Chapter 1.

Measurement

Chapter 1 Measurement

Basic Requirements

1. Understand the SI units of length, time, and mass

2. Master the chain-link conversion

Review and Summary

Measurement in Physics Physics is based on measurement of physical quantities.

Certain physical quantities have been chosen as base quantities (such as length, time,
and mass); each has been defined in terms of a standard and given a unit of measure
(such as meter, second, and kilogram). Other physical quantities are defined in terms
of the base quantities and their standards and units.

SI Units The unit system emphasized in this book is the International System of Units
(SI). The three physical quantities displayed in Table 1-1 are used in the early chapters.
Standards, which must be both accessible and variable, have been established for these
base quantities by international agreement. These standards are used in all physical
measurement, for both the base quantities and the quantities derived from them.
Scientific notation and the prefixes of Table 1-2 can be use to simplify measurement
notation in many cases.

Changing Units Conversion of units from one system to another (for example, from
miles per hour to kilometers per second) may be performed by using chain-link
conversions in which the original data are multiplied successively by conversion
factors written as unity and the units are manipulated like algebraic quantities until
only the desired units remain,

Length The unit of length–the meter–is defined as the distance traveled by light
during a precisely specified time interval.

Time The unit of time –the second –was formerly defined in terms of the rotation of
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 Chapter 1. Measurement

Earth. It is now defined in terms of the oscillations light emitted by an atomic (cesium-
133) source. Accurate time signals are sent worldwide by radio signals keyed to
atomic clocks in standardizing laboratories.

Mass The unit of mass–the kilogram–is defined in terms of a particular platinum–

iridium prototype kept near Paris, France. For measurement on an atomic scale, the
atomic mass unit, defined in terms of the atom carbon-12, is usually used.

Examples

Example 1 The mass of a solid cube is 856g , and each edge has a length of 5.35cm .
Determine the density ρ of the cube in basic SI units.

Solution ： Because 1g = 10−3 kg and 1cm = 10−2 m , the mass m and volume V in

basic SI units are

m = 856 g ×10−3 kg / g = 0.856kg

V = L3 = ( 5.35cm × 10−2 m / cm )3 = 1.53 × 10−4 m3

Therefore the density of the cube is
m 0.856kg
ρ= = = 5.59 ×103 kg / m3 (Answer)
V 1.53 × 10−4 m3

Example 2 A solid cube of aluminum (density 2.7 g / cm3 ) has a volume of 0.2cm3 .

How many aluminum atoms are contained in the cube?

Solution：Since density equals mass per unit volume, the mass m of the cube is

m = ρV = (27 g / cm3 )(0.20cm3 ) = 0.54 g

To find the number of atoms N in this mass of aluminum, we can set up a proportion
using the fact that one mole of aluminum ( 2.7g ) contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms:

NA N
=
27 g 0.54 g

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 Chapter 1. Measurement

(0.54 g )(6.02 ×1023 atoms)

N= = 1.2 ×1022 atoms (Answer)
27 g

Example 3 Estimate the number of breaths taken during an average life span.
Solution：We shall start by guessing that the typical life span is about 70 years. The
only other estimate we must make in this example is the average number of breaths
that a person takes in 1 min. This number varies, depending on whether the person is
exercising, sleeping, angry, serene, and so forth. To the nearest order of magnitude, we
shall choose 10 breaths per minute as our estimate of the average. (This is certainly
closer to the true value than 1 breath per minute or 100 breaths per minute.) The
number of minutes in a year is approximately

days h min
1 yr × 365 × 24 × 60 = 525600 min
yr day h
Thus, in 70 years there will be

(70 yr )(525600 min/ yr ) = 36792000 min (Answer)

At a rate of 10breaths/min, an individual would take 36792000 breaths in a lifetime.

Example 4 A rectangular plate has a length of (21.3 ± 0.2cm) and a width of

(9.80 ± 0.1cm) . Find the area of the plate and the uncertainty in the calculated area.

Solution： Area = l w = (21.3 ± 0.2cm)(9.80 ± 0.1cm)

≈ (21.3 × 9.80 ± 21.3 × 0.1 ± 0.2 × 9.80)cm 2

(Answer)
≈ (209 ± 4)cm 2
Because the input data were given to only three significant figures, we can not claim
any more in our result.

Problem Solving

1 (2) Antarctica is roughly semicircular, with a radius of 2000km (Fig. 1-1). The
average thickness of its ice cover is 3000m . How many cubic centimeters of ice does
Antarctica contain? (Ignore the curvature of Earth.)
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 Chapter 1. Measurement

Solution：The volume of ice is given by the product of the semicircular surface area

and the thickness. The area of the semicircle is

A = π r 2 2 , where r is the radius. Therefore, the

volume is
π 2
V= r h
2
where h is the ice thickness. Since there are 103 cm in 1km and 102 cm in 1m , we
have Fig.1-1 Problem 1.

103 m 102 cm
r = (2000km)( )( ) = 2 × 108 cm
1km 1m
In these units, the thickness becomes

102 cm
h = 3000m( ) = 3 ×105 cm
1m
and then we can get the V of ice which Antarctica contains
π
V= (2 ×108 cm)2 (3 ×105 cm) = 1.9 ×1022 cm3 (Answer)
2

2 (4) Time standards are now based on atomic clocks. A promising second standard is
based on pulsars, which are rotating neuron stars (highly compact stars consisting only
of neutrons). Some rotate at a rate that is highly stable, sending out a radio beacon that
sweeps briefly across Earth once with each rotation, like a lighthouse beacon. Pulsar
PSR 1937 + 12 is an example; it rotate once every 1.55780644887275 ± 3ms , where
the trailing ±3 indicates the uncertainty in the laser decimal place (it does not mean ±3
ms). (a) How many rotations does PSR 1937 + 12 make in 7.00 days? (b) How much
time does the pulsar take to rotate exactly one million times and (c) What is the
associated uncertainty?
Solution：We denote the pulsar rotation rate f (for frequency).
1
f =
1.55780644887275 ×10−3 s

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 Chapter 1. Measurement

(a) Multiplying f by the time-interval t = 7.00days = 604800 s , (if we ignore

significant figure considerations for a moment), we obtain the number of rotations:

 1 
N = −3 
(604800s ) = 388238218.4
 1.55780644887275 ×10 s 
which should now be rounded to 3.88 × 108 rotations since the time-interval was
specified in the problem to three significant figures. (Answer)
(b) We note that the problem specifies the exact number of pulsar revolutions (one
million). In this case, our unknown is t, and an equation similar to the one we set up in
part (a) takes the form N = ft, or

 1 
1×106 =  −3 
t
 1.55780644887275 ×10 s 
which yields the result t = 1557.80644887275s (though students who do this
calculation on their calculator might not obtain those last several digits). (Answer)
(c) Careful reading of the problem shows that the time-uncertainty per revolution is

±3 × 10−17 s . We therefore expect that as a result of one million revolutions, the

uncertainty should be (±3 × 10−17 s )(1× 106 ) = ±3 × 10−11 s . (Answer)

3 (5) Three digital clocks A, B, and C run at different rates and do not have
simultaneous readings of zero. Figure 1-2 shows simultaneous readings on pairs of the
clocks for four occasions. (At the earliest occasion, for example, B reads 25.0s and C
reads 92.0s ). If two events are 600s apart on clock A, how far apart are they on (a)
clock B and (b) clock C? (c) When clock A reads 400s , what does clock B read? (d)
When clock C reads 15.0s , what does clock B read? (Assume negative readings for
prezero times.)

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 Chapter 1. Measurement

Fig.1-2 Problem 3.
Solution：The readings on any of these clocks are straight-line functions of time, with
slopes ≠ 1 and y-intercepts ≠ 0. From the data in the figure we deduce

2 594
tC = t B +
7 7
33 662
tB = tA −
40 5
These are used in obtaining the following results.

(a) Because we know (t ′A − t A ) = 60s , combining the above equations, we find

33
t B′ − tB = (t A′ − tA ) = 495s (Answer)
40
(b) Similarly we obtain
2 2
tC′ − tC = (tB′ − tB ) = (495) = 141s (Answer)
7 7
(c) Clock B reads t B = (33 40)(400) − 5) 198 ≈s
(662

when clock A reads t A = 400s . (Answer)

(d) From tC = 15 = (2 7)tB + (594 7) , we get t B ≈ −245s . (Answer)

4 (6) Because Earth’s rotation is gradually slowing, the length of each day increases:
The day at the end of 1.0century is 1.0ms longer than the day at the start of the
century. In 20centuries , what is the total of the daily increases in time (that is , the
sum of the gain on the first day, the gain on the second day, etc.)?
Solution：The last day of the 20centuries is longer than the first day by

(20century )(0.01s ) = 0.02 s

century

The average day during the 20centuries is (0 + 0.02) 2 = 0.01s longer than the

first day. Since the increase occurs uniformly, the cumulative effect T is

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 Chapter 1. Measurement

T = (averge increaseinlength of a day )(number of days)

0.01s 365day
=( )( )(2000 y ) (Answer)
day y
= 7300 s

5（ 9 ） In the United States, a doll house has the scale of 1:12 of a real house (that

is, each length of the doll house is 1 12 that of the real house) and a miniature house

(a doll house to fit within a doll house) has the scale of 1:144 of a real house.
Suppose a real house (Fig.1-3) has a front length of 20m , a depth of 12m , a height of
6.0m , and a standard sloped roof (vertical triangular faces on the ends) of height
3.0m . In cubic meters, What are the volumes of the corresponding (a) doll house and
(b) miniature house?
Solution ： The total volume V of the real house
is that of a triangular prism (of height h = 3.0m

and base area A = 20 ×12 =240 m

2
) in addition

to a rectangular box (height h′ = 6.0m and same

base area). Therefore,
1 1
V= hA + h′A = ( h + h′) A = 1800Fig.1-3
m3 Problem 5.
2 2
(a) The length in each dimension is reduced by a factor of 1 12 , and we find

1
Vdoll = (1800m3 )( )3 ≈ 1.0m3 (Answer)
12
(b) In this case, each dimension (relative to the real house) is reduced by a factor of

1 144 .Therefore,

1 3
Vmin iature = (1800m3 )( ) ≈ 6.0 × 10−4 m3 (Answer)
144

6 (10) Suppose that, while lying on a beach near the equator watching the Sun set over
a calm ocean, you start a stopwatch just as the top of the Sun disappears. You then
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 Chapter 1. Measurement

stand, elevating your eyes by a height H = 1.70m , and stop the watch when the top the
Sun again disappears. If the elapsed time is t = 11.1s , what is the radius r of Earth?(
See the figure below.)
Solution：When the Sun first disappears while lying down, your line of sight to the
top of the Sun is tangent to the Earth’s surface
at point A shown in the figure. As you stand,
elevating your eyes by a height h, the line of
sight to the Sun is tangent to the Earth’s
surface at point B.
Let d be the distance from point B to your
eyes. From Pythagorean theorem, we have
Fig.1-4 Problem 6.
d 2 + r 2 = ( r + h)2 = r 2 + 2rh + h2

or d 2 = 2rh + h2 ,where r is the radius of the Earth. Since r ? h , the second term

can be dropped, leading to d 2 ≈ 2rh Now the angle between the two radii to the two

tangent points A and B is θ , which is also the angle through which the Sun moves

about Earth during the time interval t = 11.1s . The value of θ can be obtained by

using
θ t
0
=
360 24h
Solving for θ , yields

(360o )(11.1s )
θ= = 0.04625o
(24h)(60 min/ h)(60 s / min)

Using d = r tan θ , we have d 2 = r 2 tan 2 θ = 2rh ,or

2h
r=
tan 2 θ
Using the above value for θ and h = 1.7m , we have the radius of Earth

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 Chapter 1. Measurement

r = 5.2 ×106 m (Answer)

7 (11) One molecule of water (H2O) contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen. A hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.0 u and an atom of oxygen has a mass of 16
u, approximately. (a) What is the mass in kilograms of one molecule of water? (b)
How many molecules of water are in the world’s ocean, which have an estimated total

mass of 1.4 × 1021 kg ?

Solution：(a) In atomic mass units, the mass of one molecule is 18u . we find

1.6605402 ×10−27 kg
18u = ( 18u ) = 3.0 ×10−26 kg (Answer)
1u
(b) We divide the total mass of the world’s ocean by the mass of each molecule and
obtain the number of water molecules, approximately

1.4 × 1021
N≈ −26
≈ 5 × 1046 (Answer)
3.0 × 10

8 (12) A ton is measure of volume frequently used in shipping, but that use requires
some care because there are at least three types of tons: A displacement ton is equal to
7 barrels bulk, a freight ton is equal to 8 barrels bulk, and a register ton is equal to
20 barrels bulk. A barrels bulk is another measure of volume: 1 barrels bulk
= 0.1415m3 . Suppose you spot a shipping order for “ 73 tons” of M＆M candies, and
you are certain that the client who sent the order intended “ton” to refer to volume
(instead of weight or mass, as discussed in Chapter 5). If the client actually meant
displacement tons, how many extra U.S. bushels of candies will you erroneously ship
if you interpret the order as (a) 73 freight tons and (b) 73 register tons? (
1m3 = 28.378 U.S. bushels.)
Solution ： (a) The difference between the total amounts in “freight” and

“displacement” tons, (8 − 7)(73) = 73 barrels bulk, represents the extra M&M’s that

are shipped. Using the conversions in the problem, this is equivalent to

(73)(0.1415)(28.378) = 293U .S .bushels (Answer)

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 Chapter 1. Measurement

(b) The difference between the total amounts in “register” and “displacement” tons,

(20 − 7)(73) = 949 barrels bulk, represents the extra M&M’s that are shipped. Using
the conversions in the problem, this is equivalent to

(949)(0.1415)(28.378) = 3.81× 103 U .S .bushels (Answer)

9 (15) (a) A unit of time sometimes used in microscopic physics is shake. One shake
equals 10−8 s. Are there more shakes in a second than there are seconds in a year? (b)
Humans have existed for about 106 years, whereas the universe is about 1010 years old.
If age of the universe is defined as 1 “universe day,” where a universe day consists of
“universe second” as a normal day consists of normal seconds, how may universe
seconds have human existed?
Solution：The number of seconds in a year is

(365day / y )(24h / day )(60 min/ h)(60 s / min) = 3.15 × 107 s

(a) The number of shakes in a second is 108 ; therefore, there are indeed more shakes

per second than there are seconds per year. (Answer)

(b) Denoting the age of the universe as 1dayu (or 86400sec ondu ), then the time

during which humans have existed is given by

106
= 10−4 dayu
1010
which may also be expressed as

86400sec ondu
(10−4 dayu )( ) = 8.6sec ondu (Answer)
1dayu

10 (16) During a total solar eclipse, your view of the Sun is almost exactly replaced by
your view of the Moon. Assuming that the distance from you to the Sun is about 400
times the distance from you to the Moon, (a) find the ratio of the Sun’s diameter to the
Moon’s diameter. (b) What is the ratio of the Sun’s
volume to the Moon’s volume? (c) Position a small
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 Chapter 1. Measurement

coin in your view so that it just eclipses the full Moon, and measure the angle it
subtends at the eyes. From this and Earth-Moon distance (= 3.8 × 105 km ), find the
Moon’s diameter.
Solution：(a) When θ is measured in radians, it is equal to the arc length divided by
the radius. For very large radius circles and small values of θ , the arcs may be
approximated as straight lines which for our purposes correspond to the diameters d
and D of the Moon and Sun, respectively. Thus,

d D R D
θ= = ⇒ Sun = = 400 (Answer)
RMoon RSun RMoon d Fig.1-5 Problem 10.

(b) Using rs and rm for the radius of the Sun and Moon, respectively (noting that their

ratio is the same as D d ), then the Sun's volume divided by that of the Moon is

4 3
π rs r
3 = ( s )3 = 4003 = 6.4 ×107 (Answer)
4 3 rm
π rm
3
(c) Position a small coin in one’s view so that it just eclipses the full Moon ,the angle
should turn out to be roughly 0.09rad by measuring. Putting this into the
equation above, we get

d = θ RMoon = (0.009)(3.8 × 105 ) ≈ 3.4 × 103 km (Answer)

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