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Abstract-The objective of this program is to program from 1960 to 1980 to develop MHD for
develop magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) and other aircraft, focusing on subsonic and supersonic flows.
plasma technologies for hypersonic vehicles. The The largest MHD power generator proposed by the
focus of this effort is to design, fabricate, and test a Air Force was a 30 MW /Mach 2/LOX/JP-4 MHD
hypersonic MHD generator. In addition, MHD inlet that was to be tested at the Arnold Engineering
compressors and plasma combustors for scramjets Development Center3. The program was cancelled in
may be investigated. Hypersonic engines will need 1978. The last known Air Force MHD effort was the
to produce power up to 10 Gigawatts to achieve the testing of a PAMIR-3U unit purchased from Russian
high speeds, so power extraction of l00 Megawatts s in 1995. This generator produced 10-14 MW and
reasonable. The extreme temperatures and flow weighed 18,000 kg.
speeds at hypersonic conditions will eliminate any
The combustion-driven MHD power unit is
rotating turbines for propulsion, so non-rotating
the oldest MHD technology. The disadvantage of the
MHD power generation technology is ideal for
direct combustion unit is the need for internal
hypersonic vehicles. The enormous kinetic energy of
oxidizer and the limited operating time. Russian
the hypersonic flow can produce MHD generators of
work on inlet ram air-driven MHD “AJAX” concept
extremely high power densities on the order of l00‟s
has been recently published44. To date scramjet
Megawatts per cubic meter. The high-speed flow
driven MHD has remained a theoretical concept due
reduces the magnetic field requirements compared to
to the simple fact that a long duration working
previous MHD generator efforts. These technologies
scramjet engine has not been developed. Ironically,
will provide unprecedented mission capabilities for
MHD and plasma combustion technology may be the
future military hypersonic aerospace vehicles. MHD
breakthrough technologies that produce sustained
power preserves the versatility of air-breathing
combustion in the scramjet. An MHD inlet
hypersonic engines by avoiding the need to carry
compressor can also control the angle of the inlet
independent oxygen supplies for high power turbine-
shock and eliminate the need for mechanical variable
based auxiliary power units or fuel cells.
geometry inlets5. Russians research has been
Additionally, MHD and plasma technologies may be
ongoing in these areas since the 1990‟s6.
the breakthrough technologies that enable sustained
combustion in scramjets, a goal that has prevented TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
hypersonic engine development for decades.
MHD generators produce a current in an
BACKGROUND ionized gas by passing the gas through a magnetic
field. The current density is governed by the law,
Magnetohydrodynamics is a concept dating
back to the time of Sir Humphrey Davy and Michael J = s(E + UxB),
Faraday who built the first motor using a wire
moving in liquid mercury. Concepts for conducting where J is current density, sigma is the conductivity
fluid MHD generators began to appear in patents as U is the gas velocity, and B is the magnetic field in
early as 1910; however, no method of ionization was Tesla. The electric field, UxB, consist of a
suggested. The first work on a conducting gas MHD perpendicular (Faraday) component and an axial
generator began with Karlovitz and Halasz in 19381. (Hall) component relative to the direction of motion.
The natural high temperature produced by the drag at Electrons moving because of this field form surface
hypersonic speeds lead to speculation of MHD charges at of the MHD channel and develop an
reactive control of the vehicle by Krantowitz in opposing electric field E. Electrodes are positioned
19552. The Air Force initiated a large research to use the Faraday or Hall fields, but diagonally
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connected electrodes produce the optimum strip electrons from any neutral atoms or to absorb
configuration that takes full advantage of both the free electrons to prevent recombine with any ions.
Faraday and Hall electric fields simultaneously.
Hypersonic MHD generators can easily
Most MHD generators have been diagonally
extract large amounts of electric power from the
connected generators, although some pulse power
tremendous kinetic and thermal energy available in a
generators utilized continuous Faraday electrode
hypersonic flow. Typically, the MHD becomes more
designs are possible. The higher voltage
efficient with size since most irreversible associated
requirements of DEW favor the diagonal
with it are wall losses that proportionally as the
configuration.
uxB
Electric
Current
surface-to-volume decreases. Demonstrated enthalpy
u
extraction MHD generators in the 0.5-2.0 MWe range
Working
Fluid Out has been at the order of 1.0-5.0 % and for larger units
B
in the 10-500 MWe range, enthalpy extraction
Cathode Load
Wall increases to the 10.0-20.0 % range. For large-scale
J
MHD power systems, isentropic efficiency
Insulating
Wall Magnetic Field approaching 80% is theoretically possible.
Four generator configurations are possible
Anode Wall
Working for a hypersonic vehicle. The first is a ram air driven
Fluid In
Electric
Current
MHD auxiliary power units using free-stream air.
Principle of MHD Power Generation
This either can be located at the inlet of the
Flow of Electrically Conductive Fluid (Plasma) Through a Magnetic Field
Electric Potential (u x B) is Induced Orthogonal to the Flow and Magnetic Field Direction
hypersonic engine or placed side-by-side with the
Tapping Across Potential through External Load Extracts Electric Power
hypersonic engine using an independent combustion
source if necessary. The second is a scramjet
The extracted power density of a diagonal integrated MHD power unit using the scramjet's
MHD is determined by the equation, combustor flow. For a space vehicle, a direct
(rocket) combustion-driven MHD power unit can be
P = k (l-k)s(UB)2,
fueled with traditional propellants and oxidizer. A
where p is the power density, k is the load factor. trans-atmospheric vehicle can use a re-entry plasma-
The conductivity itself is actually a three dimension drive MHD power unit for trans-atmospheric vehicles
tensor usually simplified to a scalar value, s = K ne, can be integrated with the external skin.
and composed of the mobility K, the electron (or ion)
ADVANTAGES OF HYPERSONIC MHD
number density n, and the electron charge e.
Advantages of Hypersonic Speeds
At the low subsonic and even at supersonic
speeds, large power was only possible with large An aircraft with the combined capability of
magnetic fields or large conductivity. The former high speed and long distance weaponry would
was a major technical problem and the latter was a perform missions not possible before. A hypersonic
major physics problem. Even though MHD vehicle cruising in the atmosphere at speeds up to
generators were built and worked, the difficulty of Mach 12 could travel anywhere on the globe within
solving the magnet or conductivity properties limited two hours at altitudes above 100,000 ft. At that
the application of MHD. Operating in high-speed altitude, the directed energy weapon system or
flow dramatically changes these requirements, surveillance radar would have a virtually turbulent
reducing the required magnetic field and taking free atmosphere and extremely long line-of-sight
advantage of the “natural” ionization produced by distance to the horizon.
high temperature hypersonic flows.
A trans-atmospheric space vehicle has wider
Thermal ionization is a natural byproduct of global range and is virtually a self-contained
the high collision rate of the atoms in the high platform, capable of launching from the achieving
temperature gas. Achieving natural thermal orbit, and returning to ground. This alone is a
ionization in molecular gases requires extremely high significant improvement over the permanently
temperature. For example, ionization of pure air orbiting weapon platforms proposed under the
requires temperatures over 4,000 °K. To enhance the Strategic Defense Initiative. A major drawback of
thermal ionization, techniques of artificial this concept was always the requirement for heavy
nonequilibrium ionization such as adding high launch vehicles and maintenance shuttles (or more
electron affinity alkali metals, high electric fields, likely no maintenance at all).
particle beams, radio frequency inductive heating, or
high power microwaves can be used. The techniques
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A trans-atmospheric vehicle may be a very produce Megawatts of electrical power for a directed
large single-state to orbit vehicle or a two-stage energy weapon.
launcher and orbiter. In either case, the system is
MHD is an excellent match to directed
likely a multi-billion platform. A more economical
energy weapons in terms of achievable power levels
platform may be a boost-glide re-entry vehicle
and duty cycles. MHD is competitive with most
equipped with MHD generators imbedded in the
storage and rotating devices over durations of 1 to
vehicle skin. Launch methods range from the old
1000 seconds. Chemically driven MHD pulse power
expendable vehicles similar to the 1960‟s Dynasoar
systems with power density on the order 100‟s
concept to a two-state hypersonic cruiser launcher
MW/m3 have been demonstrated over the pass 40
concept. The reentry heat easily produces very high
years. Russian work in 1980‟s was reported8 to have
conductivity plasma flowing at extremely high
produced an output of 500 MW at a power density of
velocities so that magnetic fields of less than one
approximately 600 MW/m3. Power densities of
Tesla could be sufficient. Although the reentry
hypersonic MHD generators can be made extremely
plasma would restrict the use of radio and microwave
high on the order from hundreds to thousands of
devices, the plasma frequencies at reentry conditions
megawatts per cubic meter. No other non-nuclear
are below the range of visible light, making visible or
power technology can compete with this technology
UV lasers viable candidates as weapons. Second, the
for hypersonic air and space vehicle power sources
resulting effects of turbulence and hypersonic shock
using directed energy weapons.
waves can be moderated or even eliminated through
the very application of external high magnetic fields7. PROGRAM OBJECTIVE AND GOALS
The vehicle then glides back to the launch point or a
recovery area for late re-boosting. The overall program objective is to perform
a ground test demonstration of up to a one-megawatt
It must be considered that the great MHD generator in a hypersonic wind tunnel. This
capabilities of hypersonic speeds also cause extreme ground test will determine whether MHD generators
environmental problems for a human pilot. The can operate effectively in hypersonic flows and if
extreme temperature environment, high centrifugal MHD adversely affect the performance of a scramjet.
turns, and the high angle of attack needed to optimize The effort will demonstrate insulation techniques
the inlet shock angle make uninhabited vehicle needed for superconductor magnets to operate in the
technology more appropriate for hypersonic vehicles. extreme temperature environment expected under
Advantages of MHD in Hypersonic Flows hypersonic conditions. Plans for a flight
demonstration of MHD technology in a prototype
Due to the unique nature of hypersonic hypersonic test vehicle will be developed from the
flows, MHD has several advantages over competing results of this effort, Other plasma-aerodynamic
power generating systems. First, the high velocity effects utilizing MHD principles such as inlet
and associated extreme temperatures of hypersonic compression control, plasma combustion, and
flows prohibit the use of rotating turbines and instead exhaust thrust vectoring could be tested in this effort.
require the use of non-rotating ramjets, scramjets, and
rocket engines. The fact that an MHD generator is Initial work will be trade studies, analysis,
nothing more than a flow channel with external modeling, and simulation of hypersonic vehicles
magnets makes it a natural companion of hypersonic equipped with MHD power generators. Different
engines. The lack of moving parts in an MHD integration configurations between the MHD
generator eliminates the inertia limits inherent in generator, engine, and vehicle will be identified and
heavy turbo-generators, allowing rapid repetitive characterized. The important issue of power
turn-on and turn-off, ideal for directed energy conditioning will be addressed in this program.
weapon applications. particularly the optimum distribution voltage needed
for DEW systems. Since the preferred fuel
The advantage of ramjets and scramjets is hypersonic vehicle above Mach 10 is 20 °K liquid
the fact that they are air breathing and therefore avoid hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels below Mach 10,
the extreme weight penalty of carrying any oxidizer. different thermal requirements must be considered in
An MHD generator retains the air breathing concert with the overall vehicle/weapon system
advantage of the hypersonic engine. A turbine based thermal management. This will reduce the large
auxiliary power unit or fuel cells could supply power external magnetic field leakage as well as the need
to the hypersonic vehicle, but an oxidizer must be for a homogeneous internal field will be important
carried on the vehicle. This would quickly become a for the design of a flyable superconducting magnet.
problem if the vehicle must fly for extended time and
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The generator design effort includes fluid Recent developments in lightweight
dynamic, thermodynamic and plasma analysis of superconductors and structural material now make
MHD generators as well as scaling studies. flight-weight MHD power systems for hypersonic
Conceptual designs of MHD generator power aircraft feasible. In addition, an inlet MHD
systems will be produced for airborne and spaceborne compressor can control the engine pressure and
systems considering the integrated support structure temperature along with a plasma technique to sustain
for the generator/magnet/engine. Using the analytical hypersonic combustion, may overcome the problem
tools developed, generator modeling and simulation that has prevented the development of scramjet
of both spaceborne and airborne MHD systems with engines.
parallel laboratory verification tests will be
performed. REFERENCES
The magnet development effort will begin 1
B. Karlovitz, “Process for the Conversion of
with the analysis of various conceptual designs.
Energy,” U. S. Patent No. 2,210,918 (August 13, 1940).
Using state-of-the-art magnet field codes, the magnet
2
conceptual designs will be modeled, leading to the Krantrowitz, A., “A Survey of Physical
eventual fabrication and testing of samples magnets. Phenomena Occurring in Flight at Extreme Speeds,”
The Proceedings of the Conference on High Speed
The conductors of interest include low
Aeronautics, 1955
temperature niobium based superconductors with
advanced helium cryocoolers, high temperature 3
Swallom, D., et al, “Results from the
superconducting BSCCO and YBCO, as well as PAMIR-3U Pulsed Portable MHD Power System
cryogenic high purity aluminum. Program,” IEEE Paper 96467 31st Intersociety
The MHD generator development effort will Energy Conversion Engineering Conference
initially utilize smaller supersonic testing facilities. (IECEC), August 11-16 1996.
Supersonic wind tunnel test include material testing, 4
Goovitchev, V. I., Hansson, J., “Some
component testing, seeding scheme testing, gas Trends in Improving Hypersonic Vehicles
dynamic physics testing and develop diagnostics for Aerodynamics and Propulsion,” AIAA Paper IS-090
the final hypersonic facility tests. A plasma torch 14th International Symposium on Air-Breathing
device will be used to simulate the high-temperature Engines, September 5-10 1998
plasma environment for testing electrodes and
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insulator materials. Lineberry, J. T., et al, “Prospects of MHD
After sufficient verification tests of the Flow Control for Hypersonics,” AIAA Paper 2000-
conceptual designs are accomplished, the detailed 3057 35th IECEC, July 24-28 2000.
design, and fabrication of the prototype generator 6
Bityurin, V. A., Zeigarnik, V. A. ,Kuranov,
components will begin. Preparation for the A. L., “On A Perspective of MHD Technology In
hypersonic MHD generator tests will be conducted at Aerospace Applications,” AIAA Paper No.1996-
a hypersonic wind tunnel test facility depending on 2355 2nd AIAA Plasmadynamics and Lasers
availability. Test data will include basic power Conference, June 17-20 1996.
extraction, component lifetimes, electrode wear rates,
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magnet performance, and off-design behavior. Miles, R. B., et al, “Plasma Control of
Shock Waves in Aerodynamic and Sonic Boom
SUMMARY Mitigation,” AIAA Paper No.2001-3062 33rd AIAA
The objective of this program is to develop Plasmadynamics and Laser Conference and Weakly
magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generators for Ionized Conference, June 11-142001.
integrated power production on hypersonic vehicles. 8
Velikov, E. P., et al., “Pulsed MHD Power
MHD will provide order-of-magnitude improvement
System „Sakhalin‟ -The World Largest Propellant
in the power capabilities of future Air Force Fueled MHD Generator of 500 Electric Power
hypersonic aerospace vehicles, enabling global Output,” International Conference on MHD Power
missions using directed energy weapons. Proposed Generation and High Temperature Technologies,
scramjet engines will be non-rotating engines October 1999.
producing Gigawatts of power. Therefore, non-
rotating MHD generators are a natural match to
produce efficient, high voltage power for many
directed energy weapons concepts.