated
bookkeeping in order to give an explicit presentation of GIf from a given group G having a solvable word problem relative to one presentation with a
presentation of 6. We assert that there is a presentation of the abelian group finite number of generators has a solvable word problem relative to any other
such presentation. The analogue of this statement is no longer true when we
allow nonfinitely generated groups. For example, let G be a free group of
infinite rank with basis {xi, i 2 0). Now g(R) is recursive (this is not instantly
where Di z Q @ (Q/Z) for all i, such that GI' is recursively presented. obvious, for R is an infinite set of nonreduced words; list its elements lexico-
graphically and according to length), and so this presentation, and hence G,
has a solvable word problem. On the other hand, if E is an r.e. subset of N
Theorem 112.28. There exists a finitely presented group containing an isomor-
that is not recursive, then
phic copy of every countable abelian group as a subgroup.
(xi, i 2 Olx, = 1 if and only if i E E)
Proof. By Exercise 10.29, every countable abelian group can be imbedded in
G = x&Di, where Di E Q @ (Q/Z) for all i. Lemma 12.27, with the assertion is another presentation of G, but g(R) is not recursive; this second presenta-
that GI' is recursively presented, gives the result. Igl tion has an unsolvable word problem.
We wish to avoid some technicalities of Mathematical Logic (this is not the
appropriate book for them), and so we shall shamelessly declare that certain
There are only countably many finitely presented groups, and their free
groups arising in the next proof are either r.e. or have a solvable word prob-
product is a countable group H having a presentation for which H" is
lem; of course, the serious reader cannot be so cavalier.
recursively presented.
466 12. The Word Problem Some Applications 467
A.V. Kuznetsov (1958) proved that every recursively presented simple lies in the normal subgroup generated by u. Since u and v are arbitrary
group has a solvable word problem. nontrivial elements of S, it follows that S is simple.
It can be shown that S is recursively presented. By Theorem 11.71, there
Theorem 12.30 (Boone-Higman, 1974). A finitely generated group G has a is a two-generator group S" containing S; moreover, S" is recursively
solvable word problem if and only if G can be imbedded in a simple subgroup presented. The Higrnan imbedding theorem shows that S", hence S, and
ofsome finitely presented group. hence G, can be imbedded in a finitely presented group H.
Sketch of Proof. Assume that It is an open question whether a group with a solvable word problem can
be imbedded in a finitely presented simple group (the simple group S in the
proof is unlikely to be finitely generated, let alone finitely presented).
where S is a simple group and H is finitely presented; say, Our final result explains why it is often difficult to extract information
about groups from presentations of them. Before giving the next lemma, let
us explain a phrase occurring in its statement. We will be dealing with a set
Let !2' denote the set of all words on (h,, . .., h,), and let R' = {or E N: of= of words R on a given alphabet and, for each o E R, we shall construct a
,
I); let R denote the set of all words on (g ,...,g,), and let R = { o E R: o = presentation P ( o ) involving the word w. This family of presentations is uni-
form in o if, for each ofE R, the presentation 9 ( a f )is obtained from P(w) by
1). Theorem 12.2 shows that R' is r.e. If one writes each gi as a word in the h,,
then one sees that R = R nR'; since the intersection of r.e. sets is r-e. (Exer- substituting orfor each occurrence of w. A presentation (XI A) is calledfinite
cise 12.8), it follows that R is r.e. We must show that its complement ( a E Ck if both X and A are finite sets; of course, a group is finitely presented if and
o # 1) is also r.e. Choose s E S with s # 1. For each w E Q, define N(w) to be only if it has such a presentation.
the normal subgroup of H generated by {a, p,, ...,&I. Since S is a simple
Lemma 12.31 (Rabin, 1958). Let G = (ZIA) be a finite presentation of a group
group, the following statements are equivalent for o e $2w # 1 in G;
and let !2 be the set of all words on Z. There are finite presentations {P(o):
N(o) n S # 1; S 5 N(o); s = 1 in H/N(o). As H/N(w) is finitely presented,
o E Q), uniform in w, such that if R(o) is the group presented by P(u),then
Theorem 12.2 shows that the set of all words in R which are equal to 1 in
H/N(w) is an r.e. set. A decision process determining whether o = 1 in G thus (i) fi o # 1 in G, then G I R(w); and
consists in checking whether s = 1 in H/N(co). (ii) if w = 1 in G, then B(o) presents the trivial group 1.
To prove the converse, assume that G = (g,, ...,g,) has a solvable word
problem. By Exercise 12.10, Proof(cC.F. MilIer, Let (x) be an infinite cyclic group; by Corollary
11.80, G * (x) can be imbedded in a two-generator group A = (a,, a,) in
a:u # 1 and v # 1)
{(u, V ) E Q x
which both generators have infinite order. Moreover, one can argue, as in
is a recursive set; enumerate this set (u,, u,), (u,, v,), .. . (each word u or v has Exercise 11.50, that A can be chosen to be finitely presented: there is a finite
many subscripts in this enumeration). Define Go = G, and define s s d of words on (a,, a,) with
GI = (G; x,, ti, i 2 01t;'uix;' uixl ti = v i ~ ~ 1 u i 2
~ 10).7 A = (~17a21A).
It is plain that G, has base G * (x, ) and stable letters {ti, i 2 0); it is an HNN Define
extension because, for each i, both Ai = (uix;'uixl) and Bi = (vix;'uixl) B = (A; b,, b2lb,la,b1 = a:, b,'a2b2 = a;).
are infinite cyclic. Thus, G 5 G,. One can show that this presentation of GI It is easy to see that B is an HNN extension with base A and stable letters
has a solvable word problem (note that G, is no longer finitely generated). (b,, b,), so that G I A I B. Define
We now iterate this construction. For each k, there is an HNN extension G,
,,,
with base Gk-, * (x,), and we define S = U G,; clearly G 5 S. To see that C = (B; clc-lblc = b;, cW1b2c= bi).
S is simple, choose y v E S with u # 1 and v # 1. There is an integer k with Clearly C has base B and stable letter c; C is an HNN extension because b,
u, v E Gk-,. By construction, there is a stable letter p in Gk with and b,, being stable letters in B, have infinite order. Thus, G I A I B I C.
If w E Q and o # 1 in G, then the commutator
Therefore,
[a,XI= o ~ o - ~ x - ~
u = (p-' up) (p-' xi1ux,p) (xi1u-I x,) has infinite order in A (because G * (x) 5 A).
468 12. The Word Problem Some Applications 469
-
We claim that (c, [o, x]) 5 C is a free group with basis {c, [o, x] 1. Sup-
pose that V is a nontrivial freely reduced word on (c, [w, x]) with V = 1 in
C. If V does not involve the stable letter c, then V [w, xln for some n f 0,
and this contradicts [o, x] having infinite order. If V does involve c, then
Britton's lemma shows that V contains a pinch cefNc-"as a subword, where
solvable word problem. Being simple is also a Markov property, for the
Boone-Higrnan theorem shows that finitely presented simple groups must
have a solvable word problem (and hence so do all their finitely presented
subgroups). Having a solvable conjugacy problem is also a Markov property:
a finitely presented group G, with an unsolvable word problem cannot be
e = + 1 and W E (b,, b,). But V involves neither b, nor b,, so that W r 1 imbedded in a finitely presented group H having a solvable conjugacy prob-
and ceWc-" -. cec-", contradicting V being freely reduced. Therefore, V must lem, for Pi and all its finitely presented subgroups have a solvable word
be trivial. problem. It is fair to say that most interesting group-theoretic properties are
We now construct a second tower of HNN extensions. Begin with an Markov properties.
infinite cyclic group (r), define The following result was proved for semigroups by Markov (1950).
S = (r, sjs-l rs = r2),
Theorem 12.32 (Adiala-Rabim, 11958). If JH is a Markov property, then there
and define does not exist a decision process which will determine, for an arbitrary finite
T = (S; t 1 t-'st = s2). presentation, whether the group presented has property JZ.
Since both r and s have infinite order, S is an HNN extension with base (r) ProoJ Let G, and G2 be finitely presented groups as in the definition of
and stable letter s, and T is an HNM extension with base S and stable letter Markov property, and let B be a finitely presented group with an unsolvable
t. Britton's lemma can be used, as above, to show that {r, t) freely generates word problem. Define G = G, *B, construct groups R(w) as in Rabin's
its subgroup in T. lemma, and define (finitely presented) groups 2(0) = G, * R(w).
Since both (r, t) 5 T and (c, [o, x]) IC are free groups of rank 2, there Restrict attention to words co on the generators of B. If such a word o # 1
is an isomorphism q between them with q(r) = c and q(t) = [a, x]. Form the in B, then G, < G 2 R(o) 5 2(o). But the defining property of G, implies
amalgam R(w) = T *, C with presentation that 2(o) does not have property 4.If, on the other hand, o = 1 in @, then
P ( 0 ) = (T* Clr = c, t = [o, x]). R(o) = 1 and 2(o) 2 G, which does have property JH.Therefore, any deci-
sion process determining whether 2(w) has property 4 can also determine
We conclude from Theorem 11.67(i) that if o # 1 in G, then G < C I R(o). whether o = 1 in 8; that is, any such decision process would solve the word
If o = 1 in G, the presentation Y(o) is still defined (though it need not be problem in 99. ISl
an amalgam). The presentations g(w) are uniform in o:
P(w) = (a,, a,, b,, b,, c, r, s, tlA, bilaibi = a?, cdlbic = b?, ColroBlarry 12.33. There is no decision process to determine, for an arbitrary
finite presentation, whether the presented grozlp has any of the following
i = 1,2, s-lrs = r2, L-'s~= s2, r = C,t = [w, XI). proper~ies:order 1; finite; finite exponent; p-group; abelian; solvable; nil-
We claim that Y(o) is a presentation of the trivial group if w = 1 in G.Watch potent; simple; torsion; torsion-free; free; solvable word problem; solvable
the dominoes fall: o = 1 = [GO,x] = 1 t = 1 s = 1 +-r = 1 * c = 1 3 conjugacy problem.
b1=1=b2*a1=1=a2.
Pro@$ Each of the listed properties is Markov.
Definition. A property 4 of finitely presented groups is called a Markov
property if: Corollary 12.34. There is no decision process to determine, for an arbitrary pair
'
L .
.'
of finite presentations, whether the two presented groups are isomorphic.
(i) every group isomorphic to a group with property JH also has property
JZ; ProoJ Enumerate the presentations P I , P,, ... and the groups G,, G,, ...
(ii) there exists a finitely presented group G, with property JH; and they present. If there were a decision process to determine whether Gi r Gj
(iii) there exists a finitely presented group G2 which cannot be imbedded in a for all i and j, then, in particular, there would be a decision process to
finitely presented group having property d. determine whether Pnpresents the trivial group.
Here are some examples of Markov properties: order 1; finite; finite expo- While a property of finitely presented groups being Markov is sufficient for
nent; p-group; abelian; solvable; nilpotent; torsion; torsion-free;free; having a the nonexistence of a decision process as in the Adian-Rabin theorem, it is
12. The Word Problem
not necessary. For example, the property of being infinite is not a Markov
property. However, a decision process that could determine whether the
group given by an arbitrary finite presentation is infinite would obviously
determine whether the group is finite, contradicting Corollary 12.33. Indeed,
Epilogue
this example generalizes to show that the Adian-Rabin theorem also holds
for the "complement" of a Markov property.
Does every finitely presented group have some Markov property?
called modular representation theory, becomes more intricate, but it, too, is an sophisticated part of Group Theory, using every known technique. Introduc-
essential tool. tions to this study are Artin (1957), Aschbacher (1994), Borel, Carter (1972
Let us now discuss the second approach to representations. If K is a field, and 1985), Conway et al., Dieudonne, and Gorenstein (1982 and 1983). For
then the group algebra KG of a finite group G over K is the vector space over some applications of the classification theorem, see P.J. Cameron, Finite
K having the elements of G as a basis and which is equipped with the multi- permutation groups and finite simple groups, Bull. London Math. Soc. 63
plication (called convolution) determined by the given (group) multiplication (198I), pp. 1-22.
of its basis elements. If q:G -,GL(n, I<) is a homomorphism and if V is an
n-dimensional vector space over K, then one may view V as a KG-module Solvable Groups. See Doerk and Hawkes, Huppert and Blackburn (1981),
(and conversely). When K = C, one sees, for example, that ~ ( 9is)irreducible and Robinson (1972).
if and only if V is an indecomposable module. This point of view is quite
valuable; for example, it allows ideas and techniques of Homological Algebra p-Groups. We recommend P. Hall's notes "Nilpotent Groups" in his Col-
to be used. lected Works, Dixon and du Sautoy and Mann and Segal, Huppert, Huppert
There are many excellent books on Representation Theory. For example: and Blackburn (1981), Khukhro, and Vaughan-Lee.
Alperin, Benson, Curtis and -Reiner, Dornhoff, Feit (1967 and 1982), Isaacs,
James and Liebeck, Puttaswamaiah and Dixon, and Serre (1977). Cohomology of Groups. For a general account of Homological Algebra, the
reader may look at Cartan and Eilenberg, Mac Lane, and Rotman (1979).
A Personal Note. If Representation Theory is so important, why have I not For Cohomology of Groups, which is Homological Algebra specialized to a
included it in this book? It is not because the beginnings of the subject require group-theoretic context, see Benson, Brown, Evens, Karpilovsky, and Weiss.
greater sophistication on the part of the reader.
Let me explain with an analogy. I have long felt that many entering univer- Combinatorial Group Theory. This is the study of presentations of groups.
sity students who have seen some Calculus in high school are at a disadvan- Suggested books are Coxeter and Moser, Johnson, Lyndon and Schupp,
tage. There are, to be sure, good Calculus courses taught in high schools, and Magnus and Karrass and Solitar, and Zieschang and Vogt and Coldewey.
those students who have done well in such courses are well prepared. But, too There is another aspect involving groups acting on trees; we suggest Dicks
often, high school Calculus courses are inadequate, so that, upon completion, and Dunwoody, and Serre (1980). The Cayley graph of a finitely generated
even good students (with good teachers) are poorly prepared. As a conse- group can be made into a metric space, and the hyperbolic groups introduced
quence, many students must start learning the subject anew when they enter by Gromov can be found in Gersten.
the university. Their time has been wasted and their enthusiasm has been See Higman for further development of his imbedding theorem, Miller for
dampened. group-theoretic decision problems, and Epstein et al. for a treatment of auto-
I feel that one chapter on Representation Theory is necessarily inadequate; matic groups.
it is like a bad high school Calculus course that leaves one unprepared. After
a longish excursion into Ring Theory (includingthe theorems of Wedderburn Abelian Groups. We suggest Fuchs (1970 and 1973),Griffith, and Kaplansky.
and Maschke), one learns the first properties of characters and how to
compute them, and one proves the theorems of Burnside and Frobenius Finitely Generated Groups, We suggest Kegel and Wehrfritz, Kurosh, Rob-
mentioned above. However, a group theorist must have a more thorough inson (1972), and Wehrfritz.
course in order to feel comfortable with both characters and modules. Most
likely, a student having read only one chapter in a text like this ohe would History. We suggest Chandler and Magnus, and Wussing.
still have to begin the subject anew, and this would be a waste of valuable
time. There are several computer systems devoted to group theory: for example,
MAGMA (nee CAYLEY) and GAP.
Here are some suggestions of other topics in Group Theory that the reader Certainly, there are other valuable books, as well as other valuable areas of
may wish to pursue. For general group theory, see Huppert, Huppert and Group Theory (e.g., crystallographic groups, Mobius groups, knot groups,
Blackbum (1981 and 1982), Robinson (1982), and Suzuki (1982 and 1986). varieties of groups) that I have not even mentioned. I apologize to their
authors and their practitioners.
Simple Groups. All finite simple groups were classified by the 1980s, and
there is an explicit description of them all. This is the most profound and Primary Sources. One must always look at the masters. The following
474 Epilogue
Semigroup
Ring
Commutative ring
Domain \
\
\ Division ring
-
A relation SE on a set X is reflexive if x = x for all x E X; it is symmetric if,
for all x, y E X, x = y implies y = x; it is trnnsitive if, for all x, y, z E X, x y
and y z imply x r z. A relation = on a set X is an equivalence relation if it
is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
If = is an equivalence relation on a set X and if x E X, then the eqai~alence
class of x is
[x] = (y E X: y = X) C X.
Proof. If [x] = [a], then x E [XI, by reflexivity, and so x E [a] = [x]; that is,
x = a.
-
Conversely, if x = a, then a = x, by symmetry. If y E [x], then y = x. By
transitivity, y E a, y E [a], and [x] c [a]. For the reverse inclusion, if z E [a],
then z a. By transitivity, z r x, so that z E [x] and [a] c [x], as desired.
Proposition H.2. If = is an equivalence relation on a nonempty set X, then the APPENDIX 111
family of all equivalence classes is a partition of X.
Proof. For each x E X, reflexivity gives x E 1x1; this shows that the equiva-
Functions
,
lence classes are nonempty and that X = U, [x]. To check pairwise
disjointness, assume that [x] n [y] # @. Therefore, there exists an element
z E [XIn [y]; that is, z = x and z = y. By the first proposition, [z] = [x] and
[z] = [y], so that [x] = [y]. tl
- For example, the fractions i and $ are called equal if the numerators and
denominators satisfy "cross multiplication." In reality, one defines a relation
on X = {(a, b) E Z x Z: b # 0 ) by (a, b) r (c, d) if ad = bc, and a straight-
forward calculation shows that = is an equivalence relation on X. The equiv-
alence class containing (a, b) is denoted by a/b, and the set of all rational
The set X is called the domain off and the set Y is called the target off.
One defines two functions f and g to be equal if they have the same domain
X, the same target Y,and f(x) = g(x) for all x E X (this says that their graphs
are the same subset of X x Y).
In practice, one thinks of a function f as something dynamic: f assigns a
numbers Q is defined as the family of all such equivalence classes. In particu- value f (x) in Y to each element x in X. For example, the squaring function
lar, (1,2) and (2,4) are identified in Q, because (1,2) = (2,4), and so = $. f : R --+ R is the parabola consisting of all (x, x2)E R x R, but one usually
thinks off as assigning x2 to x; indeed, we often use a footed arrow to denote
the value of fon a typical element x in the domain: for example, f : x I+ x2.
Most elementary texts define a function as "a rule which assigns, to each x in
X, a unique value f(x) in Y." The idea is correct, but not good enough.
For example, consider the functions f, g: R -,R defined as follows: f(x) =
(x + g(x) = x2 + 2x + 1. Are f and g different functions?They are differ-
ent "rules" in the sense that the procedures involved in computing each of
them are different. However, the definition of equality given above shows
that f = g.
If X is a nonempty set, then a sequence in X is a function f : P -,X, where
P is the set of positive integers. Usually, one writes x, instead of f(n) and
one describes,f by displaying its values: x,, x,, x,, . .. . It follows that two
480 Appendix 111. Functions
sequences x,, x,, x,, ... and y,, y,, y,, . . . are equal if and only if x, = y, for
all n 2 1.
APPENDIX IV
The uniqueness of values in the definition of function deserves more com-
ment: it says that a function is "single valued" or, as we prefer to say, it is well Zorn's Lemma
defined. For example, if x is a nonnegative real number, then f (x) = & is
usually defined so that f(x) 2 0; with no such restriction, it would not be
a function (if $ = 2 and & = -2, then a unique value has not been
assigned to 4). When attempting to define a function, one must take care that
it is well defined lest one define only a relation.
The diagonal ((x, x) E X x X: x E X)is a function X -,X; it is called the
identity function on X , it is denoted by I,, and 1,: x-x for all x E X. If
X is a subset of Y, then the inclusion function i: X -, Y (often denoted by
i: X G Y) is defined by x r-,x for all x E X. The only difference between 1,
and i is that they have different targets, but if X is a proper subset of Y, this
is sufficient to guarantee that 1, # i.
Iff: X -, Y and g: Y -,Z are functions, then their composite g 0 f : X -+ Z
is the function defined by xwg(f(x)). If h: Z -, W is a function, then the
associativity formula h 0 (g 0 f ) = (h 0 g) 0 f holds, for both are functions
X -+ W with x r h(g(f(x))) for all x E X. 1f f : X 4 A and Y is a subset of X A relation Ion a set X is antisymmetric if x I y and y I x imply x = y, for
with inclusion i: Y G X, then the restriction f 1 Y: Y -,A is the composite all x, y E X. A relation < on a nonempty set X is called a partial order if it is
f 0 i ; f o r e a c h y ~Y,onehas(flY)(y)= f(y). reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. The best example of a partially or-
A function f : X -, Y is injective (or one-to-one) if distinct elements of X dered set is a family of subsets of a set, where < means c.
have distinct values; equivalently, if f (x) = f (x'), then x = x' (this is the A partial order on X is a simple order (or total order) if, for each x, y E X ,
converse of f being well defined: if x = x', then f(x) = f(xf)). A function either x I y or y I x.
f : X -+ Y is surjective (or onto) if each element of Y is a value; that is, for each If S is a nonempty subset of a partially ordered set X, then an upper bound
y E Y, there exists x E X with y = f (x). (If one did not insist, in the definition of S is an element x E X (not necessarily in S) with s I x for all s E S. Finally,
of equality of functions, that targets must be the same, then every function a maximal element in a partially ordered set X is an element m E X which is
would be surjective!) A function is a bgecfion (or one-to-one correspondence) smaller than nothing else: if x E X and m < x, then x = m. For example, if X
if it is both injective and surjective. A function f : X -+ Y is a bijection if and is the partially ordered set consisting of all the proper subsets of a set A under
only if it has an iaple.sczfun~$iopo: there is a fuaction g: Y + X with g o f = 1, inclusion, then a maximal element is the complement of a point. Thus, a
and f 0 g = 1, (g is usually denoted by f -I). One must have both composites partially ordered set can have many maximal elements. On the other hand, a
identity functions, for g 0 f = 1, implies only that f is injective and g is partially ordered set may have no maximal elements at all.'For example,
surjective. there are no maximal elements in the set of real numbers R regarded as a
partially ordered set under ordinary inequality (indeed, R is a simply ordered
set).
It is well known that certain "paradoxes" arise if one is not careful about the
foundations of Set Theory. We now sketch some features of the foundations
we accept. Its primitive undefined terms are class, element, and membership,
denoted by E: if X is a member of a class Y, one writes X E Y. A "set" is a
special kind of class, described below. Every usage of "set" in the preceding
appendices can be replaced by the word "class." In particular, one may speak
of cartesian products of classes, so that functions from one class to another
are defined; functions between classes may or may not be injective or
surjective.
Classes X and Y are called equQotent, denoted by 1x1= I YI, if there
exists a bijection f : X -+ X It is easy to see that equipotence is an equiva-
lence relation. Define a relation IX I s I Y I to mean that there is an injection
f : X -+ X It is easy to see that this relation is reflexive and transitive, and
the Cantor-Schroeder-Bernstein theorem shows that it is antisymmetric:
IX I _< I Y / and I Y I s I XI imply 1x1= I Y I; thus, s is a partial order.
The foundations allow one to define the cardinal number of a set; some
classes have a cardinal number and they are called sets; some classes do not
have a cardinal (they are too big) and they are called proper classes. For
example, the class of all abelian groups is a proper class. The notion of
functor in Chapter 10 thus involves a function defined on a proper class.
A set X isfinite if it is empty or if there is a positive integer n and a bijection
f : {1,2, .. ., n ) -+ X (in this case, we write IX I = n); otherwise, X is infinite.
There is an elementary, but useful, result here, sometimes called the pigeon-
hole principle.
Theorem. If X and Y are finite sets with 1x1= I YI, then a function f : X -+ Y
is injective if and only if it is surjective; in either case, therefore, f is a bijection.
484 Appendix V. Countability
-
(0 E I and a, b E I implies a - b E I) such that a E I and r E R imply ra E I. If
f : R R' is a homomorphism, then its kernel = { r E R: f (r) = 0) is an ideal.
Here is another important example of an ideal: if a,, . . . , a, E X, then the set
of all their linear combinatioazs is called the ideal genrerated by a,, . . .,a,; it is
denoted by (a,, ...,a,):
(a,, ..., a,) = (r,a, + ... +man: r , ~ R f o all
r i).
Hn the special case n = 1, the ideal generated by a E R, namely,
(a) = (ra: r E R),
is called the principal ideal generated by a. If R = L [XI, the ring of all polyno-
mials with coefficientsin L, one can show that the ideal I = (x, 2), consisting
of all polynomials with coefficients in Z having even constant term, is not a
principal ideal.
The following result, which merely states that long division is possible, can
be proved by the reader. Recall that the zero polynomial is the polynomial all
of whose coefficients are 0; if f(x) is not the zero polynomial, then we write
+
f (4 0-
Appendix YI. Commutative Rings
Appendix VI. Commutative Rings 487
Division Algorithm.
ring homomorphism with kernel I. If f : R --+ R' is a ring homomorphism,
(i) If a, b E Z with a + 0, then there exist unique q, r E Z with 0 Ir < la1 and then the first isomorphism theorem (Theorem 2.23) applies to the additive
groups if one forgets multiplication: if I is the kernel of 5 then I is a subgroup
of R, im f is a subgroup of R', and there is an isomorphism cp: R/I -+ im f
(ii) If k is a field and a(x), b(x) E k[x] are polynomials with a(x) # 0, then given by r + I Hf (r). If one now remembers the multiplication, then it is easy
there exist unique q(x), r(x) E k[x] with either r(x) = 0 or degree r(x) < to check that I is an ideal in R, im f is a subring of R', and the group
degree a(x) and isomorphism cp is also a ring isomorphism. The analogue of the correspon-
+
b(x) = q(x)a(x) r(x).
One calls q (or q(x)) the quotient and r (or r(x)) the remainder.
I
dence theorem (Theorem 2.27) is valid: If I is an idea in R, then there is a
bijection between all intermediate ideas J with I c J - R and all ideals of
R/I.
A domain R is a principal ideal domain (or PID) if every ideal in R is a If a, b E R, then a divides b in R (or b is a mult@le of a), denoted by a /b, if
principal ideal. Our example above shows that Z[x] is not a prjncipal ideal there is r E R with ar = b. Note that a divides b if and only if b E (a). If
domain. a,, ...,a, E R, then a common divisor is an element c E R which divides each
a,; a greatest common divisor (gcd), denoted by d = (a,, ... ,a,), is a common
Theorem W.1. divisor which is divisible by every common divisor.
(i) Z is a principal ideal domain.
(ii) If k is a field, then k[x] is a principal ideal domain. Theorem V1.2. If R is a PID, then every set of elements a,, ..., a, E R has a
gcd d; moreover, d is a linear combination of a,, .. .,a,.
Proof. (i) Let I be an ideal in Z. If I consists of 0 alone, then I is principal,
generated by 0. If I # 0, then it contains nonzero elements; indeed, it contains Proof. The set of all linear combinations of a,, ...,a, is an ideal I in R. Since
positive elements (if a E I, then -a = (- 1)a E I also). If a is the smallest R is a PID, I is a principal ideal; let d be a generator. As any element of I, d
positive integer in I, then (a) c I. For the reverse inclusion, let b E I. By the is a linear combination of a,, . ..,a,. It follows that any common divisor c
+
division algorithm, there are q, r E Z with 0 5 r < a and b = qa r. Hence, of the a, also divides d. But d itself is a common divisor, for each ai lies in
r = b - qa E I. If r # 0, then we contradict a being the smallest element in I. (4.
Therefore, r = 0 and b = qa E (a); hence I = (a).
(ii) The proof for k[x] is virtually the same as for Z. If I is a nonzero ideal We have just shown that (a,, ..., a,) = (d), where d is a gcd of a,, . . . ,a,.
in k[x], then a generator of I is any polynomial a(x) E I whose degree is An element u E R is a mi$if u ]1; that is, there exists v E R with uu = 1. Two
smallest among degrees of polynomials in I. elements a, b E R are associafes if there is a unit u with a = bu. An element in
R is irreducible if it is not a unit and its only factors are units and associates.
If I is an ideal in R and we forget the multiplication in R, then f is a In Z, the irreducibles have the form +p, where p is a prime; if k is a field,
subgroup of the abelian additive group R. The quotie~t.ring R/I is the quo- a polynomial p(x) E k[x] is irreducible if it is not constant and there
tient group R/I (whose elements are all cosets r + I) made into a commuta- is no factorization p(x) = f(x)g(x) with degree f(x) < degree p(x) and
tive ring by defining multiplication: degree g(x) < degree-p(x).
(r + I)(s + I) = rs + I. Theorem W.3. If R is a PID and a,, ...,a, E R, then any two gcd's of a,, ...,
Let us show that this definition does not depend on the choice of coset a, are associates.
representative. By Lernma 2.8 in the text, r + I = r' + I if and only if
r - r ' ~ I . I f s + I=s1+I,then L Proof. We may assume that d # 0 (otherwise ai = 0 for all i). If d and d' are
gcd's, then each divides the other: there are u, v E R with d = d'u and d' = dv.
rs - r's' = rs - r's + r's - r's' Hence, d = d'u = d v ~and
, the cancellation law gives 1 = uu. Therefore, u is a
= (r - rr)s + r'(s - s'). unit and d and d' are associates. Ill
Since r - r', s - s' E I, we have rs - r's' E I, and so rs + I = r's' + I.
If R = Z, then the only units are 1 and - 1, so that two gcd's of a,, .. .,a,
The natural map v: R -+ R/I is the function defined by v(r) = r + I; the
differ only in sign. If R = k[x], where k is a field, then the only units are
definition of multiplication in the quotient ring shows that v is a (surjective)
nonzero constants; thus, only one gcd d(x) off, (x),...,f,(x) is monic; that is,
488 Appendix VI. Commutative Rings Appendix VI. Commutative Rings 489
it has leading coefficient 1 (i.e., the coefficient of the highest power of x is 1). Theorem VH.5. Let R be a PID and let p E R be irreducible. If I = (p) is the
Thus, if not all ai(x) = 0, any gcd of a, (x), ...,a,(x) in k[x] is an associate of principal ideal generated by p, then R/I is a field.
a monic polynomial.
In light of Theorem V1.3, we may speak of the gcd of elements in a PID, Proof. Iff + I E R/I is not the zero element, then f 4 I = (p); that is, p does
and we change the definition, in the special cases of Z and of k[x], so that the not divide f. Since p is irreducible, its only divisors are units and associates.
gcd is either positive or monic. The gcd of two elements a and b is denoted Therefore, d = gcd(p, f ) is either a unit or an associate of p. But if d were an
by (a, b); we say that a and b are relatively prime if (a, b) = 1. associate of p, then p would divide f, a contradiction. Hence, d = 1, and so
The euclidean algorithm shows how to compute gcd's in Zand in k[x], but there are elements a, b E R with 1 = ap + bf. Thus, bf - 1 E (p) = I, so that
we shall not need this here. (b + I)(f + I) = 1 + I; that is, f + I is a unit in R/I, and so R/I is a field.
Two integers a and b are relatively prime if and only if there are integers s
and t with sa + tb = 1. In other words, a and b are relatively prime if and Corollary W.6.
only if [a b] is the first row of a matrix having determinant 1 (let the second (i) If p is a prime, then Z,= ZMp) is a field.
row be [- t s]). This result can be generalized. Call a matrix A unimodular if (ii) If k is a field and p(x) E k[x] is an irreducible polynomial, then k;Cx]/(p(x))
det A = 1. is a field.
Theorem W.4. A set a,, ...,a, of integers is relatively prime if and only if there When we say that an element a is a product of irreducibles we allow the
is a unimodular n x n matrix A with entries in Z whose first row is [a, ...a,]. possibility that a itself is irreducible (there is only one factor).
A domain R is a uniquefactorization domain (or UFD) if:
Proof. We prove the theorem by induction on n 2 2, the base step being our
observation above. For the inductive step, let d be the gcd of a,, ..., a ,-,, (i) every r E R that is.neither 0 nor a unit is a product of irreducibles; and
(ii) if p, . ..p, = q, .. .q,, where the pi and qj are irreducible, then there is a
and let ai = dbi for i < n - 1. The integers b,, ...,b,-, are relatively prime
(there is no common divisor c > I), and so there exists an (n - 1) x (n - 1) bijection between the sets of factors (so m = n) such that corresponding
unimodular matrix B with entries in Z whose first row is [b,, ...,b,-,I. Now factors are associates.
d and a, are relatively prime (lest there be a common divisor of a,, ...,a,), so We are going to prove that every principal ideal domain R is a unique
there are integers s and t with sd + tan = 1. If C denotes the lower n - 2 factorization domain, and our first task is to show that if r E R is neither 0.
rows of B, define A to be the n x n matrix nor a unit, then it is a product of irreducibles.
db, ... db,-,
Lemma VI.7. If R is a PID, then there is no infitnite strictly increasing sequence
of ideals
-tbl .. . t b s 1, < iT2 < " ' < I, < I,+1< ... .
note that the first row of A is [a, ... a,]. Expanding down the last column,
Proof. If such a sequence exists, then it is easy to check that J = U, I, is an
det A = (- [
lY+'andet -:b] + (- 1)"s det +
d][: ideal. Since R is a PID, there is a E J with J = (a). Now a got into J by being
in some I,. Hence
bad. If a and b are good, then so is their product ab. Thus, if a is bad, then it
factors (for irreducibles are good), and at least one of its proper factors is bad. Theorem V1.12. An ideal I in a commutative ring R is prime if and only if R/I
Suppose there is a bad element a = a, which is neither 0 nor a unit. Assume is a domain.
inductively that there exists a,, a,, . ..,a, such that each a,,, is a proper bad
factor of ai. Since a, is bad, it has a proper bad factor a,,,. By induction, +
Proof. Recall that the zero element of R/I is 0 I = I. Assume that I is
there exist such a, for all n 2 0. There is thus an infinite strictly increasing + +
prime.IfI = ( a I)(b + I ) = ab I,thenab E I, h e n c e a ~ I o r bE I ; thatis,
sequence of ideals (a,) < ( a , ) < -. < (a,) < (u,~,,)< .- - , contradicting the a + I = I or b + I = I. Hence, R/I is a domain. Conversely, assume that R/I
previous lemma. Therefore, every a E R that is neither 0 nor a unit is good; + + +
is a domain and that ab E I. Thus, I = ab I = (a I)(b I). By hypothe-
that is, a is a product of irreducibles. iB + +
sis, one of the factors must be zero; that is, a I = I or b I = I. Hence,
a E I or b E I, so that I is prime.
Theorem W.9 (Eucllid's Lemma). Let R be a PID and let p E R be irreducible.
If a, b E R and plab, then pla or p(b. An ideal I in a commutative ring R is a maximal ideal if I # R and there is
no ideal J with I $ J $ R. Note that the ideal 0 is maximal if and only if R is
Proof. If pla, we are done. Otherwise, p does not divide a, and so the a field, for if a E R is not zero, then the ideal (a) must be all of R. Hence 1 E (a),
gcd d = (p, a) = 1 (as we saw in the proof of Theorem VI.5). By Theorem so there is r E R with 1 = ra; that is, a is a unit.
VI.2, there are elements s, t E R with sp + ta = 1. Therefore, b = spb + t(ab).
Since plab, it follows that pl b: i
4 Theorem VI.13. An ideal I in a commutative ring R is maximal if and only if
RII is a field.
Theorem V1.10 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic). Every principal ideal
domain R is a unique factorization domain. Proof. If I is maximal, then the correspondence theorem for rings shows that
R/I has no proper ideals. Hence the zero ideal is maximal and.R/I is a field.
Proof. By Lemma VI.8, every a E R that is neither 0 nor a unit is a product of Conversely, if there is an ideal J with I $ J R, then the correspondence
irreducibles. We have only to verify the uniqueness of such a factorization. theorem shows that J/I is a proper nonzero ideal in RII, contradicting the
If p,. ..pm= q, ...q,, where the pi and the qj are irreducible, then hypothesis tht RII is a field (the ideal 0 is maximal).
p, 1 q, ...q,. By Euclid's lemma, p, divides some qj. Since qj is irreducible, p,
and qj are associates: there is a unit u E R with qj = up,. As R is a domain, Since every field is a domain, if follows that every maximal ideal in a
we may cancel p, to obtain commutative ring is a prime ideal. The converse is not always true; for exam-
ple, the ideal I = (x) in Z[x] is prime (for Z[x]/Iz Z is a domain), but it is
not maximal because Zis not a field (or, because (x) $ (x, 2) Z[x]).
and the proof is completed by an induction on ma:;(m, n). @ Theorem VI.14. If R is a PID, then every nonzero prime ideal I is maximal.
A standard proof of Corollary V1.6 uses the notion of prime ideal, which
Proof. Assume that J is an ideal with I $ J. Since R is a PID, there are
makes Euclid's lemma into a definition. An ideal I in a commutative ring R
elements a, b E R with I = (a) and J = (b). Now I $ J gives a E J = (b), so
is called a prime ideal if I # R and ab E I implies a E I or b G I . Note that
there is r E R with a = rb. But I is prime, so that b E I or r E I. If b E I, then
the ideal 0 is prime if and only if R is a domain.
J = (b) c I, contradicting I 2 J. Therefore, r E I, so there is s E R with r = sa.
Hence, a = rb = sab; as R is a domain, 1 = sb E (b) = J. Therefore, J = R
Theorem VP.11. A nonzero ideal I in a PID R is prime if and only if I = (p),
and I is maximal.
where p is irreducible.
n
One can now give a second proof of Theorem VI.5.If R is a PID and p E R
Proof. Since R is a PID, there is an element d with I = jd). Assume that I is
is irreducible, then I = (p) is a nonzero prime ideal, by Theorem VI.11. By
prime. If d is not irreducible, then d = ab, where neither a nor b is a unit. By
Theorem VI.14, I is a maximal ideal, and so Theorem VI.13 shows that R/I
hypothesis, either a E I or b s I. But if, say, a E I, then a = rd for some r E R,
is a field. -
and hence d = ab = rdb. Therefore 1 = rb, contradicting b not being a unit.
Conversely, assume that p is irreducible and that ab E (p). Thus, plab, so
Lemma V1.15. Let k be a field and let p(x) E k[x] be irreducible. Then there is
that Euclid's lemma gives pl a or p 1 b; that is, a E (p) or b E (p). BFll
a field K containing a subfield isomorphic to k and a root of p(x).
492 Appendix VI. Commutative Rings Appendix VI. Commutative Rings 493
Proof. Let I = (p(x)) and let K = k[x]/I; since p(x) is irreducible, Theorem Lemma '671.18. If k is a field of characteristic p > 0, then for all a, b E k and
VI.5 shows that K is a field. It is easy to check that the family of all cosets of for all n 2 1,
the form a + I, where a E k, is a subfield of K isomorphic to k. Let p(x) = +
(a + b)Pn= aPn bPn.
+
Eaixi. We claim that the element x I E K is a root of p(x).
p(x + I) = 1 ai(x + I)'
+
Proof. The proof is by induction on n. If n = 1, expand (a b)Pby the bino-
mial theorem. Since p is prime, it divides all the middle binomial coefficients,
= C ai(xi + I) and hence each of them is 0 mod p. The inductive step is easy.
= C (nixi + I)
Theorem VI.19 (Galois). For every prime p and every n 2 1, there exists a field
= ( C aixi) + I having exactly pn elements.
= p(x) + I = I.
Proof. Let q = pn and let f (x) = xq - x E Zp[x]. By Theorem VI.16, there is
The result follows, for I = 0 + I is the zero element of K. N a field F containing Z, (so that F has characteristic p) and all the roots off (x).
Define K to be the set of all the roots off (x) in F. Since f (x) has degree q, it
Theorem VH.16. If k is a field and f (x) E k[x], then there is a field F containisg follows that J K (_< q, with equality if f(x) has no repeated roots. Now f '(x) =
k over which f(x) is a product of linear factors; that is, F contains all the roots qxq-I - 1 = - 1, because F has characteristic p and q = pn. Therefore, f(x)
o f f(4. and ff(x) are relatively prime, and Lemma VI.17 shows that f(x) has no
repeated roots.
Proof. The proof is by induction on n, the degree of f(x). If n = 1, then f(x) is We now show that K is a subfield of F. Let a and b be roots off (x), so that
linear and we may set F = k. If n > 1, there is a factorization f (x) = p(x)g(x) aq = a and bq = b. Lemma V1.18 gives (a - b)q = aq - bb"= a - 6, so that
in k [ x ] , where p(x) is irreducible (perhaps g(x) = 1). By Lemma VI.15, there a - b E K; moreover, (ab)4 = aqbq= ab, so that ab E K. Since 1 E K, it
is a field K containing k and a root /3 of p(x). There is thus a factorization follows that K is a subring of F. Finally, if a # 0, then aq = a implies that
p(x) = (x - P)h(x) in K [x]. Since degree h(x)g(x) < n, the inductive hypo- aq-I = 1, so that a-I = aq-2 E K (because K is a subring). Therefore, K is a
thesis gives a field F containing K over which h(x)g(x), hence f(x) = field. !B
(X- P)h(x)g(x), is a product of linear factors.
It is curious that the uniqueness of the finite fields was not established for
+
If k is a field and f(x) = anxa an-,xn-' + .-.+ a, E k[x], then its deriva- more than 60 years after their discovery.
the is
f '(x) = nanxn-I + (n - l ) a , - , ~ ~+- ~. + a,. Theorem VVII.20 (E.H. PIoore, 1893). Any ttvo fields having exactly p9' elements
are isomorphic.
It is easy to check that the usual formulas of Calculus hold for derivatives
of sums and products of polynomials over arbitrary fields: (f(x) + g(x))' = PYOO$Let K be a field with exactly q = pn elements. Since the multiplicative
f '(x) + g'(x); ( f (x)g(x))' = f (x)gi(x) + f '(x)g(x). group K x of nonzero elements of K has order q - 1, Lagrange's theorem
gives aq-I = 1 for all nonzero a E K. Therefore, every element of K is a root
Lemma VH.17. Let k be a field, let f(x) E k[x], and let F be a field containing of f(x) = xq - x, so that K is a splitting field of f(x). The result follows
k which contains all the roots of f(x). Then f(x) has no repeated roots if and from the general fact that any two splitting fields of a given polynomial are
only iff (x) and f '(x) are relatively prime. isomorphic (the reader may prove this by induction on the degree of f(x),
using Lemma 5.5 of the text). $I
Proof. If f (x) has a repeated root, then f (x) = (x - B)2g(x)in F [x]. ~ e n ~ c
+
fr(x) = 2(x - P)g(x) (x - /?)2g'(~), SO that x - p is a common divisor of The following proof is the polynomial version of the fact that every con-
f(x) and fi(x) and they are not relatively prime. Conversely, assume gruence class [a] E Zmis equal to [r], where r is the remainder after dividing
that x - /? is a common divisor of f(x) and f '(x): say, f(x) = (x - P)g(x) a by m; moreover, any two "remainders," that is, any distinct r and r' between
and f'(x) = (x - P)h(x). By the product formula for derivatives, f'(x) = 0 and r - 1 are not congruent.
+ +
(x - P)gi(x) g(x), so that (x - P)gi(x) g(x) = (x - P)h(x). Therefore,
x - p divides g(x), (x - j?)2 divides f (x), and f (x) has a repeated root. m Theorem Vl.21. Let k be a field and let p(x) E k[x] be an irreducible polyno-
494 Appendix VI. Commutative Rings
(G; X' j A') given a presentation of a group G, this is a presentation symplectic group
Names of Groups
alternating group
infinite alternating group
affine group
all affine isomorphisms of vector space V
all automorphisms of Steiner system (X, 9 )
binary tetrahedral group
braid group
complex numbers
multiplicative group of nonzero complex numbers
dihedral group of order 2n
infinite dihedral group
finite field having q elements
general linear group of all nonsingular n x n matrices
all nonsingular semilinear transformations
linear fractional transformations over K
Mathieu group i = 10,11,12,22,23,24
orthogonal group
projective linear group
modular group
collineation group
quaternions of order 8
generalized quaternions of order 2"
rational numbers
real numbers
symmetric group on n letters
symmetric group on a set X
all n x n matrices of determinant 1
Index
Hall theorem 108,110 terminal 422 Kulikov, L.J. 330 Miller, G.A. 292
Hall-Higman theorem 136 integers mod n Z, 13 Kulikov theorem 327 minimal exponent 202
Hamilton, W.R. 69 intersection of subcomplexes 368 Kurosh theorem 392 minimal generating set 124
hamiltonian group 87 invariant factors Kuznetsov, A.V. 466 minimal normal subgroup 105
height 332 abelian group 129 minimum polynomial 139
sequence 332 matrix 139 modular group PSL(2, Z) 391
hermitian form 235 invariant subspace 135 labeled directed polygon 433 modular law 37
higher centers ci(G) 113 inverse Lagrange, J.-L. 1,57 module 134
higher commutator subgroups G"' element 14 Lagrange's theorem 26 monomial matrix 46,177
104 function 480 Lam, C. 294 Moore, E.H. 493
Higman, G. 86,136,407 word 344 Lam-Leep 162,285 motion 63
Higman theorem 451 inverse image of subcomplex 377 Landau, E. 77 orientation-reversing 65
Higrnan, Neumann, and Neumann involution 68 Latin square 18 moves 3
theorem 404,405 involves 413 least criminal 111 multiplication by m 128
Hirshon R. 150 isometry 237 left exact functor 336 multiplication table 16
HNN extension 407,411 - isomorphism length multiplicator = Schur multiplier 201
holomorph 164 complexes 371 cycle 3 multiplier = Schur multiplier 201
homogeneous coordinates 273 field 93 normal series 97 multiply transitive 250
homomorphism 16 groups 16 path 368
crossed 211 G-sets 282 word 418
homotopic 369 Ivanov, S. 136 Levi, F. 383 N / C lemma 156
Hopf's formula 358 Iwasawa criterion 263 lifting natural map 33,374
Humphreys, J.E. 391 extension 178 Navel, Morris (see Pippik, Moishe)
Holder,O. 101,154 Jacobi identity 118 path 378 Neumann, B.H. 407
Holder theorem 160, 197 linear fractional transformation 281 Neumann, B.H. theorem 406
James, R. 86
hyperbolic plane 240 linear functional 229 Neumann, H. 407
J6nsson, B. 334
hyperplane 66,228 Lodovici Ferrari 90 Neumann, P.M. 86,391
Johnson, D.L. 350
Jordan, C. 101,286,289 lower central series 113 Newman, M.F. 86
block 139 Lyndon, R.C. 433 Nielsen-Schreier theorem 383
icosahedral group 69 nilpotent
canonical form 141
idempotent endomorphism 144 endomorphism 147
decompositions 144
identity element 14 Jordan-Dickson theorem 232 Mac Lane, S. 358 group 115
identity function 1, 480 Magnus, W. 449 Noether, E. 35
Jordan-Holder theorem
image = irn 22 Mann, A. 74 Nombril, kiaurice (see Bmbellico,
groups 100
imbedding 23 Mann, H.B. 31 Mario)
R-groups 152
free product 388 Markov property 468 nondegenerate quadratic form 244
Jordan-Moore theorem 225
imprirnitive juxtaposition 344 Markov-Post Theorem 428 nondegenerate space 236
G-set 256 Mathieu groups nongenerator 123
system 257 MIo 284 nonsingular semilinear transformation
inclusion function 480 k-transitive 250 M I , 288 267
indecomposable group 145 Kaloujnine, L. 176, 187 MIz 289 nontrivial block 256
independence in abelian group 127, Kaplansky, I. 19,330 MZz 290 normal endomorphism 144
3 10 kernel MZ3 291 normal form
index 25 derivation 213 Mz4 292 amalgams 402
infinite alternating group A, 51 group homomorphism 22 matrix of linear transformation free product 390
infinite dihedral group D, 391 ring homomorphism 485 relative to ordered basis 137 HNN extensions 416
injection 480 semigroup homomorphism 350 maximal divisible subgroup 321 normal series 97
injective property 320 Klein, F. 72 maximal normal subgroup 39 normal subgroup 30
inner automorphism 156 Kostrikin, A.L. 136 maximal tree 373 generated by 31
inner automorphism group Inn(G) 156 Kronecker, L. 128 McCormick, G. 200 minimal 105
inner product delta dij 498 McIver, A. 86 normalizer 44
matrix 235 Krull-Schmidt theorem McKay, J.H. 74. normalizer condition 116
space 235 groups 149 McLain, D.H. 115,176 normalizes 112
instantaneous description 421 Q-groups 153 Miller, C.F., III 430,467 Novikov, P.S. 136,430
Index Index