Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil

foundations under static, transient or cyclic loads*

0. C. ZIENKIEWICZ
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Swansea, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK

In this paper we present the survey of research carried out over the past ten years at University
College of Swansea under the guidance of the author to determine a rational approach to the study
of foundation and other soil mechanics problems. The paper starts with a description of the need
for numerical approaches utilizing finite element or similar methodology and discusses various
constitutive models for static soil behaviour. Plasticity is adopted to describe the non-linear
characteristics of soil. A series of tests on ideally elasto/plastic, associative and non-associative,
models and on an extended critical state model show that with the latter it is possible to obtain
good predictions of the behaviour for drained and undrained behaviour of normally consolidated
materials and indeed to extend the results to over-consolidated situations. The remainder of the
paper concerns itself with the cyclic and transient load behaviour. Here the well known increase of
pore pressure under repeated loading has to be accounted for as this can either lead to liquefaction
or a very considerable weakening of the material. Two alternative approaches are proposed. In the
first a concept of an autogenous densification of the material is introduced to supplement the
original elasto/plastic models and this is shown to be effective in predicting liquefaction of sands.
An alternative model modifies the critical state using methods proposed by Mroz to describe
behaviour of clays more accurately. Finally, the paper deals with shakedown or ratchetting type
problems in which it is possible to obtain collapse without material deterioration merely by a
sufficient number of cyclic load repetitions. The numerical methods of dealing with such problems
are discussed.

INTRODUCTION static or transient loads of magnitude lower than those

This paper gives a survey of research carried out in recent encountered under (2) or (3).
years by the author’s group with the object of providing a Limit analysis procedures, so useful in simple soil
mechanics studies, are limited generally to uniform homo-
sound basis for computation of static, quasi-static and
geneous situations and to materials obeying certain
dynamic responses of soil foundations of offshore struc-
tures. We shall therefore be concerned here more with the idealized assumptions. Further, only answers to problems
philosophy of the approach than with the detail which can of category (1) can be provided by the methods of limit
be found in various publications cited. analysis, all other studies requiring a fuller solution of the
properly posed boundary or initial value problems. For
With the development of efficient numerical procedures
for the solution’of boundary and initial value problems this reason in what follows we shall assume that such
and with the expanding power of the computer pro- solutions need to be formulated, and that as a by-product
gressively less room remains for unquantified empiricism of analysis the limit values can also be obtained.
and ‘trial and error’ approaches. Care must, however, be In offshore work the soil will always be in a saturated
taken to use such methods intelligently with due regard to state and this presents a considerable simplification of the
geological and material uncertainties. We shall not dis- basic behaviour patterns. However, due to varying per-
cuss any details of numerical processes here and the iods of load, both drained and undrained extremes of
reader can refer to the author’s text’. It is assumed that action will occur and we shall therefore seek to describe
with a suitably formulated constitutive law, solutions can the constitutive soil behaviour in terms of drained con-
be obtained to most problems of foundation and structure ditions from which undrained or partly drained be-
interaction by methods known today. haviour can be deduced. How far a constitutive re-
The main objective of offshore foundation analysis lationship needs to be specified and how to choose
and design is to provide economical structures which will: between alternatives is a serious question to which the
(1) not collapse on application of maximum anticipated answer is highly problem dependent. We shall thus
loads, (2) not collapse after period of exposure to transient consider in turn the two extreme phases of behaviour and
loads such as can be expected during storms and earth- suggest suitable models for each.
quakes, and (3) not sustain excessive deformation under
* A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the Second
STATIC OR QUASI-STATIC BEHAVIOUR
Conference ou the Behaviour of Offshore Structures August 1979 in
London, Permission to publish has been kindly granted by the British This area is clearly the most studied one in soil mechanics
Hydromechanics Research Association and other sponsors of this and many engineers will assert that safety against collapse
conference.

0141-1187/80/010023~9/%02.00
0 1980 CML Publications Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1 23
Constitutive laws and numerical analysis Jbr soil foundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz
can be reasonably assured by limit computations while
very simplified one-dimensional consolidation type so-
lutions are adequate for prediction ofdeformatfons. In the
view of the author this is a considerable oversimplification
and potentially dangerous when large structures are
considered. While limit load computations are well
developed for two-dimensional 'constant cohesion' type
materials obeying purely cohesive type behaviour of
associated plasticity, the real situation is not so readily
treated and some of the difficulties are cited below: (1)
under undrained conditions normally consolidated clays
show an apparent cohesion increasing with depth for
which few solutions of limit type are available; (2) in
drained conditions with very small cohesion existing the
limit load calculations are generally not applicable due to
the non-associativity of the flow rule and hence only in
certain cases can reasonable predictions be accepted; (3)
overconsolidated behaviour of clays can not readily be
treated in terms of total stress analysis using simple limit
theorems; (4) for complex load and non-homogeneous
materials as well as for three-dimensional conditions very
few limit solutions are applicable and here full defor-
mation solutions are desirable.
Where deformations have to be assessed a need for
some solutions of the boundary value problems exist and
here frequently the resort is made to linear finite element
analysis with suitable adjusted moduli. It is a contention
of the author that in the present state of development it is
economically feasible to treat the deformation and col-
lapse behaviour in a unified way without excessive cost
and thus avoiding the difficulties mentioned above. This,
however, requires the development of reasonable con-
stitutive models and we shall now turn to their
determination.
Constitutive models for static loads
The problem is of considerable importance and much
work has been done over the years to ensure adequate
models for clays and sands. Ifa purely monotonic increase
of stress occurs at all points of the soil it is clearly possible
to use assumptions of non-linear elasticity in practice to
describe the behaviour and various such models have
been developed. Unfortunately in many realistic engineer-
ing situations such models fail as loads are not imposed in
a monotonic sequence (for instance the gravity loads and
wave loading in offshore structures follow sequentially). If
non-monotonic loading exists the stress/strain relation-
ship must define 'loading' and 'unloading' phases and for
this reason the choice is limited to plasticity, hypoelas-
ticity, and endochronic model descriptions. For reasons
discussed elsewhere the author has chosen to use
throughout plastic models to describe soil behaviour.
In plasticity we thus postulate a yield surface:
F(o, e p) = a
where o is the stress level and e p is a measure of plastic
straining. The total strain is naturally composed of a
summation of elastic and plastic components:
e =e e +e p
As it is possible to describe fully the behaviour of
saturated soil defining the law governing the drained or
(skeleton) component we shall be only concerned with
24 Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1
such 'effective stress' conditions. In other publications it is
shown how the knowledge of such basic constitutive laws
allows undrained, consolidated, or dynamic behaviour to
be readily deduced 2- 5.
When choosing the plasticity model the most impor-
tant feature must be its ability to reproduce the collapse or
peak stress situation which is the best known quantity for
soils and which corresponds to a Mohr Coulomb surface
in the principal stress space. We shall propose to make a
selection from a range of three basic general possibilities
to define reasonably well plastic soil behaviour.
A. Ideal associative elasto-plasticity. The Mohr
Coulomb surface is assumed to act as plastic yield and
potential surface. This together with its triaxial stress
section is shown in Fig. l(a).
B. Ideal non-associative, elasto-plasticity. Here the mo-
del A is extended by defining a set of plastic potential
surfaces of the same type but not parallel to the Mohr
Coulomb yield surface Q(a). With the flow rule given as:
dep= ~Q),
O,a" (3)
this allows a more realistic dilatancy (or in fact a zero
dilatancy) to be imposed on the material during yield thus
approximating in a better way the true behaviour. This
model is shown in Fig. l(b).
C. An associative strain hardening plastic, critical state
model. This is based on the well known classic model
derived by Roscoe and his collaborators 5 - 7. We shall use
[ ol
B
\ !'
Yield surface :
J Potential surface
02
Principal stress space
o3/Y
(1)
Yield ~ o I >0 2 = 0 3
surft~c e / y .._
(2) <~O2=O3
Triaxiol section OAB
Figure l(a) Model A - - ideal associated plasticity with
Mohr Coulomb yield surface.
 Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil foundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz

here an extended form for the general principal stress

space in the manner done by Zienkiewicz et al. s.
In the critical state model the yield state surface
'hardens' as the volumetric plastic compressive strain
develops or as the material 'densities'. With the total
plastic strain being associated (i.e. in a direction normal to
the yield surface) such densification occurs on the right
hand side of the ellipse as shown in Fig. l(c) and the
hardening becomes zero on the critical surface which is
identified with the Mohr Coulomb failure line. The critical
surface in fact does not necessarily correspond to the
Yield. surface maximum stress at failure but to that at which continuing
deformation can exist. A strain softening region above the
critical state surface exists but is however highly unstable
and as will be seen later its exact definition appears not tO
'rincipal stress be essential.
_space
Choice of 'reasonable' model
Computer investigations are necessary to determine a
'reasonable' model which would give predictions of
Potential collapse and deformation consistent with those observed
surface or predicted by well established methods and also do this
without undue complexity. A large series of such com-
putation was in fact undertaken 3.4,8 and here we give only
Yield surface / Q=/O'~O, > o2.03 a basic summary of the findings. The three sets of
conditions corresponding to fully drained, undrained and
Q Or. undrained overconsolidated behaviour will be considered
~.._"""".~ ol < o2 = o3 and if these extremes are well reproduced by a model, it
will be deemed to be capable of responding satisfactorily
Trioxio[ section OAB to consolidating behaviour.
Figure l(b) Model B - - ideal non-associated plasticity Drained test. In Fig. 2, we show the results of fully
with Mohr Coulomb yield surface. drained, normally consolidated, analysis with weightless

Load q (Ib/in.2}
0 100 200

Critical state B

Yield and potential

surface
l °'_o.e- _ ,

"~'
- ~-C
. _1'2 q R=5~ bC'~ k
"-" -- = 5ft.-

Principal stress 8 ,6- -f'o c

Triaxial section
AO. ~ ~~.P~p I / OAB o 2.4-- Mesh
~.
Yield and J' ~ °1>oz=o3
mtential / / " I
a
i Data • c = 10 Ib/in 2
2.s -- ~,= 20 o
E = 30,000 Ib/in. 2
F l a , e v ) ~ v=O.3 o
Critical state" J~ o1<02 0'3
,,,~l",.uz-
Figure 2. Axi-symmetric Jboting (uniform load) drained
Figure l(c) Model C - - strain hardening critical state load-deformation behaviour for three material models. A,
associated plasticity with Mohr Coulomb critical state Ideal associated plasticity (Mohr Coulomb); B, ideal non-
surface. associated plasticity; C, extended critical state.

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1 25

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil joundations." O. C. Zienkiewicz
A~ed foohng pressure PlLb/on z) corresponding calculation using the models C and B
tO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
discussed previously. It is seen that the prediction given by
model C is quite remarkable considering the rigid nature
02 % ~,~, of the footing and experimental uncertainties, and that
model B predicts much too low collapse values.
04 To test the importance of the portion of the critical state
c
model above thecritical state line we introduce here a cap
•~" 06
model where the left hand side section of the ellipse of
model C (viz. Fig. l(c)) is cut off by the critical state line
B now used as a plastic yield surface with a non-associative
i 0-8
o
flow rule. This model is shown in Fig. 5 and in Fig. 6
predictions given by this model are shown. It is im-
C
o mediately noticed that, providin 9 any dilation at all occurs,
Pressure P rib/inz}
g 200 400 600 800
collapse loads similar to those predicted by the standard
u 12 critical state model are obtainable. If a fully associative
rule is taken the prediction is every bit as good as that
44 ~ 2.0 obtained taking the full ellipse. All the tests indicate that if
a single model is sought, a full ellipse or cap type critical
1-6 ~ 40 state model C is probably the choice that should be made.
However, it must be remembered that for a majority of
60 found I situations predictions by model B will also remain
available and give similar answers. The choice will often
Figure 3. Load dejbrmation characteristics (undrained
be made on computational grounds in many practical
conditions)for plate footing.
situations.
Model A, elastic ideal plastic (Mohr Coulomb) associative
(dilatant); Model B, elastic ideal plastic (Mohr Coulomb)
non-associative (zero dilatancy); Model C, elastic-strain
dependent plastic; Model D, elastic ideal plastic total stress
analysis
a,eoeoooeoe°°° l° °°e°°°°e
30

soil for a two-dimensional circular footing. As seen from Z • • ~ . . . . . . Tank

the results the performance of all three models is virtually

identical and indeed this is confirmed by other similar o 2o
O
studies s - 1 o °/
I I ~, il
Undrained tests. Results are shown in Fig. 3 indicating L. 1375 mmd
that for undrained situations, where a high degree of
(3 4 ÷ + ~p÷ + + ÷ + ÷ ÷'1- ÷ + ÷ + 4 - ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ + ÷ ÷ + + + ÷
_j
v
+ +

restraint is provided by the fluid on the dilation of the soil ~o

skeleton, quite different answers can be obtained. For
comparison a total stress analysis is also included in the
results and we now see that models B and C predict
reasonably well the behaviour but the associative ideally 0 I I 1
plastic model A does not collapse at all due to the 0 5 10 15 20
continuous development of negative pore pressures with Vertical displacement (mm)
the dilation (indeed it might be contended that finally Figure 4. A footin9 on overconsolidated clay (appro-
collapse would occur for such a material by cavitation but ximate overconsolidation=350 kN/m2/50 k N / m 2. -
this is beyond the arguments extended here). The above Experimental - - Imperial College (M.C.R. Martins, 1977);
tests indicate that from a practical point of view both finite element - - U.C. Swansea (L. A. Winnicki and D. J.
models B and C are viable and can be used in a variety of Naylor 1978): (model C); .... , critical state with Mohr
situations. The final test series, however, on over- Coulomb form; + + + +, ideal Mohr Coulomb plasticity
consolidated clays indicates that here one of them is non-associated (model B). E = 12000 k N / m 2, (p = 30 °, v
preferable. =0.3, H = 2 5
Overconsolidated tests. It is well known that overcon-
solidated clays under undrained conditions will exhibit
much higher failure stresses than normally consolidated 0
materials. This would appear to be predicted only with
materials of type C but clearly would not occur in either A Potential LdE'p / ""
or B models. However, in the loading of overconsolidated eurface---~ ~ g ,Evt)
soils a considerable amount of strain softening must occur
when the stresses exceed the critical state and it is possible
that the actual peaks of stress are of little importance in
practical situations. This is borne out by a study in which
we have been fortunate to have results of tests carried out
at Imperial College for an overconsolidated clay material
on which axi-symmetric footings were placed. In Fig. 4 we Figure 5. Model CC cap type mod~cation of model C
show one set of results obtained by experiment and a 4" Fiy. l(c)

20 Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

 Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil foundations: 0. C. Zienkiewicz

towards a weakening of the material. None of the present

models discussed so far allows such weakening to occur
and the mechanism in which it happens will now have to
be considered. In the next section we shall introduce
possible models by which ‘densificatian’ of the soil
skeleton is introduced whilst preserving the previous
model characteristics. One simple and effective approach
Nan assoc. J, = O” is to consider that in addition to elastic and plastic strains
already recorded by the models discussed in the previous
sections a further purely volumetric, strain occurs which
densifies the material. This autogenous strain is a function
of some parameter which depends an shear stress levels
and the total straining path. Such a model has proved to
0 M
Certical displacement km1
Figure 6. A footing on over-consolidated clay. Assessment
of cap model of Fig. 5 with various degrees of association. E
- - -, Experimental - Imperial College (M. C. R. V In

Martins, 1977); . . ., Finite element - U.C. Swansea (L. A. H-

I
Winnicki, 1978); Critical state with Mohr Coulomb cut-off:
E=12000 kN/m2, cp=30”, v=O.3, H=25. Non-
associated flow rule f
6
Computations
Same remarks should be made with regard to the
numerical finite element processes used in the solution of
realistic problem utilizing above models. The choice of
model may to same extent be influenced by campu-
tatianal techniques used’. Thus if tangential methods are Figure 7(a). A three-dimensional, non-linear Fourier Scotts
used the critical state model is preferable to a non- solution for a footing problem. Element mesh in r-z plane.
associative one as tangent matrix is then symmetric. On Footing: E =2.0 x lo6 kN/m’; v=O.3.
the other hand, with initial stress techniques (or equiva- Soil: E = 1.O x lo4 kN/m2; v = 0.3.
lent viscaplastic processes) the ideally plastic model is fly =cahesion = 50 kN/m’; K, = 1.0; p = weight = 20
preferable as mare rapid convergence occurs and nan- kN/m2
assaciativity is not important.
In the context of two-dimensional plane strain or axi-
symmetric, static or dynamic, analysis, the solution
techniques are widely available at moderate cast with all
the approaches. In full three-dimensional situations,
Limit load ratio
however, we find that the cast is still large and refinements
of numerical methodology are proceeding. Here iterative 3D/2D =l-72
procedures will .ultimately became the basis and distin-
ctions between tangent and initial stress methods will
disappear.
In the intermediate case of axi-symmetric bodies sub-
ject to non-axi-symmetric loads such as occur frequently
in offshore platform analysis, an alternative to full three-
dimensional analysis exists using a Fourier type expan-
sion in the circumferential direction. This reduces the cast
of full three-dimensional analysis considerably and details
of the process are described elsewhere. However, it should
be noted that for such methods an initial stress technique
is essential and hence preference far simple, non-strain ttlement of the
hardening models exists I3 . In Fig. 7 same results of a nan-
linear analysis carried out far a three-dimensional loading
of a footing are shown.

Settlement of the edge

CYCLIC AND TRANSIENT LOADS
The offshore or onshore marine structure exposed to wave
loading or indeed any structure subject to dynamic shack
loading such as could be caused by earthquakes presents 0.126 o-740

special problems. Here tests indicate that in bath clays Figure 7(b). Behaviour of problem of Fig. 7(a) first
and sands cyclic stress reversals progressively increase the increasing vertical load, OA’ (or OA”), then the horizontal
pare pressure and thus, for undrained conditions, will lead load up to collapse.

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1 27

 Constitutive laws and numerical analysis Jor soil,[bundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz

Ouaywal I be effective for sands and has allowed liquefaction effects

~lttert at proper ttel :
to be predicted ~4. An alternative model uses a modifi-
Qul~rVlll; ¢~nltder.d n • rt$111 t*loclt cation of isotropic hardening surface associated with the
0
,,4'
1 Bl~tfI|l ~d FOUDdltlolt " critical state model C in a manner suggested by classical
work of Mroz for metals~ 5. This model will be described in
Yo~, =oa.z = 1o0 I¢~/==
Polseon'e rltlo u = 0,4 general terms but still much research has to be done to
o_ Frier:on ~gle ¢ - 40 °
develop it to full applicability t 6,17.
t)ntt /eight = 12~ Iff/l 3
In addition to problems associated with the weakening
of the material during repeated cyclic or dynamic loading,
o-- . X1 progressive deformation or ratchetting can take place
I I I I after many repetitions of load. This phenomenon known
0 20 40 60m to structural engineers, is perhaps novel in soil mechanics
(1) and some discussion of this will be made in the last section.

Modified material model I - - densification concept

.::f
The work of Seed, Finn and others ~8-21 has indicated
that under cyclic loading dry soils (sands) densify while
saturated ones develop considerable pore pressure. If the

i0'- A . . . . . . . .
amount of densification can be related in some manner to
the stress and strain path the material undergoes, both
effects can be predicted by the same phenomenon. Clearly
when the materials are saturated and the skeleton shows a
°°' I/b xAAAAA A A
o., v ,,v vvVW" tendency to contract it will transfer a considerable
proportion of its mean total stress onto the fluid or water
in the pores. The quantification of these effects is simple
and straightforward in the analysis once such 'initial'
Time, s strain can be predicted. Writing thus that the total strain
(2) can be given as:

e =e e +e p +e a (4)

where the three strain components are those related to

elastic, plastic and densification actions, we could use any
successful model of static behaviour and augment this by
devising a suitable law for autogenous strain c a in the

7
analysis. Zienkiewicz et al. 14 suggest such a law for a
particular sand and show that its effects can be taken quite
simply into account in the dynamic non-linear com-
putation. In Fig. 8, we show an analysis of a quay wall in
2 .®©
which such densification is now introduced in addition to
elastic-plastic strain of model B discussed previously. The
formula used here relates autogenous strain to (a) the ratio
.,t ....
of the deviatoric to mean stresses and (b) the total length
of the strain path to be measured in absolute terms. Thus

dd=mde~ mr=0, 1, 1, 0, 0, O)

A
de~ =f(~c)d~c f(t¢) = - -
I+B~c
(5)
A i~¢ 4 =ec
d~c = g(#/a,.)d( g(6/a,.) = exp (Ta/am)

d( = ~/d~ud~ u (~u deviatoric strain)

Further formulae have been more recently developed 22

and will be published shortly but alternative approaches
have been suggested by Nemat-Nasser and Shokooh 23
which define successfully the same phenomena.
In offshore computations it has been quite customary
to simply insert the observed pore pressure increases into

Figure 8. Non-linear response of a quay wall to earth-

10 t t ¢
quake. (1), Finite element mesh and material properties;
(2), horizontal displacement vs. time at top of quay wall;
131 (3), deformed mesh (displacement x 100).

28 Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

 Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil foundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz

the analysis of an undrained kind using the drained soil
properties and thus progressively weakening the material.
This insertion of pore pressure obviously will lead to the
same answers providing it can be related to the strain path
and stress levels and perhaps as such presents a more
direct approach. If drainage does however occur, it
appears necessary to use the densification concept di-
rectly. In Fig. 9 we show how the proposed densification
formula takes into account experimental data observed in
a sand.
Modified material model II - - isotropic hardening concepts
The modified material model discussed in the preceding
section is perhaps too pragmatic and lacks the aesthetic
appeal of a single model in which the densification effects
could be incorporated. The origin for the development of
such a model now appears in two sources. In the first place
we have the original work of Mroz ~5 where a series of
kinematically hardening surfaces nesting within each
other was suggested to describe metal plasticity. In the
second overlay concepts introduced by Zienkiewicz et al.
were applied to soils 23. This final model is described
qualitatively in the mean stress section of the critical state
plasticity model in Fig. 10. In this model we retain the
normal critical state concepts but use the previous
plasticity surface not as a yield condition but as an
envelope of all yield conditions defined by ellipses of
smaller size (usually given as a fraction of the exterior
ellipse size) which are capable of moving in the interior as
the stress point moves within. By imposing a suitable flow
rule it is easy to achieve compaction or densification of the
material both for increasing and decreasing stress mo-
tions within the overall critical state ellipse. This model
has now been considerably refined and is well capable of
responding to load cycles. In Fig. 11 we show some results
tfiken from a recent paper 17 in which the densification
with increasing cycle number is indicated. The model is
not only capable of showing this densification but im-
proves the general performance of the critical state models
if refinement is needed and adapts this model better to
f.~c
(¢)
-B (o)

02 / A m
om

(¢v)

.0.1
to (b)

o~, (EJ f //
s j ~ v • experimental data /

0.01 0.1
' 1.'o '
100

Figure 9. Autogenous volumetric strain versus ~: (N.G.I. Figure 10. Critical state plasticity, (a) single surface, (b)
sand) two surfaces.

q3. I 2 3 4 5 678916120100 &

2-

-L
I-
lillE/ 'c) 4.

) 2 6 e 7'0 i'2 I~ 1'6 ie go ~" 1o6

-2. N°of cycles
10) -3. 5
tO,2C'100
/oo 40 30 20 10 0 !0 2,o 3,0 4,o 5p e,o zp 6p ~p ~0

I -Io X = 100 41

Eq103 w°"
- 21

$
Ks= 103
(d)
-q

Figure 11. Cyclic loading under drained triaxial conditions. (a) Shear stress vs. volumetric strain; (b) volumetric strain vs.
number of cycles; (c) shear stress vs. shear strain; (d) shear strain (at end of cycle) vs. number of cycles.

Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1 29

Constitutive laws and numerical analysis for soil.]oundations: O. C. Zienkiewicz
Moment l : 200 k I, m De" met,e 'i] : /.Z)0 WN m pc, melee
We,ghl "of plotfo, m e:o,vo~e~t tc 2~, wN / ~ 2 O~ base

o0;
~ / R,g,(~ elements (ep~ese~1 p,c~tcr~ ,r t • o~o )s,s

o~
~1 ¢ ~= ib i i / ~ ~ 5C,I p'ope,!,es
N° boll-CyCles
0 2 t ~ ; ,,o ,~ 't ?
Mo~,-Coulomb e:30" '~:O" ~ ~-C ¢':2a"
( / , X ,oo . . . . f ....... . , 30°

'

/H
.

I
of ox,symmelr,c

Moment kN ~
mesh
~

lol
J BuI* rnoO~lus : 5000

suDer,mposecl on ~rh¢ot pressure of 20~ WNIm~

M INlm2

~
E
020

o,o

0 50
I\.\ \
\.
-~

\.
Slroln- hofaenlng

\
[Initial
Moment = 200
- X : 2~ 0 ~ : ~ 0

vertlcot

Stro,e hordemng -- X
kNm
pressure
S -h
v,~th M-C [~=O')r.ul-ofI C -c
k

: 200 k%/w, 2
per metres1rp

: 25 0.
o~=Oy =
X : 25C
s!eess : ".

. /,.,./ ¢ = 20"

[ , ~ " p. . . . . (...... )
. \
~,0 i';';-- ,~- ..............
\.
X :500
(el

{b)

?. , w2
C/$p,ocement clue I0 Verhccl O,$DJocemenl clue Io vefhCal
I~e o~ly Se(} bea -~ Ioocl ,°~lY

2" -+-010
C 20

v, o ~,ae,,o~ - MOb,-Coulomb /
¢111n¢01 slale
t 0 ~0 ./L// ~7_.
it)
Cychc momenl ]. Cychc moment ~7,

(el e~2:[
N" of holf - c y c l e s

o,o i 2. ., . ~ . , . ,,0 t~ , t t
,

E tnlI,oI verhcoI Wessure :

. O0JIt~ i~~ l . - X = 2000} ISO k N / m 2

I X = 50 0 melre
~- ' ~, : 30"
No o, t ~ c ,y,d.,

o~o

-~
'~ 0 11 ~2~--_....... -.~-'-....... x : 20001
I 200 w ~ / ~ ? ...... , ........ p ........ (gl

X 100 0 Momen[ = LO0 kt, rr per

metre

"-" ....... X 5GO ¢ :30"

Figure 12. Cyclic loading of a Jootin9 under undrained conditions. (a) Finite element mesh and soil properties; (b)
displacements due to vertical loading followed by a monotonic moment; (c) displacement due to vertical loadingjbllowed by a
cyclic moment; (d) vertical central displacement due to cyclic moment for Mohr Coulomb and strain-hardenin 9 yield
conditions; (f) excess pore pressure due to moment after 3/4 cycle (kN/m2); (g) variation of excess pore pressures due to cyclic
moment.

overconsolidated conditions. In ref. 17, a full description collapse. This is a well known phenomenon of ratchetting
of the performance of the model is given and in the near and in Fig. 12 we show an example using a total stress
future we expect that this model will be able to be adjusted analysis which shows how at loads well below those of
so as to give all observable pressure rise characteristics. collapse continuing deformation may occur for a typical
foundation due to reversals of wave loading ultimately
Shakedown and ratchettin9 problems causing unserviceability or indeed incremental collapse.
With a structural system subject to loads during which In the case illustrated a large number of re-analyses were
plastic deformation occurs and if further, some loads are carried out. This is feasible in a simple case but is very
subject to reversal while others remain constant, pro- costly. For practical purposes more sophisticated ap-
gressive plastic deformation may develop in each cycle proaches will have to be developed to tell the engineer
even if the total load combination is well below that of whether such progressive collapse is likely to occur. This

30 Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, No. 1

 Constitutive laws and numerical analysis f o r soil foundations: O. C. Z i e n k i e w i c z
q u e s t i o n c a n n o t be answered by a n y of the limit analysis
p r o c e d u r e s a n d will o n l y be o b t a i n e d by results of a
b o u n d a r y value analysis or the a p p l i c a t i o n of special
b o u n d i n g t h e o r e m s which again are available only for
simplified cases. S t u d y is c u r r e n t l y in progress to e x p l o r e
the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of such limit t h e o r e m s a n d to p r o v i d e
simplified calculations in which the effects of cycling can
be o b t a i n e d by e x t r a p o l a t i o n . I n d e e d if the cyclic stressing
is a s s o c i a t e d with the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of the m a t e r i a l a n d
p o r e pressure d e v e l o p m e n t , this p r o c e d u r e a p p e a r s to be
the o n l y w a y in which true progress can be achieved a n d
the p r o b l e m r e m a i n s one of the m o s t serious ones for
cyclicly l o a d e d foundations. This p a r t i c u l a r a r e a is the
subject of m u c h research a n d the a u t h o r believes t h a t here
at least n o simple alternative o r rule of t h u m b can be
a p p l i e d at the present stage of k n o w l e d g e for i m p o r t a n t
structures.
CONCLUSIONS
A review of the research for d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the response
of structure a n d their f o u n d a t i o n u n d e r various l o a d i n g
c o n d i t i o n has been given in this paper. As m e n t i o n e d
earlier the details of the v a r i o u s processes have n o t been
discussed due to their availability elsewhere in the litera-
ture b u t hopefully the areas of i g n o r a n c e have been
highlighted. T h e a u t h o r feels s t r o n g l y t h a t the d e v e l o p -
m e n t of n u m e r i c a l b o u n d a r y s o l u t i o n of the structure a n d
soil p r o b l e m s is essential if progress is to be m a d e a n d has
to be c o m b i n e d with a d o c u m e n t e d a n d t h o u g h t out
e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o g r a m m e . The refined m e a s u r e m e n t s of
soil characteristics themselves will n o t help to predict the
b e h a v i o u r of f o u n d a t i o n s a n y m o r e t h a n refined n u m e r i -
cal m e t h o d s can d o so w i t h o u t t a k i n g these experiments
into account. It is o n l y t h r o u g h c o m b i n e d physical a n d
n u m e r i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s and sensitivity studies that rules
for the design of safe f o u n d a t i o n s of m a r i n e structures can
be o b t a i n e d .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h e a u t h o r is grateful to Dr. C. H u m p h e s o n , Dr. D. J.
N a y l o r , Mr. V. A. N o r r i s , Dr. L. A. Winnicki, Dr. C. T.
C h a n g a n d Professor Z. M r o z for c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d
enthusiastic s u p p o r t at various stages of this w o r k , '
T h a n k s are also due to the Science Research C o u n c i l for
their s u p p o r t of the above.
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Appl. Ocean Res. 1980, Vol. 2, N o . 1 31