Iñigo Flores Ituarte - Bio-Inspired Metallic Surfaces by Means of Mechanical Processes

Iñigo Flores Ituarte © Bachelor Final Thesis
BIO--INSPIRED
INSPIRED METALLIC
SURFACES BY MEANS OF
MECHANICAL PROCESSES
AUTOR: IÑIGO FLORES ITUARTE

TITULACIÓ: ENGINYERIA TÈCNICA MECÁNICA
INDUSTRIAL
TUTOR: ELENA BARTOLOMÉ
DEPARTAMENT: MECÁNICA
DATA: JULIO 2010
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2010 1/92
Bio-inspired metallic surfaces by

means of mechanical processes
Abstract
“Bio-inspired” design is the development of devices and applications founded on Nature

solutions. Bio-inspired functional surfaces have nowadays a great potential of implementation
in many areas, and intense research is being done to find out man-productions techniques that
allow industrial fabrication at competitive costs.
This work evaluates the feasibility of Bio-inspired metallic surfaces by means of mechanical
processes only. A review of the state-of-the-art of Bio-inspired solutions, manufacturing
techniques and materials available evidences that only “Sharkskin” riblet morphologies in the
micro-metric range are feasible by mechanical processes at present, whereas nano-metric
morphologies are difficult.
Finite element method (FEM) simulations have been used to evaluate the manufacturing of
riblet surfaces by rolling process and give guidelines for possible fabrication setups.
Results summarized in this memory show that drag reduction effect by mimic of Sharkskin
surface through riblet manufacturing is possible, and offers possibilities for future development
of this technology with a cost-effective process. This technology has a wide implementation
area in many industrial activities and it offers great environmental and technical benefits. The
benefits induced by the implementation of Sharkskin surfaces in airplanes would imply an
estimated of fuel consumption of around 1,5 %.
Keywords
Bio-inspired, functional surfaces engineering, Sharkskin, Lotus effect, Moth eye, Gecko feet’s,
Rolling process, micro-mechanical manufacturing processes, Finite element method, energy
save.
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Index
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6
2. Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 8
3. State - of - the - Art of Bio-inspired surface engineering ................................................... 10
3.1 Sharkskin and drag reduction effects .......................................................................... 10
3.1.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 10

3.1.2 Theoretical foundations ....................................................................................... 12
3.1.3 Manufacturing processes ..................................................................................... 15
3.1.4 Materials and applications................................................................................... 18
3.2 Lotus effects, Self-cleaning and hydrophobic effects ................................................. 19
3.2.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 19

3.3 Motheye and biomimetic effects ................................................................................. 26
3.3.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 26

3.4 Gecko feet and dry adhesion effects ........................................................................... 32
3.4.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 32

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4. FEM simulations of riblet profile manufacturing ............................................................... 38
4.1 Simulation models....................................................................................................... 38

4.2 Materials and Material models .................................................................................... 42
4.3 Simulation results ........................................................................................................ 44
4.3.1 “A” Model results ............................................................................................... 44

4.3.2 “B” Model results................................................................................................ 48
4.3.3 Geometry parameters .......................................................................................... 52
4.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 54
5. Benefits of Sharkskin effect in aviation industry ............................................................... 57
6. Conclusions and future prospects ....................................................................................... 61
7. Project temporization ......................................................................................................... 65
8. Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 67
9. Annexes .............................................................................................................................. 71
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1. Introduction
Biologically-inspired or “Bio-inspired” design is the development of engineered devices taking

ideas founded on Nature and evolution characteristics.
Nowadays, engineers and scientists are using many Bio-inspired solutions in several industrial
areas. Potentially, the design under this point of view offers new technological applications and
gives opportunities to improve the efficiency of actual devices.
Nature can provide models and templates to make and produce cleaner technologies, more
environment-friendly, technically more efficient and economically more profitable. [1]
All surfaces have a defined texture and structure. In productive processes these surfaces are
designed and manufactured to satisfy specific needs. Characteristics produced by means of
evolution and natural selection in animal and plant surfaces are for engineers and scientists a
great foundation in surface engineering. [2]
At the present, there are many Bio-inspired commercial solutions available in a few application
areas. For example, new generation swimsuits are inspired in Sharkskin effect and the reduction
of marks in swimming competitions is a fact, (see picture 1). Also, very popular dry adhesive
systems are inspired in fiber adhesion.
Some surfaces found in Nature, such as Sharkskin, Lotus effect, Moth eye and Gecko feet’s
have benefits for surface engineering. The effects produced by these bio-surfaces are drag
reduction, hydrophobic and self-cleaning, anti reflectivity and dry adhesion effects,
respectively. These surfaces offer significant advantages, such as a large energy save and
efficiency increase. [3]
The commercial development of these surfaces represents an important challenge. The

knowledge in the theoretical foundations and their implementation into mass productive
methods requires the close work of scientists and engineers for cost-effective development of
this technology. The next few years will reveal big steps in this novel area.
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Picture 1: Commercial swim suit with Sharkskin effect
Abbreviators Nomenclature
DR Drag reduction D Diameter

MRF Micro riblet film L Longitude
HSC Hydrophobic and self-cleaning h Height
WCA Water contact angle S Width
AR Anti reflective ReD Reynolds diameter
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy CD Drag coefficient
FEM Finite Elements Method
GHG Green House Gases
Table 1: Abbreviators and nomenclature
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2. Objectives
This work was written and carried out in 2008-2009 during a 9 month internship at “VTT
Research Center of Finland”, where I worked as a research assistant profiting from an
“ERASMUS practicum” European grant.
VTT is a multi-technological contract research organization and it is part of the Ministry of

Industry of Finland. As an up to date European research center, this organization has a wide
array of technological branches, including knowledge areas such as bio-science, food industry,
electronics, energy, real estate and construction, machines and vehicles, service and logistics,
forest industry, process industry and environmental sciences.
Picture 2: VTT Research Center of Finland
This project was developed within the working cluster of “Manufacturing process simulation
and development”. This group is part of “Machines and vehicles department” in VTT. The main
working areas in this cluster are the modeling and simulation of: metal forming processes, steel
laminate and rolling process monitoring, crash and impact tests, welding and welding assembly
processes, heat treatment processes and the optimization of these industrial processes.
The purpose of this research project is to make an out-look of actual Bio-inspired surfaces
engineering capabilities, as a part of a prospect for a European project that VTT was working
on. Thus, this work would be used to have a description of Bio-inspired surface engineering.
This project makes an introduction to functional surface engineering steps and production
methods, available at present. Furthermore, the final objective is to research and evaluate the
possibility of manufacturing Bio-inspired metallic surfaces exclusively by means of mechanical
processes.
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In the first part of this memory the project will present the State-of-the-Art in Bio-inspired
surface engineering i.e. multifunctional surfaces inspired on biological structures. This section
analyzes and shows the theoretical foundations, morphology and shape characteristics, and
sketches the most common materials and productive methods in manufacturing of Bio-inspired
surfaces.
In order to study the possibility of mechanical manufacturing, metal forming FEM simulations,
presented in chapter 4, are used as predictive approach to evaluate the parameters for a reliable
implementation of these production methods into the common manufacturing processes in the
future.
Conclusion and future prospects of this work, in chapter 5, will serve to show future research
lines for VTT.
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3. State - of - the - Art of Bio-inspired surface engineering
The purpose of this section is to describe some of the most important Bio-inspired surfaces,
their geometrical characteristics, theoretical foundations and a review of the available materials
and manufacturing techniques.
3.1 Sharkskin and drag reduction effects
3.1.1 Description
Through natural evolution, sharks and several other aquatic animals have adapted their skin to
reduce friction with water. This method for saving energy was achieved by various mechanisms
of fluid control and boundary layer control.
The Sharkskin has tiny grooves called riblets aligned parallel in the direction of flow. Figure 1
shows a Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) photograph of real Sharkskin and an example of
a riblet surface imitating this Sharkskin surface.
Figure 1: a) Sharkskin photography, SEM [4] b) Example of riblets geometry [5].
The physical definition of friction is the combination of forces which tend to reduce the relative
motion of two surfaces in contact (Coulomb friction model) or a surface in contact with a fluid:
air on an aircraft (aerodynamic friction) or water in a pipe (hydrodynamic friction).
Even if intuition would say that this kind of rough texture increases friction, a riblet structure in
surfaces has the opposite effect, when the fluid conditions and riblet morphology are adequate.
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Micrometrical riblets and distances between tip and tip of riblet structures, or high-frequency of
riblet structures, Figure 2(a), produce the inhibition of transversal turbulences by a viscous
effect in surfaces in contact with parallel fluid in motion [6]. The transversal turbulences or
transverse instabilities keep away of the riblet structure and the flow becomes laminar between
the riblets. This effect produces friction reductions or Drag Reduction (DR).
Figure 2: Simplified behavior of a fluid into two different frequencies of riblets, a) High-frequency of riblets,
b) Low-frequency of riblet [6]
The theoretical demonstration that explains the DR due to the riblet structure is complex and
most of the knowledge on DR effect is based on direct experimental methods.
Experiments with riblet structure inside pipelines and tests with different Reynolds numbers
(ReD) show favorable values of DR [8]. Also, airplane flight tests and measurements in wind
tunnel [5], tests in pumps, exploratory experiments in compressor blades for aeronautic industry
or energy industry [9] [10] [11] are available. Moreover, there are direct numeric simulations
with different geometry of riblets [7] [12] [13].
These experiments and simulations values show a significant DR for the different devices
producing an increment of the efficiency when riblet structures were applied, although it is
necessary to indicate that the efficiency of the riblet structure varies depending on the flow
conditions.
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3.1.2 Theoretical foundations
DR in applications like pipelines is obtained by passive or active techniques. Active method is

when DR is achieved by means of additive substances in the fluid. On the other hand, a passive
method only changes the contact surface morphology properties.
An active method changes the fluid properties or fluid temperature, in order to reduce fluid
viscosity and therefore decrease pressure drop. These techniques are at present more profitable
and common, although they require an energy input. [14] [15] [16]
A passive method, on the contrary, changes the fluid behavior and obtains DR only by changing
the contact surface characteristics. A surface with structure of riblet is an example of passive
DR. The theoretical DR can be increased up to 10 % in ideal cases, compared with a
hydrodynamic smooth surface.
The geometry of the riblet has influence on the fluid behavior and DR efficiency. Parameters
like the height and width of the riblets are decisive. The shape of the riblets plays also an
important role.
Figure 3 explains the relation between the different riblet shapes, and their efficiency level [12].
The empirical ratio between the riblet heights (h) to width (s) ratio is defined as:
h
Riblet ratio = (3-1)
s
Experiments have shown that optimal DR is obtained for a riblet ratio of 0.5. Values between
0.2 < RibletRatio < 0.7 are acceptable, although efficiency decreases. [12]
Figure 3: Different shapes of riblet structure, and efficiency level. [17]
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The geometry of the riblet must be adapted to the local flow state for every particular
application. The choice for an optimal geometry involves many variables, and their impact is
not linear. In the prediction of an optimal geometry statistical techniques and experiments with
empirical solutions are mostly used.
One predictive solution is the empiric equation (3-2) that describes the maximum width Smax for
the geometry of riblet in a specific application [18]:
0,371 / 8 x1 / 10 v 9 / 10 ,
s max = s + (3-2)
0,02251 / 2 U ∞9 / 10
where s+ is a constant related with the flow state for the geometry characteristics of application
(e.g. for aircraft surface, high speed trains and turbine blades, s+=20 [18]), x is the position of
the boundary layer, v is the kinematic viscosity and U∞ is the free fluid speed.
This empiric equation has limitations and it is not possible to use it for every application,
however it is used for parallel flow with a plane surface, and Table 1 shows values for Smax for
most researched applications.
Application Smax
High speed trains 100µm
Aircraft skins 90µm
Turbine blades 70µm
Table 2: Estimation of Smax for different applications [18]
For applications like pipelines, there are experiments describing the behavior inside a wind
tunnel of two pipelines with the same geometrical characteristics (D=18 mm and L=200 mm)
but different surface morphologies. This experiment gives the values of drag coefficients (CD)
of the different pipes.[8]
One of the pipes has a hydrodynamic smooth surface and the other one includes a silicone
sawtooth Micro Riblet Structure (MRF) [19]. The geometry of the MRF was h = 180 µm and
s = 300 µm. Experimental conditions were such that the Reynolds number ranged between
2.5x103 < ReD < 3.8x104, changing U∞.
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Figure 4: Variation of DR with different ReD values. O: smooth pipe. ∆: MRF pipe. [8]
The example of Figure 4 shows the CD, for different Reynolds numbers. In the most favorable
combination, ReD =3.6x103 and U∞=3 m/s, the MRF pipe had a DR of 7.6 %, whereas for
ReD=3.6x104 and U∞=30 m/s, the friction increased a 4.2 %.
Theoretical expressions and tests demonstrate that DRs between 1 % < DR < 10 % are possible.
However, one must bare in mind that experiments have shown that a bad combination between
geometry of the riblet and adverse flow conditions produce an opposite effect, and friction could
even increase.
The key factor to increase the efficiency is to choose the best theoretical riblet geometry specific
for every individual application and find the equilibrium between the theoretical ideal geometry
and the real, manufacturable geometry inside an acceptable tolerance range.
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3.1.3 Manufacturing processes
• Micro - Rolling process
The rolling process techniques consist of replicating a riblet profile by means of plastic
deformation with a continuous roll machine.
Figure 5: Sketch of a rolling process, a) Detail of macroscopic rolling parameters, b) Thickness and detail
of microscopic parameters. Before and after the deformation [20]
Figure 5(a) shows the embossing of a DR profile in a work-piece by a continuous rolling

machine. One roll has a negative riblet profile and the other has a flat surface. The most
important parameters from the macroscopic point of view are: the width of the rolling area, the
linear speed of the rolling process, the hardness relationship of materials (tools and work-piece)
and the section reduction (thickness before and after the rolling). From the microscopic point of
view, Figure 5(b) shows the relevant geometrical parameters, negative riblet geometry in tool
and riblet geometry after the rolling in work-piece.
All these parameters have a direct influence on the final result of the process, and the shape of
the riblet must accomplish the shape requirements like the Smax for any application, and
RibletRatio to be efficient.
Figure 6: Sketch of tool manufacturing, a) Machining, b) Winding. [20]
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There are different mechanical techniques, like turning and winding, to manufacture the tool
and reproduce the negative riblet profile on it. In Figure 6(a), the riblet profile is produced by
direct machining with a conventional turning process. [18] [21]
In the winding technique, Figure 6(b), the base must be first machined with a turning technique,
to reduce the tendency of dislocation of the wire. Then it is possible to build up the roll with the
wire using the machined base like guide. [17] [20]
The most important parameters in tool manufacturing processes are the precision in axis of
turning and winding process machines, the material grain size and mechanical characteristics,
wire diameters, and last, the geometry of the machining tool and tip radio, which must be as
small as possible to produce a correct profile.
Experimental manufacturing and simulations reported in ref. [17] [18] [20] [21] show the
potential capacity of these techniques to reproduce riblet structures in small areas (w = 21, 30
mm of work-piece). Experiments show that riblets with approximately Smax = 400, 200, 100 µm
could be successfully manufactured accomplishing the RibletRatio for the fluid dynamics
requirements. Future experiments are focused to produce Smax = 75 µm to open the application
area.
• Micro - Grinding process
Micro-grinding processes consist of the machining of the DR profile by using a vitrified bonded
SiC grinding wheel with a tangential grinding machine.
Figure 7(a) sketches a grind process and shows the more general parameters in the grinding
process. The final shape of the work-piece after the machining in the experiment of ref. [22] can
be seen in Figure 7 (b) and (c).
Figure 7: a) Sketch of grinding process, b) SEM image of produced riblets, c) Micrograph section of
experimentally produced riblets. [22]
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The preparation of the tool with DR negative profile is made by means of a one diamond profile
roller and is sketched in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Sketch of the grinding wheel Sep up.
The set-up for the machining is very important. The final result is determined by the correct
combination of all the parameters, properties of diamond wheel tool, grain size, mechanical
characteristics and wear of the wheel. For the work-piece, mechanical and geometrical
parameters and also kinematics and dynamics in machining are very influent.
Experimental production and simulations show that it is possible to manufacture different

geometries of DR profiles with this technique and it is possible do it in big areas with a reduced
time, although there is a necessity to develop better abrasive wheels for cost effective
manufacturing. [22] [23] [24]
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3.1.4 Materials and applications
The application of riblet DR technique is very attractive for many industrial devices. Depending
on the application, a small or big surface area may be required, implying different
manufacturing techniques.
For small surface areas, materials like steel alloys, titanium alloys and nickel super alloys and
others are used to produce blades for jet engines and energy production turbines blades.
For instance, the work-piece material in experiments of ref. [18] [21] is Ti6Al4V. Different
stainless steels are used as experimental work-pieces, for example in ref. [22] the material is
X20Cr13 and in ref. [20] is X5CrNi 18-10. These materials are used to work at high
temperature environment with good mechanical requirements and commonly used in aero
engine blades manufacturing and energy generation turbines.
Furthermore, big surface areas like airplane skins, ship skins, high speed train skin etc.
aluminum and steel alloys are commonly used. Ref. [17] shows the experimental manufacturing
in Al99.5 used in airplane carriage manufacturing.
The development of DR profiles in turbine blades increases the efficiency and reduces stresses
increasing the admissible load cycles and effective life of the device. Also, the general friction
in high speed vehicles can be decreased with a consequent reduction in consumption.
Experimental grinding manufacturing and especially rolling manufacturing systems have a good
behavior in final embossed riblet shape, and they offer the possibility to include DR properties
in a new generation of turbines and high speed vehicles skins in the future.
Although the development of DR profile in pipes was tested with polymers films, the research
in this area and the development of new DR metallic pipes can provide more efficient fluid
transport systems implying large energy reduction. The negative aspect of manufacturing pipes
with an efficient riblet roughness is the poor cost-benefit ratio at present.
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3.2 Lotus effects, Self-cleaning and hydrophobic effects
3.2.1 Description
The lotus plant is a symbol of purity in many Asian religions. This symbolism has its origin on
the fact that the surfaces of lotus plant never retain dirt. The Lotus plant has hydrophobic
characteristics, Figure 9(a), and this effect allows a permanent self-cleaning action. This
Hydrophobic and self-cleaning (HSC) effect can be observed in other plants and animals in
Nature, and the advantages of HSC are obvious for many industrial applications.
The morphology of lotus flowers coatings has a double-structured surface, Figure 9(b). The
first presents a micro-scale roughness and the second one a nano-scale roughness. The first
micro roughness cells are covered by tiny nano-metrical almost cylindrical crystals, Figure 9(c).
This geometrical combination produces that the contact area is drastically reduced.
Figure 9: a) Photography illustrating the hydrophobic “lotus effect” [25], b) SEM image, surface of Lotus
Flower [26], c) Schematics of cells and wax crystals of lotus flower surface.
This surface micro-structure is not unique of lotus flowers; there are more combinations of
nano-micro-structures that produce HSC effect in Nature, in other plants or even insects. [25]
A combination between the chemistry of the surface, affecting directly the surface tensions, and
the double roughness geometry, produce these HSC bio-characteristics.
Nowadays, there are many developed and commercialized products with Lotus effect properties,
such as paintings, coverings, crystals, lenses etc. This HSC characteristic is produced commonly
in textile fibers, polymeric materials and crystals or ceramics.
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At the moment, the manufacturing techniques to produce commercial surfaces with HSC
characteristics are based on imitation of this double-structure with the best chemical
composition possible.
The most common techniques are the addition of composite materials, fibers and resins with
similar morphology characteristics to Lotus plant coatings by spraying and pulverization [27]
[28]. Also electrochemical treatments [29] and chemical routes or sol-gel routes [30] [31] [32]
[33] [34] [35] are researched to date.
Self-cleaning surfaces are in fact advantageous in whatever surface capable of getting dirty.
This properties HSC properties would be very convenient in metallic surfaces like aluminum
alloys [32] [36] [37], titanium alloys [38], magnesium alloys or steal alloys [34] [35]. The
research in this area can be profitable for many industrial areas and the development of new
technologies to optimize production is ongoing.
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A coating with HSC properties needs a close relationship between the chemistry and physical
properties of interaction elements and the surface morphology. This relationship determines the
final performance and HSC characteristics.
Figure 10: a) Sketch of surface tensions of the system: solid, liquid and gas. [39] b) Sketch of hysteresis
angle of a water drop.
Figure 10(a) shows the surface tensions and the interaction energies between elements of a
solid-liquid-gas system.
The final shape of the water drop or Water Contact Angle (α = WCA = θ ) is directly given by
the result of these three surface tensions.
The calculus of surface tensions implies the microscopically view and study of the internal
cohesion and repulsion of molecular forces of the different interaction elements states.
The traditional study of HSC properties is explained by Young´s equation based in Newton
second law:
∑T i i =0 TS , L − TS ,V = TL ,V . cos θ , (3-3)
where TS,L is the surface tension between solid and liquid states, TS,V is the surface tension
between solid and vapor states and TL,V is the surface tension between the liquid and vapor
states.
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Nowadays, Young’s (3-3) equation is insufficient to explain the behavior of surfaces. The HSC
characteristics are affected by many parameters like the hysteresis angle, Figure 10(b),
roughness and porosity. At present, there are new models that explain better this effect and these
models include the above mentioned parameters. [26] [31] [40] [41]
One key factor for HSC property is the hysteresis angle condition, Figure 10(b). If the angle is
too much large the water drop cannot roll in the surface catching all the dirt, it only slips
producing a bad final result.
A water contact angle of WCA= 0 0 means a hydrophilic surface, whereas WCA = 180 0 means
a completely hydrophobic surface. Surfaces with WCA between 110 0 < WCA < 140 0 are
considered hydrophobic and angles upper than WCA > 140 0 with hysteresis angles less than
WCA < 5 0 have HSC characteristics. [42]
Figure 11 shows the evolution of polycarbonate polymer resin during the silica chemical
treatment [31]. The Figure 11(a) shows an uncoated PC surface and next Figures 11(b) and (c)
present the improvement of the WCA, self-cleaning and hydrophobic properties..
Figure 11: Sketched figure of chemical treatment, a) untreated surface, b) first step of treatment,
c) Treated surface. [31]
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• Micro - embossing process
One manufacturing technique to produce lotus flower surface profile and HSC morphology is
based on the plastic deformation of the work-piece.
Figure 12: Schematics of micro-embossing process: a) Description of elements, b) Embossing process

and plastic deformation, c) Final result.
The process to generate HSC morphology for functional surfaces needs the reproduction of a
negative coating in the tool with a nano-metric profile inside the micro-metric profile. The
manufacturing process by micro embossing is sketched in Figure 12.
The general parameters in micro embossing are the tool and work-piece mechanic properties. A
very important parameter is the relation of hardness in the tool and work-piece. Also, the
embossing temperature (hot or cold) and the forces in the embossing process can determine the
final result.
The techniques to manufacture nano-metrical coating in stamping or embossing tools require

alternative processes and non-exclusive mechanical processes, because the manufacturing
processes under the nanometric range by mechanical techniques is not possible nowadays.
For instance, one example of this is the machining of the negative tool profile by laser
machining. Figure 13 shows the effect of Nd: YAG laser treatment, which produces orthogonal
or hexagonal craters of 30, 40, and 50 µm of width and 20 µm of deep in the hard metallic tool.
Then the embossing of the work-piece is done by plastic deformation. [36]
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Figure 13: SEM image, a) Work tool, metallic hard surface, b) Work-piece, micro embossed 99.5 % pure
aluminum with 1mm thick. [36]
It is possible to use other techniques to reproduce HSC embossing tools, like electrochemical
routes, photolithographic techniques, electron beam writing processes and others. [36]
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Aluminum, steel, magnesium and titanium alloys are usually used for structural applications,
construction materials and many industrial applications.
The experimental manufacturing in aluminum allows, by means of stamping or embossing

process and then chemical treatments can produce WCA between 150o and 160o and also
successful values of hysteresis with acceptable HSC characteristics.
Magnesium or aluminum alloys are used for structures in many electronic devices, mobile
phones, laptops etc, where small surfaces are needed. The manufacturing of these structural
elements is made by stamping. Embossing tools with HSC morphology negative shape could be
included inside the manufacturing chain, and then make an efficient combination of the pre-
treated surface with chemical treatments to get the mentioned properties.
For large areas applications, the most used materials are steel and aluminum alloys. The
development of new generation rolling processes to emboss morphologic characteristics in
metallic materials can provide a first step to get HSC characteristic. Then, the combination with
chemical processes could give successful values of HSC properties and also a good cost-
benefits ratio.
HSC properties in metallic surfaces can provide a decrease in cleaning periods, maintenance
cost and also a reduction in corrosion reactions.
I should be pointed out that about a 5% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of an
industrialized country is spent on corrosion prevention and maintenance or replacement of
corrosion affected surfaces!
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3.3 Motheye and biomimetic effects
3.3.1 Description
Many insects, and specially moth species, have a nano-roughness structure in the surface of
their eyes and wings. With this structure the surface of insects presents a low refractive index
for light, and has therefore Anti-Reflective (AR) properties for camouflage and for escaping the
predator.
Figure 14(a) shows the Motheye effect, that is the low reflection of light in the moth surface
under light exposition. This kind of coating produces an AR layer on the surface.
100nm 500nm
500nm 500nm
Figure 14: a) Photograph illustrating the “Motheye” effect [43], b) SEM picture of Motheye [44], c) TEM
picture of two different species of moths [44].
The Motheye and surfaces based on the moth eye seem to be black. This effect is produced
because the surface has the property to absorb the light from any direction.
The Motheye surface is composed of an hexagonal array. Inside of this array, there are
nanoscopic roughness structures, Figure 14(b). The geometry and characteristics of this nano
structure varies between the different species, Figure 14(c). The common geometrical
dimensions for this nanoscopic roughness surface of different species varies between 100–300
nm for the width and 150–350 nm in height [44] [45].
Figure 15(a) shows a stochastic 3D representation of a wing surface, and Figure 15(b) plots
graphically the nanoscopic surface profile.
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Figure 15: a) Stochastic 3-D representation of cicada wings, b) graphic of profile dimensions. [45]
The investigation in this area is ongoing. Motheye technology is being used and is the object of
research in applications like solar cells for power generation industry [46], optic industry [47],
monitoring displays, optic fibers, detectors or many electronic devices [48].
Production techniques of surface with AR properties are generally based on chemical

techniques like sol-gel treatments [49] [50] or plasma treatments [51].
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The theoretical modeling of the reflection level of coatings can be explained by Fresnel
reflection equations and Snell’s laws. Parameters like wavelength of light, the angle of
incidence, refractive index of mediums, isotropy or anisotropy behavior of propagation of the
light through the medium and magnetism of materials and others, determine the average of final
reflection coefficient or the AR level.
A simplified model to calculate the AR level of Motheye coatings is based on Snell and Fresnel
equations. Figure 16 shows two isotropic media, air and water. Snell law states that the ratio of
the sinus of the angles of incidence vector P and refraction vector Q is a constant that depends
on the medium [52]. The mathematical expression is:
sin θ1 n2 v1
= = or n1 .sin θ1 = n2 .sin θ 2 , (3-4)
sin θ 2 n1 v 2
where θ1 and θ 2 are the incidence P and refraction Q angles respectively, n1 and n2 are the
refractive indices and v1 and v2 are the light velocities in the two different media, respectively.
Figure 16: Sketched figure of refraction (P, Q) and reflection (S) vectors. [52]
To evaluate the reflection coefficient of the coating, Figure 16 shows the sketch of reflected
vector S. Using trigonometric identities, and Snell law and Fresnel equations, it is possible to
evaluate mathematically the final Reflection coefficient (R).
2 2
 (n . cosθ1 − n2 . cos θ 2 )   (n . cos θ 2 − n2 . cos θ1 ) 
RQ =  1  and RP =  1  , (3-5)
 (n1 . cos θ1 + n2 . cos θ 2 )   (n1 . cos θ 2 + n2 . cos θ1 ) 
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where RQ is the reflection coefficient of refraction Q vector and RP is the reflection coefficient
of incidence P vector.
The final reflection coefficient is calculated with the arithmetic average of this two reflection
coefficients:
RQ + RP
R= , (3-6)
2
where R is the final reflection coefficient of the surface. [53]
A manufactured surface with AR properties changes the refractive index n2 affecting strongly
the final reflection average (3-6) of the coating.
This basic 2D vector modeling formula gives first approach results of the AR level of the
coating. For more accurate results one must use rigorous diffraction theory, where the
propagation of the light is treated like a wave, and solve Maxwell equations under the proper
boundary conditions. [54]
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• Micro - embossing process
This manufacturing method is based on plastic deformation. The same technique already
sketched in Figure 12 is used to reproduce AR coating profile.
Ref. [54] describes the fabrication process of nano-structured AR surfaces by hot embossing,
however, the production of the tool is not by mechanical processes. Manufacturing of nano-
metrical stamping or embossing tools requires alternative techniques. For instance, Figure 17
shows the manufacturing of the tool by lithography, etching and electrochemical techniques.
Figure 17: A sketched of nickel stamp manufacturing, a) E-beam exposure and development,
b) Cr reactive ion etch and resist ashing, c) Quartz reactive ion etching and Cr removal, d) Ag removal and
nickel electroforming, e) PC hot embossing, f) Replicated AR grating [54]
In ref. [54], the AR reflective negative coating was manufactured by Ni electroforming in a

stamper, while the hot embossing was in polycarbonate (PC).
This technique shows the experimental route to produce Ni stampers, combining lithographic
techniques with electro-chemical techniques. This process allows the production, through Ni
hardness tools, of PC surfaces with AR properties by plastic deformation.
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The most commonly used materials for AR properties are polymers, ceramics and crystals. AR
coatings could be applied in many different areas, although research is at present focused on the
development of better solar cells for energy production. Also in electronic devices like
monitoring displays, optics and detectors AR properties are advantageous.
Reproduction of AR coatings into metallic materials, like steels or copper, could have also
implementation areas. It will be interesting to evaluate AR coating behavior in applications
where most heat dissipation way is by radiation phenomena. An AR surface can offer optimized
surface characteristics to increase emissivity and the efficiency in micro waves or heat
exchangers.
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3.4 Gecko feet and dry adhesion effects
3.4.1 Description
Many creatures in Nature like flies, beetles, spiders and some reptile animals have the ability to
climb and walk in vertical smooth or roughness surfaces.
The adhesion technique in Nature for species like beetles or flies is by capillarity of secretions
in contact with the roughness surface, but spiders, and especially Gecko, have a dry adhesion
capacity. This adhesion force is produced largely by Van der Waals interaction forces between
the surface and the feet structure [55] [56].
Figure 18: a) Gecko Tokay feet, b) SEM and draft of lamellae and setae, c) SEM and draft of Setae,
d) SEM and draft of Spatulae. [57] [58]
Figure 18 shows the Gecko feet structure. It has a three level hierarchical system [57]: the first
big roughness surface, called lamellae, is covered approximately by hundred billion of foot hair,
called setae; at the tip of these setae fibers there are other nano-scale fiber structures, called
spatulae, which is the last contact surface [59].
The attachment area of one Gecko feet is approximately of 110 mm2 of lamellae structure. In
Figure 18(a), lamellae have between 1-2 mm of length and are cover by 1011 setae/m2 of hair
setae fibers.
The setae, Figure 18(c), have 30-130µm of length and 5-10µm of diameter and the top of the
setae is covered at the same time with the spatulae structure, Figure 18(d).
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The length of spatulae fiber is between 2-5 µm and the diameter is 0.1-0.2 µm. At the top of the
spatulae there are subfivers of 0.5 µm length and rectangular shape, 0.2-0.3 µm of width and
0.01 µm of thickness.
This triple fiber structure gives the property to generate a maximum contact area with the
surface, and capacity to penetrate into the nano/micro roughness of the contact surface. [57]
Mimic of Gecko structure is not useful for cost effective manufacturing. However, setae and
spatulae structure can be replaced by similar structures, Figure 19(a). [59]
There are actual products inspired in this Gecko feet effect. For example reusable adhesive
systems were developed inspired in fiber adhesion. Research institutes and resources are
nowadays developing new generation of dry adhesion inspired in this system.
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The geometrical parameters are not the unique responsible of the dry adhesion effect. The
roughness [59] or friction coefficients of the surfaces [56], mechanical properties of fibers,
dynamics of gecko [60] etc. must be included to predict and model the behavior of this dry
adhesive effect. [55] [57]
The adhesion between two bodies by theoretical van der Waals forces can produce big forces.
The theoretical contact strength σ th in one ideal contact between two surfaces can be calculated
with:
T
σ th ≈ and T = T1 + T2 − T12 , (3-7)
A
where T is the adhesion tension, T1 and T2 , are surface tensions of the two bodies in contact
and T12 is the specific surface tension of the interface formed between them, and last A is the
characteristic length of surface interaction. [55]
Figure 19: a) Setae structure simplification, b) Graft of geometric parameter used for modeling
A more accurate model can be obtained based on ideal contact strength and geometrical
simplifications, Figure 19(b). Johnson-Kendall-Roberts (JRK) predicts the force necessary for
producing dry adhesion in contact area between a spherical solid and surface:
4 E.a 3
F= − 4Π.E.T .a 3 , (3-8)
3 R
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where F is the adhesion force, E is the Young modulus of the fiber, a is the contact area , R is
the radio of the sphere and T is the tension adhesion described in (3-7) produced by Van der
Walls interaction.
This theoretical model successfully describes experimental results is very accurate to predict the
adhesion behavior of manufactured fibers. [55] [57]
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The production of Gecko feet hair structure is not possible by mechanical processes. The
systematic mimic and reproduction of the different bio-structures is not possible. Gecko hair
structure needs nanometric elastic hairs to reproduce the effect of dry adhesion. Mechanical
methods like stamping, rolling or direct machining cannot reproduce the necessary elastic
characteristics of fibers.
Nowadays, experimental manufacturing and research areas are focused on alternative ways. For
example, one experimental manufacturing technique consists of synthesizing of carbon nano-
tubes aligned with the normal of the surface, Figure 20(a) [61]. Also, many techniques use
lithography to produce molds with nano cavities, and then use capillarity forces to reproduce
Gecko feet hair structure in polymers, Figure 20(b). [62]
Figure 20(a) shows an example of a small film of a few mm area with Gecko feet structure.
Experiments described in ref.[61] show that this dry adhesive film has approximately an
admissible strength of 2900N/m2 in normal direction to the surface.
Figure 20: a) SEM of carbon nano tubes dry adhesion system and manufactured adhesive film [61] b)SEM
of two techniques of gecko hair production by lithographic and capillarity forces [62]
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This new generation of dry adhesion devices could have many applications areas, but the only
manufacturing materials at the moment are polymeric coatings.
In metallic surfaces this kind of adhesive surfaces could offer better quality in joints under
aggressive environmental conditions. In metallic structures, the first point of deterioration by
cracks or corrosion is in joints between bolts and, more exactly, between the contact surfaces of
the components of the joint. This dry adhesive surface would be ideal to get a better surface
contact in bolt joints and increase the life of the device.
The development of new generation dry adhesive films offers advantages compared to actual
systems. Reusability is one of the best points compared to other actual adhesion systems.
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4. FEM simulations of riblet profile manufacturing
From the literature overview presented in chapter 3, it can be concluded that Sharkskin riblet
profiles are the only structures that may be manufactured by exclusive mechanical processes at
present. Negative tool or riblet roll, can be machined by precision turning or cutting and the
process to generate metallic groove profile surfaces could be done by rolling process. All these
steps are described in chapter 3.1.3.
The purpose of this chapter is to analyze potential problems in “V” shape riblet rolling
manufacturing process of metallic surfaces, and evaluate microscopic and macroscopic
influential geometrical parameters to implement this technology in a real manufacturing
process.
Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations have been performed using the software DEFORM-
3D V5.1 to predict effective stresses, effective strains, loads and work temperature during the
rolling process for different materials. FEM programs are commonly used to determine stress
and strain distributions in complex-shaped structures.
The simulations of V riblet shapes have the objective to describe more in depth the parameters
in riblet rolling manufacturing. The principal objective is to predict the effective stress and
effective strain of the work-piece and tool, the macroscopic and microscopic geometric
parameters in tool and work-piece after the process, and one final set up for a reliable
development of the manufacturing process.
4.1 Simulation models
In order to obtain results in a reasonable computation time, the surface geometry and
manufacturing process had to be simplified. The simplification of geometry used in simulations
was possible considering symmetry conditions in parallel planes of one riblet structure and only
microscopic effects during the manufacturing process.
The rolling process was simplified by making the simulation of only one riblet structure, but
using symmetry tools of the software. Figure 21 sketches the geometrical model used in the
simulation. Moreover, it defines all the important boundary conditions and input parameters
required to describe and repeat the simulations:
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Figure 21: Overview of geometry simplification of the different models and model inputs, a) Riblet roll
b) Smooth roll c) Work-piece
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Two different models (“A” and “B”) with different geometrical parameters and boundary
conditions were considered, in order to evaluate and predict multi-physics behaviors produced
during the production process:
A) The “A” model considers a rigid material model for tools and a plastic material model for
the work-piece. Deformation, friction and heat transfer’s effects are included in this model. The
objective of the “A” model will be predicting the load in rolls to evaluate constructive
parameters of tools, study the stress generated during the manufacturing to evaluate the tool
material properties and the work temperature.
B) The “B” model considers an elastic-plastic material model for the “V” shape roll and a
smooth roll and a plastic material model for the work-piece. Only the deformation effect is
included. Simulations under “B” model will be focused on prediction of the effective stress,
effective strain and final embossed geometry of the work-piece. The elastic-plastic model
evaluates the effect of elastic recovering or spring back in the tool during the interaction
between solids.
The simplification of the “B” model does not include rotational dynamic motion of the
manufacturing tools. The rolls in this model are static because the software used in this work
has only the capability to generate rotational motion in rigid bodies.
The rotational motion and linear motion between tool and work-piece, respectively, and the
relative motion between contact points produce frictions during the real manufacturing. The
friction coefficient between bodies is equal to 0 in “B” model, for the compensation of the
absence of rotational motion of the tool.
The initial values for geometrical parameters are summarized in Figure 21, where d is the
diameter of rolls, So is the riblet width of rolls and work-piece, ho is the riblet height of roll, Lo is
the distance between rolls and to is the initial thickness of work-piece. The initial length of the
work-piece is also described.
In both models, thickness reduction of the work-piece is from to = 2 mm, the initial thickness of
the work-piece, to Lo = 1 mm, the distance between rolls. This set of simulation proposed here,
makes the thickness reduction and the “V” riblet manufacturing into the same process.
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The kinematic boundary conditions of both models are also summarized in Figure 21, where Wz
is the angular speed and Vx is the linear speed of tools and work-piece, respectively. An
isothermal environment of 20oC is assumed during the process.
The manufacturing setup and materials used in this set of simulations have been selected by
using the literature overview already presented in the chapter 3.1. Basically, it has been
performed choosing the information presented in ref. [17] [18] [20] [21].
To perform the set of FEM simulations, a very fine mesh is required to describe correctly the
geometrical shape and produce a correct discretization of the model, in order to obtain accurate
results of the mechanical reactions, minimizing the numerical error of the calculus.
The criteria to create the mesh are different in the two models:
A) In the “A” model, only the work-piece material has been considered to be deformable. The
criterium to define the mesh is to consider a division among 3 of the smallest length of the
primitive geometry in work-piece. The value for maximum mesh length and remesh length
criterium is 0.100 mm. The number of elements in “A” model is about 25000 elements. The real
manufacturing time for this model is around 2.5 sec and the computation time required about 12
hours.
B) In “B” model all the solids are deformable. It considers a smaller discretization for more
accurate prediction. The general maximum mesh length is 0.100 mm with local mesh of 0.080
mm in contact spots between rolls and work-piece. The remesh criteria is of 0.050 mm in the
riblet roll and 0.080 mm for the smooth roll and work-piece. In “B” model the number of
elements is 70000, the real manufacturing time is 1 sec and the computation time is more than
30 hours.
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4.2 Materials and Material models
During the simulations, the work-piece and riblet manufacturing are assumed to be made in one
of these materials: Ti6Al4V super alloy, Al-1100 or AISI-1008 low carbon steel alloy. These
materials are commonly used in industry for production of many devices. The application areas
for these materials are described in chapter 3.1.4.
These materials are different from each other in composition and in mechanical properties. The
purpose of this selection is to compare the different behavior into the same process and get the
set up for a reliable manufacturing of different materials.
The tool material for manufacturing is assumed to be AISI-D2. This machinable cold work tool
steel is a high carbon multi alloy with hardness close to 60 HRC. It is used in many metal
forming processes like punching and cold rolling processes.
Tables 3 and 4 summarize the materials, material properties and material models assumed for
the simulations. The material flow stress data sets used in this work were taken from DEFORM-
3D V5.1 material data base.
Material Model Poison ratio Yield Strength Young modulus

Ti6Al4V Plastic 0.31 860 MPa 115 GPa
Al-1100 Plastic 0.3 75 MPa 68.9 GPa
AISI- 1008 Plastic 0.33 380 MPa 206.75 GPa
Table 3: Work-piece material properties and model used in simulations
Material Model Poison ratio Yield Strength Young modulus

AISI-D2 Elastic-Plastic 0.3 1030 MPa 206.75 GPa
Table 4: Tool material properties and model used in simulations
Doing a pre-evaluation of the mechanical behavior under the rolling process of work-piece and
tool according with the high thickness reduction proposed in the model, DEFORM-3D software
has different methods of defining the flow stress curves of each material under these
manufacturing conditions.
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The material database and the material model used to perform the simulations takes into account
the flow stress of a material under uniaxial conditions. The flow stress curves of DEFORM-3D
material database are in dependency of the parameters described by this function:
 . 
σ = σ  ε , ε , T  , (4-1)
 
.
where σ is the effective stress, ε is the effective strain, ε is the effective strain rate and T is
the temperature.
Effective stress is evaluated by means of Von Mises stress criterium. Effective strain is
calculated through the extension of strain expression into three dimensions. Effective strain rate
is calculated measuring the rate of deformation or effective strain with respect to time, and the
temperature is calculated looking to the transformation of deformation energy into thermal
energy.
The material database of DEFORM-3D V5.1 and materials used to perform the simulations
have a wide array of flow stress curves as a function of the different values of strain rate and
temperature. The intermediate values are linearly interpolated between the different curves.
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4.3 Simulation results
Simulation models used to describe this manufacturing process and the results obtained
represent a powerful tool for prediction of multi-physics behaviors during the manufacturing.
These results are used to evaluate parameters for the implementation and predict the set up of
the future real manufacturing tests.
It should be noted, though, that the assumption of a macroscopic material model of the flow
stress curves to describe the behavior in micrometric range and the simplification and
idealization of the models are not entirely loyal with the real physical behavior during the
manufacturing process. Raw data of simulations can be found in the ANNEX of this memory,
whereas the most important results are summarized here.
4.3.1 “A” Model results
Results of the “A” model are the first approximation to a real manufacturing process. This set of
simulations was performed to describe tool properties and parameters of the manufacturing.
Figure 22: Ti-6Al-4V manufacturing, prediction of effective stress field, “A” model
Figure 22 shows the effective-stress in Ti-6Al-4V manufacturing. Values of effective-stress are

higher than those produced in the manufacturing of AISI-1008 and Al-1100. The maximum
effective stresses predicted for each work-piece manufacturing are 1260 MPa, 615 MPa and 125
MPa respectively.
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The highest stresses are located at the entry of the manufacturing tool, between P1 and P2 points
sketched in Figure 22. It is produced during the thickness reduction and it generates the highest
percentage of stress and strain reactions in tool and work-piece.
After these effective-stress results and looking material data base available in DEFORM-3D,
AISI-D2 was the selected material to evaluate the answer of the tool in, “B” model simulations
described later.
Figure 23: Plot of work temperatures at the hottest node during the manufacturing
During the simulation, the “A” model assumes a cold manufacturing with an isothermal
environment of 20 oC. Figure 23 describes the temperature value located in the hottest node of
the work-piece, during the manufacturing process for three different work-piece materials.
The temperature of the work-piece saturates at 0.5 s, when energetic equilibrium of the media is
reached. The temperature values in the hottest node are 25 oC and 50 oC in the manufacturing of
Al-1100 and AISI-1008, respectively. Comparing the thermal behavior of the different
materials, Ti-6Al-4V manufacturing is one that saturates at the highest temperature, 124 oC.
In order to verify that FEM results were sound, the temperatures of work were also analytically
estimated considering the transformation of deformation energy into thermal energy, and taking
into account the empirically determined properties (density, heat capacity and flow stress curve)
of each material. Results were in reasonable agreement with FEM simulations.
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The thickness reduction produces a high increase of stress along the flow stress curve of each
work-piece material. The stress accumulation is transformed in deformation energy and finally,
in dependency of specific heat and density of each work-piece material. Most of this energy is
transformed into thermal energy.
Figure 24: Above, Plot of temperature as a function of work-piece distance during the manufacturing of
the different materials, and bellow an example of AISI-1008 temperature longitudinal distribution
Figure 24 plots the temperature distribution along the work-piece material. The plot shows that
during the manufacturing the temperature of the work-piece decreases along the work-piece.
Heat transfer module in simulation input data includes effects of conduction in materials,
convection with the environment and radiation. These heat transfer effects are responsible of the
decrease of the maximum temperature produced through forming work done.
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The temperatures along the work-piece are 23 oC, 38 oC and 60 oC for Al-1100, AISI-1008 and
Ti-6Al-4V work-piece materials respectively.
Figure 25: Plot of Y load prediction during the manufacturing
Figure 25 plots the perpendicular load in the tool. After 0.8 seconds of manufacturing the curve
get saturated, this effect is due to the fact that from that time step the contact surface area
between tool and work-piece gets the maximum value. The value of load produced during the
manufacturing is in a range of 200 N and 2500 N.
The reaction force in a tool gives an idea of how the tool answers macroscopically, and how this
load could produce deflection in tool during the manufacturing process. The load used to
calculate tool macroscopic geometrical properties is after 0.8 sec of manufacturing. After the
transitory period the load becomes stationary, the stationary loads used are 200 N, 1160 N and
2500 N in Al-1100, AISI-1008 and Ti-6Al-4V manufacturing respectively.
This load is distributed along the longitudinal length “So” of the simulation geometry model.
During the evaluation of the macroscopic geometry and design for constructive parameters of
the tool, this perpendicular load is treated as a uniform load distribution along the tool with
values of 0.67 KN/m, 3.87 KN/m and 8.33 KN/m for Al-1100, AISI-1008 and Ti-6Al-4V
manufacturing respectively.
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4.3.2 “B” Model results
For an accurate prediction of the microscopic geometry in the embossed riblet profile of work-
piece and also mechanical analysis during the rolling process, it is important to include the
effect of deformation in the tool and work-piece. Predictions of final geometrical results and
mechanical behavior are more accurate after the equilibrium between tool deformation and
work-piece deformation.
The assumption of an elastic-plastic model for the tool and a plastic material model for the
work-piece are more precise with the real behavior. Thus “B” model gives more reliable values
and it evaluates better the mechanical effects during the riblet rolling process.
Figure 26 shows the obtained field of strain distribution in the cross section or thickness in
work-piece after rolling process.
Figure 26: Plot of strain distribution in the cross section of the different materials after the manufacturing,
and an example of Ti-6Al-4V work-piece manufacturing effective strain field
This effect of the deformation along the thickness is different in each material. The plot of
Figure 26 shows that the strain distribution in AISI-1008 and especially in Ti-6Al-4V is more
concentrated in the superficial layers.
On the other hand, the behavior of the Al-1100 work-piece under the deformation process is
more homogeneous along the cross section with a regular strain distribution.
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The plot of Figure 26 shows that the forming work done during the process generates the
highest plastic-strain values in superficial layer of the work-piece, mainly in the top of the riblet
structure.
It produces values of plastic-strain between 0.8 and 0.95 at the top of the riblet structure and
values of plastic-strain in a range of 0.7 and 0.8 in the bottom of the section. These values are
dependent on the properties of each material.
The high strain values obtained in the superficial layer are interesting from the point of view of
production of work-piece material with a superficial high hardness. It may be useful for the
production of more durable riblet structures.
Figure 27: Comparison of maximum tool stress values during the manufacturing
Figure 27 shows a cross section of the contact area between tool and work-piece. It shows the
field of maximum effective stresses in the tool during manufacturing of the different materials.
The highest value of effective stress plotted in the legend is 1030 MPa. This value is an
estimated Yield strength of the tool material AISI-D2.
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Stress predictions of the Figure 27 evidence that the compressive effective stresses produced in
manufacturing of AISI-1008 and especially in Ti-6Al-4V work-pieces could be close to the
yield strength of the tool material.
In case of Ti-6Al-4V and AISI-1008 manufacturing, the effective stress produced could
overcome the reversible range of deformation in the tool. The prediction of effective stress
values in Al-1100 manufacturing are on the elastic range.
The process of rolling and the section reduction mostly produce mechanical compressive
reactions in Y axis. Reactions produced through the compressive stresses of section reduction
are responsible of the high values of effective-stress in tool during the manufacturing.
Although the tangential stresses produced by the friction between tool and work-piece relative
motion is not included in “B” model, the equivalent stress values in the “B” model are close
with equivalent predicted in “A” model, which means that the obtained results are accurate and
coherent with the real physical behaviour.
Figure 28: Comparison of maximum tool strain values during the manufacturing
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Figure 28 shows the field of effective plastic strain in the tool riblet structure for the same time
step and cross section of the contact area between tool and work-piece sketched in Figure 27.
Effective plastic-strain predictions in the tool evidences that during manufacturing values are
out of the reversible range of the deformation, that is, there is local plastic strain.
In the case of manufacturing of AISI-1008 there are low values of plastic-strain. On the other
hand, during the manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V there is high local plastic-strain along the contact
points between roll and work-piece and especially on the top of the tool riblet structure.
Results of simulations in Figure 28 show that the set up of manufacturing done produces values
of plastic-strain bigger than zero ( ε Plastic > 0), in manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V and AISI-1008.
In contrast, Figure 28 shows that the manufacturing of Al-1100 does not produce high strain
values and the manufacturing of this material is within the elastic range.
Although the prediction of effective plastic-strain values could be low, the high value of
effective-stress still indicates the possibility of local plastic deformation. Results show that
stresses produced during the manufacturing are higher than the tool yield strength and there is
plastic-strain. This set up of manufacturing predicts local irreversible plastic-strain in the tool
negative riblet in case of manufacturing of AISI-1008 and mostly TI-6Al-4V.
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4.3.3 Geometry parameters
Concerning the geometry characteristics of the tool and work-piece, predictions of

perpendicular load of the “A” model and calculated load distribution were used to describe the
macroscopic dimensional design of tool and the displacement of the tool. On the other hand
results of the “B” model gave the microscopic geometrical characteristics of the riblet geometry
after the manufacturing. Both geometrical aspects are used to evaluate parameters in the
development of a reliable manufacturing process.
Figure 29: Schematic view of the rolling process, “d” bending or deflection, “L” tool length and “w” uniform
load distribution.
Figure 29 shows the schematic view of the tool during the manufacturing process. The
deformation of the work-piece exerts a uniform load distribution against the rolling tools, this
load was already calculated during the “A” model analysis. The deformation of the tools
modifies the micro-riblet structure, using material resistance theory, the deflection of the tool as
a function of the tool diameter and length between supports has been calculated (see Figure 30).
The criterion used to design the diameter of the tool is to consider the maximum deflection in
the center of the tool.
This maximum deflection limit comes from the fact that high values of deflection can change
significantly the microscopic geometrical characteristics along the surface, affecting the final
shape of the embossed riblet structure.
The required diameter of the tool depends on the distance between supports and results show
reliable values for diameters in the range of 50 mm to 250 mm for different material
manufacturing and configuration set ups.
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Figure 30: Deflection in tool as a function of tool diameter,

meter, for tool length of 500mm, 300mm and 150mm
1
Table 5 summarizes the microscopic geometrical characteristics achieved after the rolling
process.
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) ratio

Ti6Al4V 0.141 0.300 0.998 1.068 0.469
AISI-1008 0.157 0.297 0.988 1.066 0.527
Al_1100 0.154 0.300 1.004 1.081 0.512
Table 5: Microscopic geometry

eometry of riblet after manufacturing
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2010 53/92
The RibletRatio was described in the chapter 3.1.2 through the equation (3-1). This empirical
expression describes the relation between the height (h) and width (S) of the riblet geometry, the
values for this expression must be close to 0.5.
The microscopic riblet geometry in the manufacturing tool and the final embossed riblet
geometry accomplish successfully the RibletRatio for fluid dynamics requirements.
4.4 Discussion
The set up used to simulate the riblet rolling manufacturing process considers a thickness
reduction of a half of the initial thickness, and also the embossing of V-shape riblet detail into
the same manufacturing process.
Considering the used software capabilities and evaluating results and predictions obtained
during the simulation of both models, the results are accurate enough to make an approach and a
first extrapolation to design the real production process.
The range of temperatures showed in Figure 23 and Figure 24 allow to conclude that the work
temperatures during the manufacturing do not change substantially the flow stress curves of
each material and it do not affect strongly the mechanical properties of the tool during the
manufacturing through the variation of temperature.
The perpendicular load results of Figure 25 have been used to evaluate the macroscopic
dimension of the manufacturing tool. Figure 29 shows the diameter of the tool as a function of
deflection, as a function of different lengths between supports. It shows the most adequate tool
geometry configuration for a set of manufacturing of the different materials.
Table 5 results allows to conclude that the manufacturing set up with the described geometrical
and boundary conditions has good results concerning to the final fluid-dynamics requirements
of the manufactured work-piece.
Effective-stress results in Figure 22 and Figure 27 show that the section reduction until the half
of the initial thickness is too high for manufacturing of laminate riblet V-shape structures in
AISI-1008 and especially in case of manufacturing in Ti-6Al-4V work-piece material.
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This high thickness reduction produces effective-stress higher than the yield strength of AISI-
D2 tool material.
Especially in case of manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V and also AISI-1008, Figure 28 shows that the
tool suffers small local irreversible deformations or plastic-strain principally in the top of the
negative riblet structure. This high stress values and plastic-strain would produce a fast wear in
the tool, reducing drastically the life of the tool.
In case of Al-1100 manufacturing Figure 27 and Figure 28 show that the stress produced during
the manufacturing is close to the half of the yield strength of manufacturing tool AISI-D2.
These predictions do not show inconvenience to manufacture a high section reduction and also
the “V” shape manufacturing in the same manufacturing process.
Local plastic deformation and irregularities in the tool riblet structure will produce distortions in
the final embossed microscopic geometry of the surface. This fact might imply degradation of
the efficiency for hydrodynamic or aerodynamic requirements of the final application.
The uniformity of the riblet structure all around the produced surface area must be ensured in
the final manufactured product. Variation of stress values produced during the real
manufacturing, or the cyclic behaviour of stresses could produce vibrations affecting
significantly the final embossed riblet surface.
Moreover, stress produced in contact points between tool and work-piece during the thickness
reduction and the rotational movement of the tool creates a cyclic stress in tool. This cyclic
variation of stress produces a dangerous cumulative damage effect of fatigue in tool.
The most probable crack effect in tool during the manufacturing could be the fracture through
fatigue. Decreasing the stresses produced during the forming work up to values under the yield
stress of tool material would increase significantly the fatigue cycles of the manufacturing tool.
Considering and looking the high stress and strain values in the tool, produced during the
section reduction in AISI-1008 and mostly in Ti-6Al-4V manufacturing, it will be necessary to
make a different set up of manufacturing to generate less stress and strain in tools during the
manufacturing.
PFC 2009-2010 55/92

It is necessary to do the manufacturing making the “V” riblet manufacturing without high
section reduction for these materials. A low section reduction during the manufacturing still can
accomplish the geometrical shape of the riblet structure according with the fluid-dynamics
requirements, and also, it is sure that it generates lower stress values in tool and work-piece
during the process.
In contrast, the low section reduction does not give surface hardness to the work-piece produced
through the forming work done. The high values of plastic-strain in superficial layer produced
by the high section reduction give higher surface hardness properties. This set up loses the
benefits offered by this property.
Furthermore, it will be necessary control the effect of spring-back or elastic recovering effect. If
the section reduction or the forming work done is too low, it cannot minimize this effect and the
final shape of the riblet structure would be inefficient.
To summarize FEM simulations have shown the multi-physical reactions and the most
important parameters in the manufacturing of metallic surfaces with riblet “V” structures. The
analysis has shown parameters and boundary conditions for manufacturing of laminate “V”
riblet shape metallic surfaces.
After the discussion, the conclusion is that it will be necessary to make a smaller section
reduction in order to decrease the stresses during the manufacturing and increase the life and
fatigue cycles of the tools, especially the manufacturing life of negative riblet tools.
On the contrary, manufacturing of AL-1100 laminate with riblet structures using the set up
proposed during the FEM simulations has offered guaranties of successful performance. The
proposed riblet geometry is in accordance with aircraft skin aerodynamics requirements.
These conclusions are based on results of FEM analysis described in chapter 4.3. It would be
necessary to make a new set of simulations with the proper geometrical and boundary
conditions for every new manufacturing set up in order to evaluate and predict more accurately
all the mechanical reactions.
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5. Benefits of Sharkskin effect in aviation industry
Over the last decades, and particularly since the 70s, due to the oil crisis, all the industrialized
countries have been trying to decrease, control and optimize the amount of fuel consumption in
combustion vehicles and devices.
The Kyoto Protocol signed and ratified by most of the industrialized countries in the world in
1997, established new parameters of emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). The objective of
the Kyoto Protocol was to establish lower GHG concentrations in the atmosphere in order to
stop interferences with the climate and slow down the climate change.
Aviation and aircraft industry have an important impact on the amount of GHG emissions
produced by each country every year. International institutions, governments and also, civil
aircraft manufacturers are making big efforts to reduce these emissions in commercial aircraft
flights.
Since the beginning of the Aviation Industry, engineers and designers have been trying to
design aircraft that reduces the fuel burn.
The traditional technique to reduce fuel consumption is to minimize the weight of the aircraft.
Nowadays, most of the primary material of the aircraft fuselage is build up with light aluminum
alloys and composites are the secondary material. Using these lightweight materials the overall
weight of the airplanes has been reduced significantly.
Another great improvement was to include electronic control systems. Fully electronically
controlled aircraft is nowadays a reality, the automatic control of the most important parameter
during the flight permits to reduce, control and optimize the fuel consumption in every phase of
the flight.
Moreover, designing of more efficient engines is an ongoing project for many aircraft
manufactures. The petroleum based combustibles would combine biologically synthesized
combustibles. These engines will be more environmental friendly, increasing the efficiency and
reducing the fuel consumption levels in commercial flights.
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Efficient aerodynamics in aircraft design is another key factor to optimize the aircraft
performance during the flight. Into the involved aerodynamic variables, the drag effect with the
aircraft skin is one of the most important variables that has to be controlled in order to decrease
the fuel consumption.
Sharkskin effect has direct benefits to DR effect in aircrafts. The physical effect of micro-riblets
structures in the direction of airflow has impact on the reduction of turbulent flow areas in
contact with the aircraft skin, and this effect produces DR.
This work has shown the State-of-the-Arts, as well as the most important ongoing research
projects to get economical manufacturing methods in order to implement this technology into
the common aircraft manufacturing processes. In addition, the chapter 4 of this work has used
FEM simulations tools to describe manufacturing parameters to produce laminate AL-1100 with
micro-riblets structures.
To analyze the real benefits of sharkskin surfaces for drag reduction in airplanes, empirical test
into wind tunnel conditions and direct flight test have been performed, and have shown that
drag effect reduction of 10 % could be achieve in ideal cases [5] [13] [20].
In the same way, estimations and experimental flight tests have shown that the implementation
of micro-riblets structures in aircraft aluminum skin permits to decrease the fuel consumption to
1.5% [18] [21].
Approximately 2-5% of the total amount of human produced GHG is induced by the aviation
industry. This percentage is relatively small compared to that owed to energy generation by
power plants. In spite of this, the application of sharkskin effect would have direct influence in
the reduction of GHH emissions due to airplanes. [63]
The main topic of this work was not to evaluate in depth the induced economical and technical
benefits of sharkskin effect. In this section of the work, I present a very rough estimate of
economical and environmental benefits that may follow from the implementation of Sharkskin
aluminum surfaces in airplane industry. Although many assumptions had to be made to simplify
the calculations, results give an idea of the achievable reduction of GHG emissions and
potential economical benefits.
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Most of the actual commercial airplanes are using Kerosene or Jet Fuel as a combustible. To
make an estimation of the impact of the sharkskin effect, I have assumed that the CO2 emission
rate in commercial airplanes is 2,44 kg CO2 /liter of fuel burn and the average fuel consumption
rate in commercial aircraft is 3025 liter/hour. [64]
Amount Units
Average fuel consumption 3025 Liter / hour
Reduction of fuel consumption 1,5% 2980 Liter / hour
Average CO2 emissions 7381 Kg CO2 / Hour
Reduced CO2 emissions 1,5% 7271 Kg CO2 / Hour
Table 6: Commercial airplane fuel consumption and CO2 emissions parameters, estimation of benefits of
sharkskin effect.
In order to summarize the results of Sharkskin effect table 6 show makes an overview of the
obtained benefits induced by this effect in commercial aviation. I have assumed that the CO2
emission is linear with the fuel consumption.
To estimate the economical impact of sharkskin, we could analyze the fuel burn reduction in
aircraft skin with sharkskin effect. To make and approach of the economical benefits, a
commercial flight which goes from Barcelona to Helsinki takes approximately 5 hours. The
average amount of fuel burn would be 15125 liters and the CO2 emission is 36Tn of CO2.
If we assume that the average cost of the commercial airplane fuel for the regular companies is
0,36 € / liter, the cost of this flight in fuel consumption would be approximately 5400 €. If the
reduction of fuel burn is 1,5 % the amount of money saved during this flight would be 81
€/flight. Nowadays there are companies that offer this flight 3 times per week during all the
year. Only considering this shuttle service, the save of money in one year for this company
would be approximately 25300 €/year.
Just considering this flight sketch and extrapolating this reduction in cost to all the global
aviation activity, it is easy to figure out the great economical benefit produced by the sharkskin
effect in airplane skin. Furthermore, the decrease of GHG emissions induced by the reduction of
fuel consumption also would be significant and this impact must have into consideration.
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6. Conclusions and future prospects
The main purpose of this work was to evaluate the possibility of making Bio-inspired metallic
surfaces by mechanical processes, which can be implemented in mass-production.
The State of the Arts presented in chapter 3 allows to conclude that surface characteristics in the
micro-metric range can be manufactured by mechanical processes, while manufacturing of
nano-metric structures would require alternative techniques.
- Sharkskin characteristics and riblet production in the micrometric range could be

manufactured exclusively by means of mechanic techniques. Riblet structures could be
implemented in the future for many technological applications, and the results of this work and
references show that it will be possible to develop an efficient technique to produce metallic
surfaces with DR properties. Sharkskin effect has direct benefits in aviation industry, the
research and implementation of this technology is an ongoing project.
- On the other hand, the HSC metallic surfaces based exclusively on mechanics
manufacturing techniques are not possible. The mimicking of nano-metric geometry
characteristics could be possible but the need of chemical treatment after the embossing to get
accurate HSC properties decreases the benefits offered by this technique. To make this
technique competitive the process could be optimized by developing a sustainable process
combining mechanical and chemical processes for a final good performance.
- Although the nano-metric ranges of AR geometry properties and the actual production
techniques require alternative techniques for manufacturing, mechanic embossing processes
could be viable as mass production system. It is also important to notice that the application area
of AR coatings is not focused on metallic materials and research efforts are located in other
directions.
- The manufacturing of Gecko feet dry adhesive systems by mechanics processes (like
deforming or machining) is not possible nowadays. The required geometric characteristics and
the necessity of elastic fibers to mimic this effect make mechanical production impossible.
Manufacturing materials for mimicking Gecko feet characteristics are polymers and all the
research efforts for manufacturing are focused on alternative methods.
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A possible solution for economic and mass production of Bio-inspired large surface areas is the
development of manufacturing techniques based on continuous rolling processes. This
technique gives options to produce a wide array of sizes and geometries in a reduced time in a
continuous manufacturing chain.
In contrast, for applications where small surface areas are needed, techniques like embossing or
stamping could be competitive.
Bio-inspired functional surfaces offer great opportunities for many industrial areas. Technical
and environmental benefits of Bio-inspired properties in actual devices are clear. However, the
development and implementation of these technologies into common productive methods is still
very difficult.
The difficulties for the implementation of these technologies into actual productive processes
and produce Bio-inspired functional surfaces are the high price of manufacturing technologies
and measurement equipments. Moreover, verification of the dimensional specifications of the
surfaces is still a challenge because the measurement instruments must allow resolutions in
nanometric range.
At present, researches are making progress in order to solve and overcome all the mentioned
difficulties. The literature overview shows that the investigation is ongoing.
After the literature overview, the conclusion is that Sharkskin riblet structures are the only Bio-
inspired kind of surfaces that can be implemented by role mechanical manufacturing at present.
Looking the references available and after the FEM analysis of Sharkskin riblet rolling
manufacturing in chapter 4, the conclusion is that this technology has possibilities to be
implemented in the future.
The multi-physics FEM analysis has allowed us to analyze the mechanical effects and most
important parameters in riblet rolling manufacturing. We have proposed a set up for production
of laminate metallic surfaces with micrometrical “V” shape riblet structures.
The implementation of Sharkskin surfaces in aircraft to achieve a drag reduction effect may
imply a significant decrease of fuel consumption, followed by a saving of CO2 emissions.
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For the future implementation of riblet manufacturing into productive chains, and in order to
open the application area of the riblet structures and get a cost-effective production system, it
would be necessary to allocate more efforts into:
- Basic research focused into the description of optimum riblet shape and geometry
characteristics for a set of possible applications with fluid dynamics requirements.
- Engineering research focused on the manufacturing of hard-steel riblet rolling tools,

with the optimum negative riblet shape and geometry for every possible application.
- The manufacturing simulation showed in this paper was focused in the production of
laminate shape work-pieces. It will be necessary make engineering research describing
production methods of work-pieces with more complex 3D geometries.
- Last, it would be necessary to make experimental manufacturing of real industrial

components with riblet structures and direct tests describing fluid dynamic behavior of it.
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7. Project temporization
As noticed in the chapter 2, this project has been carried at VTT Research Center of Finland.
The internship duration was 9 months and the working period started in 1 of September 2008
and finished in 29 of May 2009.
During the internship period, I was taking part at the same time in many other activities. I have
been working and using many simulations tool like: AnSYS, Abaqus, Python, hyper-mesh, pro-
engineer and so on, to help my colleagues in many others research activities.
Table 6, summarizes the project timing and temporization. The start of the work required the
collecting of the information and bibliography related to the topic of the work. The State-of-the-
Arts was written just before the evaluation of the bibliography and right away, simulation tools
were introduced to complement the work.
After all, I wrote a final report, which was evaluated and corrected by my cluster colleagues in
VTT. My supervisor at the university in Barcelona has strongly participate in all the steps which
were done during the internship, and until the project was presented.
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State-of- Redaction PFC
Week Bibliography the-arts Presentations Simulations PFC VTT Revision
35.2008
36.2008
37.2008
38.2008
39.2008
40.2008
41.2008
42.2008
43.2008
44.2008
45.2008
46.2008
47.2008
48.2008
49.2008
50.2008
51.2008
52.2008
1.2009
2.2009
3.2009
4.2009
5.2009
6.2009
7.2009
8.2009
9.2009
10.2009
11.2009
12.2009
13.2009
14.2009
15.2009
16.2009
17.2009
18.2009
19.2009
20.2009
21.2009
20.2010
21.2010
22.2010
Table 7: Project timing and temporization
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Drag Reduction Effects on Curved Objets.
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Production Engineering Research and Development 1:233-237
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microprofiles. Production Engineering Research and Development
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Eng 13(1): 31- 34 WGP
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[24] Hesselbach J, Hoffmeister H-W, Hlavac M (2005) Micro grinding- efficient technique for microstructuring of hardened steels.
Prod Eng 12(1):1-4
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morphologies, crystallinity and molecular self-assembly.
Institute for Biodiversity of Plants Bonn Germany, Micron 39:759-772
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[27]Chien te Hsieh, Fang Lin Wu, Shu Ying Yang (2008) Superhydrophobicity from composite nano/microstructures: Carbon
fabrics coated with silica nanoparticles.
Surface & Coatings Technology 202: 6103-6108
[28]Ailan Qu, Xiufang Wen, Pihui Pi, Jiang Cheng, Zhuoru Yang (2007) Preparation of hybrid film with hydrophobic surfaces
based on irregularly structure by emulsion polymerization.
Applied Surface Science 253: 9430-9434
[29] Minglin Ma, Randal M. Hill (2006) Superhydrophobic surfaces.
Current opinion in colloid & interface science11:193-202
[30]Weici Wu, Miao Chen, Shan Liang, Xiaolong Wang, Jianmin Chen, Feng Zhou (2008) Superhydrophobic surface Cu-Zn alloy
by step O2 concentration dependent etching.
Journal of Colloid Interface Science 326: 478-482
[31] H. Dodiuk, P.F. Rios, A. Dotan and S. Kenig (2007) Hydrophobic and self-cleaning coatings.
Polymers for advanced technologie 18:746-750
[32] M. Thieme, H. Worch (2006) Ultrahydrophobic aluminium surfaces: properties and EIS measurements of different oxidic and
thin-film coated states. J. Solid State Electrochem 10:737-745
[33]Rosa Taurino, Elena Fabbri, Massimo Mesori, Francesco Pilati, Doris Pospiech, Alla Synytska (2008) Facile preparation of
superhydrophobic coatings by sol-gel processes.
Journal of Colloid and interface Science 325:149-159
[34]Anne Pahkala, Juha Mannila, Marke Kallio, Juha Nikkola, Amar Mahiout,Jarmo Siivinen, Anne-Christine Ritschkoff, Riitta
Mahlberg, Olli Posti,Mia Löija, Soili Takala (2006) Anti-fouling and scratch resistant hybrid sol-gel coatings
Functional surfaces and coatings applications VTT SYMPOSIUM 244:177-187
[35] Juha Nikkola, Marke Kallio, Juha Mannila, Anne Pahkala, Mika Kolari, Riitta Mahlberg, Olli Posti , Amar Mahiout (2006)
The effects of chemical parameters and topography on the properties of the hybrid sol-gel coatings
Functional surfaces and coatings applications VTT SYMPOSIUM 244:154-165
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(2001) Generation of Ultrahydrophobic Properties of Aluminium, A first step to Self- cleaning Transparently coated metal surfaces.
Advanced engineering materials 9:691-695
[37] D. Triantafyllidis, L. Li, F.H. Stott (2005) The effects of laser induced modification of surfaces roughness of Al2O3 based
ceramics on fluid contact angle. Materials Science and Engineering 390:271-277
[38] F. Burmeister, C. Kohn, R. Kuebler, G. Kleer, B. Bläsi, A. Gombert (2005) Applications for TiAlN and TiO2 coatings with
nanoscale surface topographies. Surface & Coatings Technology 200:1555-1559
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[40] Michael Nosonovsky, Bharat Bhushan (2009) Superhydrophobic surfaces and emerging applications. College of Engineering &
Applied Science University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
[41] Christian Dorrer and Jürgen Rühe (2007) Condensation and Wetting Transitions on Microstructured Ultrahydrophobic
Surfaces. Langmuir23:3820-3824
[42] Edwin Nun, Markus Oles, Bernhard Schleich (2002) Lotus- Effect® Surfaces. Macromol.Symp 187:677-682
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atomic force microscopy. School of science, Griffith University Brisbane Australia, Applied Surface Science 235:139-144
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Christoph J. Brabec (2008) Performance improvement of organic solar cells with moth eye anti-reflection coating.
Thim Solid Films 516:7167-7170
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[47] Alexander Disch, Jörg Mick, Benedikt Bläsi, Claas Müller (2007) Nanostructures on microstructured surfaces
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H. Kinoshita, H. Shiomi (2006) Ligth extraction process in moth-eye structure Phys. stat .sol 6:2165.2168
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9. Annexes
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A0.Units system
Units
Stress effective MPa
Strain effective Dimension less
Load N
3
Deformation energy MJ/m
o
Temperature C
Length mm
Time Second
A1.Results from Deform 3D V5.1
“A” model results ........................................................................................................................ 74
Work piece AISI-1008 ............................................................................................................ 74
Stress effective during the rolling process: ........................................................................ 74

Work temperature as a function of longitudinal distance during the rolling process: ........ 74
Temperature as a function of time during the rolling process in the hottest node: ............ 75
Load as a function of time during the rolling process: ....................................................... 75
Work piece Ti-6Al-4V ............................................................................................................ 76

Maximum work temperature as a function of time during the rolling process: ................. 77
Work piece Al-1100 ............................................................................................................... 78

Maximum work temperature as a function of time during the rolling process: ................. 79
Comparison of work temperature as a function of time: ........................................................ 80

Comparison of temperature as a function of longitudinal distance: ....................................... 80
Comparison of perpendicular load in tool as a function of time: ........................................... 81
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“B” model results ........................................................................................................................ 82
Work piece AISI-1008 ............................................................................................................ 82
Geometry after rolling process: .......................................................................................... 82

Strain as a function of the riblet thickness: ........................................................................ 82
Strain and deformation energy as a function of the riblet thickness: ................................. 83
Work piece Ti-6Al-4V ............................................................................................................ 84

Work piece Al-1100 ............................................................................................................... 86

Comparison of Strain (Thickness) and Deformation Energy (Thickness) functions: ............. 88

Comparison of maximum stress & strain values of the tool during the rolling process: ........ 89
A2. Microscopic and macroscopic geometry parameters
Microscopic geometry, geometry of “V” riblet after the rolling process: .............................. 90
Macroscopic geometry, diameter of tool as a function of deflection: .................................... 91
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A1. Results from Deform 3D V5.1 “A” model results

Work piece AISI-1008
Stress effective during the rolling process:
Work temperature as a function of longitudinal distance during the rolling process:
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Temperature as a function of time during the rolling process in the hottest node:
Load as a function of time during the rolling process:
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Work piece Ti-6Al-4V

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Maximum work temperature as a function of time during the rolling process:
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Work piece Al-1100

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Maximum work temperature as a function of time during the rolling process:
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Comparison of work temperature as a function of time:
Comparison of temperature as a function of longitudinal distance:
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Comparison of perpendicular load in tool as a function of time:
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“B” model results

Work piece AISI-1008
Geometry after rolling process:
Strain as a function of the riblet thickness:
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Strain and deformation energy as a function of the riblet thickness:
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Work piece Ti-6Al-4V

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Work piece Al-1100

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Comparison of Strain (Thickness) and Deformation Energy (Thickness) functions:
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Comparison of maximum stress & strain values of the tool during the rolling process:
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A2. Microscopic and macroscopic geometry parameters
Microscopic geometry, geometry of “V” riblet after the rolling process:
Figure 1: Draft of characteristics lengths
Where: hF is the final height of riblet, SF is the final width of riblet, LF is the final length under
riblet, t f is the final nominal thickness and h/s is the ratio of riblet efficiency.
h/S ratio
Ti6Al4V 0,141 0,300 0,998 1,068 0,469
Al_1100 0,154 0,300 1,004 1,081 0,512
AISI-1008 0,157 0,297 0,988 1,066 0,527
Table 2: Riblet geometrical parameters after rolling
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Macroscopic geometry, diameter of tool as a function of deflection:
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Iñigo Flores Ituarte - Bio-Inspired Metallic Surfaces by Means of Mechanical Processes

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Iñigo Flores Ituarte © Bachelor Final Thesis

AUTOR: IÑIGO FLORES ITUARTE

Bio-inspired metallic surfaces by

“Bio-inspired” design is the development of devices and applications founded on Nature

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3. State - of - the - Art of Bio-inspired surface engineering ................................................... 10

3.1 Sharkskin and drag reduction effects .......................................................................... 10

3.1.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 10

3.2 Lotus effects, Self-cleaning and hydrophobic effects ................................................. 19

3.2.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 19

3.3 Motheye and biomimetic effects ................................................................................. 26

3.3.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 26

3.4 Gecko feet and dry adhesion effects ........................................................................... 32

3.4.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 32

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4. FEM simulations of riblet profile manufacturing ............................................................... 38

4.1 Simulation models....................................................................................................... 38

4.3.1 “A” Model results ............................................................................................... 44

4.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 54

5. Benefits of Sharkskin effect in aviation industry ............................................................... 57

6. Conclusions and future prospects ....................................................................................... 61

7. Project temporization ......................................................................................................... 65

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Biologically-inspired or “Bio-inspired” design is the development of engineered devices taking

The commercial development of these surfaces represents an important challenge. The

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Picture 1: Commercial swim suit with Sharkskin effect

DR Drag reduction D Diameter

Table 1: Abbreviators and nomenclature

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VTT is a multi-technological contract research organization and it is part of the Ministry of

Picture 2: VTT Research Center of Finland

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3. State - of - the - Art of Bio-inspired surface engineering

3.1 Sharkskin and drag reduction effects

Figure 1: a) Sharkskin photography, SEM [4] b) Example of riblets geometry [5].

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3.1.2 Theoretical foundations

DR in applications like pipelines is obtained by passive or active techniques. Active method is

Figure 3: Different shapes of riblet structure, and efficiency level. [17]

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Table 2: Estimation of Smax for different applications [18]

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3.1.3 Manufacturing processes

• Micro - Rolling process

Figure 5(a) shows the embossing of a DR profile in a work-piece by a continuous rolling

Figure 6: Sketch of tool manufacturing, a) Machining, b) Winding. [20]

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• Micro - Grinding process

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Figure 8: Sketch of the grinding wheel Sep up.

Experimental production and simulations show that it is possible to manufacture different

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3.1.4 Materials and applications

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3.2 Lotus effects, Self-cleaning and hydrophobic effects

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3.2.2 Theoretical foundations