Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and machine

design. They consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts, and are secured
with the mating of screw threads.

There are two main types of bolted joint designs. In one method the bolt is tightened
to a calculated clamp load, usually by applying a measured torque load. The joint will
be designed such that the clamp load is never overcome by the forces acting on the
joint (and therefore the joined parts see no relative motion).

The other type of bolted joint does not have a designed clamp load but relies on the
shear strength of the bolt shaft. This may include clevis linkages, joints that can move,
and joints that rely on a locking mechanism (like lock washers, thread adhesives, and
lock nuts).

This type of joint design provides several properties:

• Greater preloads in bolted joints reduce the fatigue loading of the fastener.
• For cyclic loads, the fastener is not subjected to the full amplitude of the load;
as a result, the fastener's fatigue life can be increased or—if the material
exhibits an endurance limit—extended indefinitely.[1]
• As long as the external loads on a joint don't exceed the clamp load, the
fastener is not subjected to any motion and will not come loose, obviating the
need for locking mechanisms.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Theory
• 2 Thread engagement
• 3 Setting the torque
• 4 Failure modes
• 5 Locking mechanisms
• 6 Measurement of frictional torque of threads in bolt
• 7 Bolt banging
• 8 International standards
• 9 See also
• 10 References
o 10.1 Notes
o 10.2 Bibliography

• 11 External links

[edit] Theory
The clamp load, also called preload, of a fastener is created when a torque is applied,
and is generally a percentage of the fastener's proof strength; a fastener is
manufactured to various standards that define, among other things, its strength and
clamp load. Torque charts are available to identify the required torque for a fastener
based on its property class or grade.

When a fastener is tightened, it is stretched and the parts being fastened are
compressed; this can be modeled as a spring-like assembly that has a non-intuitive
distribution of strain. External forces are designed to act on the fastened parts rather
than on the fastener, and as long as the forces acting on the fastened parts do not
exceed the clamp load, the fastener is not subjected to any increased load.

However, this is a simplified model that is only valid when the fastened parts are
much stiffer than the fastener. In reality, the fastener is subjected to a small fraction of
the external load even if that external load does not exceed the clamp load. When the
fastened parts are less stiff than the fastener (soft, compressed gaskets for example),
this model breaks down; the fastener is subjected to a load that is the sum of the
preload and the external load.

In some applications, joints are designed so that the fastener eventually fails before
more expensive components. In this case, replacing an existing fastener with a higher
strength fastener can result in equipment damage. Thus, it is generally good practice
to replace old fasteners with new fasteners of the same grade.

[edit] Thread engagement

Thread engagement is the length or number of threads that are engaged between the
screw and the female threads. Screws are designed so that the shank fails before the
threads, but for this to hold true, a minimum thread engagement must be used. The
following equation defines this minimum thread engagement:[2]
Where Le is the thread engagement length, At is the tensile stress area, D is the major
diameter of the screw, and p is the pitch. This equation only holds true if the screw
and female thread materials are the same. If they are not the same, then the following
equations can be used to determine the additional thread length that is required:[2]

Where Le2 is the new required thread engagement.

[edit] Setting the torque

Engineered joints require the torque to be accurately set. Setting the torque for
fasteners is commonly achieved using a torque wrench.[3] The required torque value
for a particular fastener application may be quoted in the published standard
document or defined by the manufacturer.

The clamp load produced during tightening is higher than 75% of the fastener's proof
load.[3] To achieve the benefits of the preloading, the clamping force must be higher
than the joint separation load. For some joints, multiple fasteners are required to
secure the joint; these are all hand tightened before the final torque is applied to
ensure an even joint seating.

The torque value is dependent on the friction produced by the threads and by the
fastened material's contact with both the fastener head and the associated nut.
Moreover, this friction can be affected by the application of a lubricant or any plating
(e.g. cadmium or zinc) applied to the threads, and the fastener's standard defines
whether the torque value is for dry or lubricated threading, as lubrication can reduce
the torque value by 15% to 25%; lubricating a fastener designed to be torqued dry
could over-tighten it, which may damage threading or stretch the fastener beyond its
elastic limit, thereby reducings its ability to clamp a joint.

Also, if the fastener rather than its associated nut is torqued, then the torque value
should be increased[4] to compensate for the additional friction; fasteners should only
be torqued if they are fitted in clearance holes.

Torque wrenches do not give a direct measurement of the clamping force in the
screw, and indeed much of the force applied is lost just to overcoming friction.

More accurate methods for setting the clamping force rely on defining or measuring
the screw extension; for instance, measurement of the angular rotation of the nut can
serve as the basis for defining screw extension on thread pitch.[5] Measuring the screw
extension directly allows the clamping force to be very accurately calculated. This can
be achieved using a dial test indicator, reading deflection at the fastener tail, using a
strain gauge, or ultrasonic length measurement.

There is no simple method to measure the tension of a fastener already in place other
than to tighten it and identify at which point the fastener starts moving. This is known
as re-torqueing. An electronic torque wrench can be used on the fastener in question,
so that the torque applied can be constantly measured as it is slowly increased in
magnitude; when the fastener starts moving (that is, becoming tightened) the required
torque magnitude briefly drops sharply, and this drop-off point is considered the
measure of tension.

Recent developments enable tensions to be estimated by using ultrasonic testing.

Another way to ensure correct tension (mainly in steel erecting) involves the use of
crush-washers. These are washers that have been drilled and filled with orange RTV.
When the orange rubber strands appear, the tension is correct.

Large-volume users (such as auto makers) frequently use computer controlled nut
drivers. With such machines, the computer in effect plots a graph of the torque
exerted. Once the torque reaches a set maximum torque chosen by the designer, the
machine stops. Such machines are often used to fit wheelnuts and normally tighten all
the wheel nuts simultaneously.

[edit] Failure modes

The most common mode of failure is overloading: Operating forces of the application
produce loads that exceed the clamp load, causing the joint to loosen over time or fail
catastrophically.

Over-torquing might cause failure by damaging the threads and deforming the
fastener, though this can happen over a very long time. Under-torquing can cause
failures by allowing a joint to come loose, and it may also allow the joint to flex and
thus fail under fatigue.

Brinelling may occur with poor quality washers, leading to a loss of clamp load and
subsequent failure of the joint.

Other modes of failure include corrosion, embedment, and exceeding the shear stress
limit.

Bolted joints may be used intentionally as sacrificial parts, which are intended to fail
before other parts, as in a shear pin.

[edit] Locking mechanisms

Bolted joints in an automobile wheel. Here the outer fasteners are 4 studs with 3 of
the 4 nuts that secure the wheel. The central nut (with locking cover and cotter pin)
secures the wheel bearing to the spindle.

Locking mechanisms keep bolted joints from coming loose. They are required when
vibration or joint movement will cause loss of clamp load and joint failure, and in
equipment where the security of bolted joints is essential.

• two nuts, tightened on each other.

• Locknut (prevailing torque nuts)
o polymer insert nut
o oval lock nut
• lock washer
• thread adhesive
• lock wire, castellated nuts/capscrews (common in the aircraft industry)

[edit] Measurement of frictional torque of threads in

bolt
The torque is applied by means of suspending the weights on one end of the rope and
other end is wound around the head of the fastener and tied to the projection. The
amount of load is increased gradually until the fastener starts rotating. The applied
load is then calculated by adding up the weights. This is the load that is required to
overcome the friction between the threads. Similarly, the net applied torque is
calculated by multiplying the resultant load by the radius of the fastener's head.

In another method, the torque is applied to the nut by an electromagnetic force. A

specially designed gripper is used to grip the nut. A bar magnet is mounted on the
gripper, and the gripper is then surrounded by a coil of wire through which alternating
current is passed. As the magnetic field from the permanent magnet interacts with the
field created by the coil, the permanent magnet (and thus the nut) is subjected to a
torque. This is quite similar to the construction of an electric motor, and hence a
motor can be directly used to provide the torque. A stepper motor can be used so that
the torque is provided in steps, each of which causes a small, measurable angular
displacement in the nut from which the torque can be calculated. The discrete torques
can be added to get the net torque consumed in displacing the nut from one end of the
fastener to the desired location. This is the torque that is required to overcome the
friction between the threads.

[edit] Bolt banging

This section requires expansion.

Bolt banging occurs in buildings when bolted joints slip into bearing under load, thus
causing a loud and potentially frightening noise resembling a rifle shot that is not,
however, of structural significance and does not pose any threat to occupants.[6]

[edit] International standards

• SA-193
• SA-194
• SA-320

[edit] See also

• Bearing surface
• Bolt manufacturing process
• Quenching and tempering (Q&T)
• Rivet

[edit] References
[edit] Notes

1. ^ Collins, p. 481.
2. ^ a b Minimum Thread Engagement Formula and Calculation ISO,
http://www.engineersedge.com/thread_strength/thread_minimum_length_enga
gement.htm, retrieved 2010-02-08.
3. ^ a b Oberg et al. 2004, p. 1495.
4. ^ AIPS 01-02-008: "Bolt Torque"
5. ^ Oberg et al. 2004, p. 1499.
6. ^ "Steel Interchange: 'Banging Bolts'", MSC: Modern Steel Construction.

[edit] Bibliography

• Collins, Jack A.; Staab, George H.; Busby, Henry R. (2002), Mechanical
Design of Machine Elements and Machines, Wiley, ISBN 0471033073.
• Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; McCauley, Christopher J.; Heald, Ricardo M.
(2004), Machinery's Handbook (27th ed.), Industrial Press, ISBN 978-
0831127008.

[edit] External links

 • Bolts - AISC | Home
• AISC THE BANGING BOLT SYNDROME
• AISC BANGING BOLTS— ANOTHER PERSPECTIVE

Bolted joint in vertical cutaway Screw joint Stud joint

• Bolt Science - The Jost Effect
• Threaded Fasteners - Tightening to Proper Tension, US Department of
Defense document MIL-HDBK-60, 2.6MB pdf.
• NASA Reference Publication 1228 Fastener Design Manual
• Mechanics of screws

Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and machine
design. They consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts, and are secured
with the mating of screw threads.

There are two main types of bolted joint designs. In one method the bolt is tightened
to a calculated clamp load, usually by applying a measured torque load. The joint will
be designed such that the clamp load is never overcome by the forces acting on the
joint (and therefore the joined parts see no relative motion).

The other type of bolted joint does not have a designed clamp load but relies on the
shear strength of the bolt shaft. This may include clevis linkages, joints that can move,
and joints that rely on a locking mechanism (like lock washers, thread adhesives, and
lock nuts).

This type of joint design provides several properties:

• Greater preloads in bolted joints reduce the fatigue loading of the fastener.
• For cyclic loads, the fastener is not subjected to the full amplitude of the load;
as a result, the fastener's fatigue life can be increased or—if the material
exhibits an endurance limit—extended indefinitely.[1]
• As long as the external loads on a joint don't exceed the clamp load, the
fastener is not subjected to any motion and will not come loose, obviating the
need for locking mechanisms.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Theory
• For the requirement of adjustment in assembly or in service or during repair,
replacement and inspection, the machine parts must be so constructed that they
may be