Chapter 1 - Basics of Condition
Based Maintenance
Principles of Condition
Monitoring
Condition monitoring is the science and
technology related to assessing machine
performance and/or condition (health) based on
the following:
• Periodic, continuous or semi-continuous
data acquisition from samples, sensors, etc.
• Application of the appropriate tests or
related diagnostic techniques
• Analysis and validation of the data
• The making of the results into meaningful
recommendations for appropriate
maintenance action, leading to a reduction
in cost and an increase in machine
reliability.
Course Objective
This textbook introduces the concepts of
condition-based maintenance, with an
emphasis on the use of machinery vibration as
a tool to determine machine health and identify
root cause problems.
Subjects discussed include:
• The Basics of Condition-Based
Maintenance
• Fundamentals of Machinery Vibration
• How to Set Up a Condition Monitoring
System
• Physical Considerations
• Database Considerations
• How to Set Up and Use Alarms
• Vibration Analysis Techniques
• How to Analyze “Typical” Machinery
Problems
SKF Reliability Systems – Fundamentals of Machine Condition
• How to Prevent Problems from Occurring in
the First Place with a Proactive Approach
Examples of Condition Based
Parameters
• Vibration
• Temperature (e.g., bearings)
• Thermography
• Process variables (flows, pressures, PH
levels, etc.)
• Lubricant condition
• Product quality
• Motor current
• Ultrasonic thickness gauging
Virtually any machine health or operability
parameter that can be reliably and accurately
measured can be used as a condition based
maintenance tool. Some provide earlier
detection of machinery problems than others
do. Often, a change in one parameter may not
seem important unless other related
parameters also change.
Regardless of the parameter selected, condition
monitoring programs must adhere to the
following standards:
• Reliability
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Traceability
Condition monitoring programs must utilize
meaningful measurement parameters and
alarms that are true indicators of machine
health. However, there are practical limits on
how many measurements can be taken on a
machine. The added cost for each
measurement may not produce a significant
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improvement in the ability to detect a pending
machine problem.
This textbook will concentrate on vibration-
based condition monitoring as it is one of the
most mature of the condition monitoring
technologies and is the most widely applied.
However, when designing a program, all
possible measurements should be considered.
For example, oil analysis will typically provide
the earliest indication of a developing problem
in a sleeve bearing. However, oil analysis
cannot determine if unbalance or misalignment
is a cause of the premature wear. The
combined measurements provide early warning
with additional diagnostic abilities.
Accurate and extensive data can be collected
and analyzed on machines, and accurate
diagnoses of problems can be made. However,
the most important component of a condition
monitoring program is the action directed at the
correction of the identified problems. Many
times, companies follow the guidelines for
proper data collection as outlined above, but
their program fails because no actions are
taken once alarm limits are exceeded. In a
cement plant in North America, only 17% of
condition-based related work orders are acted
upon.
The Ideal Condition Based Model
• Detect a potential problem
• Verify the problem
• Identify the problem’s root cause
• Issue a corrective work order to fix the
problem and address the root cause
• Verify the correction and adjust acceptance
limits up or down
The ideal condition based maintenance
program will follow each of these steps for each
machine incident. However, in practice, steps
are often skipped. For example, the following
two scenarios are often encountered:
• Identify a damaged bearing, write a work
order, replace the bearing, start the
machine, and ultimately find the same
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Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
bearing failure because the root cause has
not been identified and corrected
• Identify a machine problem, write a work
order for the repair, production cannot
“afford” to shut the machine down, machine
runs to failure
True condition based maintenance requires
much more than data collection. A successful
program identifies causes and corrects them.
Additionally, the entire plant must participate in
the process. Failure to act on identified
machinery problems puts the plant in a purely
reactive maintenance mode, regardless of the
technologies that they have invested in.
The Four Basic Steps
Detection - Routine vibration data collection,
where readings on a machine, machine
component, or structure are compared to alarm
limits specifically created for the machine.
When an alarm is exceeded, basic diagnosis is
performed to identify the most likely problem
with the machine. A determination is made to
either, continue to monitor the machine, re-
acquire the reading for confirmation, or perform
a more complete analysis.
Analysis - Mechanical problems or defects
generate unique vibration patterns. Vibration
analysis utilizes advanced tools and techniques
first to confirm the diagnosis of the problem,
and second to identify the most likely vibration-
based root cause. Techniques include time
waveform analysis, more complete spectrum
analysis, phase readings, on-line and off-line
tests, and run-up and coast-down test. The
goal is to get t o the true root cause, the cause,
instead of dealing only with the effect, the
current problem that has caused the alarm.
Correction / Improvement Repairs - In this
text, correction / improvement repairs and
correction / improvement maintenance actions
are those that can be executed while the
machine is operating or when there is an
opportune time, such as a planned production
outage. Improvement repairs are those that
advance the current machine condition, such as
oiling, lubrication, bolt tightening, and to the
extent of realignment and field balancing.
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
Verification - Once the repairs have been
executed, it is important that the vibration
analyst be at the machine to ensure that the
repair has been made, the root cause has been
addressed, and that no new problems were
introduced during the repair. Alternatively,
mechanics can check their own work with basic
overall readings, notifying the analyst if the
levels are high. After the machine has reached
operating temperature and is operating under
normal loads, a new set of baseline data are
recorded and, if appropriate, new alarm limits
are established.
Kiln 5 ID Fan Alignment Case History
• 1200 RPM 2600 Hp. DC drive
• Sleeve oil friction type bearings
Kiln 5 Fan.
Running the fan at only 1100 RPM limited
production to only 85% of the design rate. This
fan has historically experienced vibration
problems usually seen as 1X. Typically, this
unit is balanced in a cold running position. It
would then show higher 1X when it reached
operating temperature of 350 degrees Celsius
(662 degrees F). Suspecting that misalignment
could be a factor, we decided to complete a
thermal growth study on this unit before the
March 1998 annual shutdown. An Infra-red
distancing theodelite was used to monitor the
hot running position. The inboard fan pedestal
rose by .069” (1.75 mm), while the outboard
grew by .030” (0.76 mm). This required us to
raise the motor to achieve a .040” (1.0 mm)
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
offset at the coupling in its cold state. A
confirmation of the existing cold alignment was
done.
081-550 ID Fan as Found.
081-550 ID Fan Thermal Growth.
The alignment was completed by the PPM crew
using a laser alignment system. Thermal rise
figures were entered into the system, and the
laser computer calculated a final alignment
position. Further trending showed the
misalignment condition to be subsiding as the
fan base temperatures increased, a process
that took more than 2 weeks.
The rest of the story:
Condition monitoring showed deterioration of
the fan bearings indicating replacement during
every annual shutdown. Basic diagnosis of the
root cause indicted unbalance as the source of
the high loads that were producing premature
bearing wear. Each year the symptom, or
effect – the worn bearings – were replaced.
However, since a comprehensive analysis had
never been performed, the true root cause –
misalignment – had never been corrected. This
plant was performing only the first step of a
comprehensive condition based maintenance
program – detection – until a comprehensive
Condition based and Proactive Maintenance
program was established.
Another detail is important. Upon startup, the
fan vibration was much higher than they had
expected. Management and the rest of the
maintenance staff questioned the work that was
done and were skeptical of the analysis and
correction. Two weeks later, after the massive
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pedestals reached normal operating
temperatures, the vibration levels at the fan
bearings were the lowest ever recorded. A true
success.
The downside? With the fan running so
smoothly at 1200 RPM, operations now wants
to run the fan at higher than design speed to
increase production through number 5 kiln!
Operating a fan above its design speed
involves a degree of risk due to potential blade
and rotor stress problems and the possibility
that the fan may reach one of its critical speeds.
Thorough analysis is required on any machine
before increasing its speed.
How Deterioration Advances
Towards Failure
Within a collection of machines, there is a
definite pattern of life spans. Most equipment
that survives infancy continues to perform with
few failures. In time, however, the rates of
failures begin to increase and eventually every
machine will have failed. Traditional preventive
maintenance overhauls would be scheduled
where the curve begins to trend upwards.
However, this can be costly because it does not
address machines that fail prematurely and
often requires expensive overhauls on perfectly
healthy machines.
The goal of a condition based maintenance
program is to detect machinery problems early
enough to allow time to schedule the most
effective repair effort before failure. This is
typically accomplished by trending the critical
data that measures machinery health over time.
1-4 SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
The Condition Based
Maintenance Cycle
adjust alarm levels Periodic
(improve) Monitoring
increase measurement frequency
repair measurement
equipment exceeds no
alarm limit?
yes
schedule analyze
repair(s) problem
The condition based maintenance concept is
simple:
Using condition based technologies, measure
physical parameters like vibration, temperature,
pressure, lubricant condition, etc., and
determine which combination provides the best
indication of machine health.
Establish alarm limits that will trigger during
routine monitoring. When a machine exceeds a
vibration alarm, the problem is diagnosed to
determine the severity of the problem, and
whether any corrective or remedial action is
required. This becomes easier over time, as
the characteristics of each machine are learned
and the diagnosis becomes more
straightforward. Ideally, the alarm limits are set
high enough to minimize extraneous alarms, yet
conservative enough to not miss a critical
excursion in machine condition. Alarm limits
are continuously adjusted as more is learned
about the machinery in the condition based
maintenance program.
Periodic or continuous monitoring readings are
taken on the machinery. If a measurement
exceeds its alarm limit, the system
automatically detects the exception and
produces plots and reports that help analyze
the problem.
As the problem is likely detected early in its
failure stage, the analyst has time to schedule
the most efficient and effective repair prior to
component failure. This allows maintenance
personnel time to order parts in advance,
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
schedule manpower, and plan multiple repairs
during a scheduled downtime that best fits the
plant’s schedule.
After the repair is complete, condition based
technologies are again used, this time to
measure vibration levels on the repaired
equipment to create a new baseline reading,
Example Trend Plot.
An alert alarm level was established at 0.314
IPS (8 mm/s). When the vibration amplitude
first exceeds the alarm, there is a window of
approximately three months to schedule a
repair before failure based on experience with
this machine and its historical performance.
Actual repair windows will vary from machine to
machine.
After the repairs, vibration readings show that
the vibration drops to acceptable levels and
begins to deteriorate as the machine’s normal
wear cycle repeats.
From the proactive standpoint, this machine
raises some questions. The mean time
between repairs (MTBR) is approximately 12
months, which may be excessive. A limestone
blower would be prone to blade erosion or
corrosion, and the bearings and seals are
undoubtedly subjected to contamination. What
steps could be taken to try to improve this
machine’s performance?
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
quantify repair efforts and ensure quality repair
results.
Trend Graph
This example trend plot shows a material
blower’s condition based maintenance history
over a 2-1/2 year span.
Maintenance Philosophies
Run-to-failure
The premise is simple – run a machine without
performing any maintenance on it until it breaks
down. There are a number of machines in a
plant that should actually be maintained in this
fashion. These are machines that typically cost
more to maintain than replace and that have
little or no impact on production, safety, or the
environment. In other words, the risk
associated with failure is low. Often, these are
referred to as throwaway machines.
Preventive
It is intuitively obvious that equipment that
receives routine and/or necessary maintenance
will run longer, better, and more reliably at a
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lower cost. Preventive maintenance is also
referred to a scheduled, planned, and calendar-
based maintenance and its goal is to prevent
failures and extend life through cleaning,
inspection, routine replacement of lubricants
and filters, and scheduled repairs or overhauls
based on experience or history.
Condition Based
The evolution of condition based maintenance
is a long one. It is only with the advent of
modern measurement devices that it has
become a more widely accepted maintenance
practice.
Condition based maintenance is the application
of various technologies to determine the current
condition of machinery in order to schedule
necessary repairs on a timely basis. It sounds
simple, and really, it is. Maintenance is applied
only to those machines that require attention
and only when needed. Much of the time,
condition monitoring is performed while the
machinery is running, avoiding downtime.
Technologies commonly used in condition
based maintenance, or condition monitoring
(CM), are:
• vibration
• infrared thermography
• lube oil analysis
• temperature measurements
• ultrasonic noise detection
• ultrasonic thickness testing
• motor current analysis
• product quality/surface finish
• walk-around inspections
• other industry or product-specific
measurements
Proactive
Run-to-failure, preventive, and condition based
programs are all reactive. In practice, a good
maintenance program blends all of these
practices to provide the best mix of machine
1-6 SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
availability, cost, and acceptable equipment
risk.
Proactive maintenance is planned and directed
actions aimed at eliminating or reducing the
sources of failures through craftsmanship and
the use of the highest quality components and
parts available. The implications of this
definition are not simple but the premise is. If a
problem source can be identified and corrected,
or prevented in the first place, the machine, if
properly operated, should provide significantly
longer service and present fewer maintenance
problems.
Condition Monitoring
Decisions
• What machinery do I monitor?
• What measurements do I perform on the
selected machinery?
• How often do I perform the selected
measurements?
• What type of condition based equipment do
I monitor with?
The task of adapting a plant and machinery to a
piece of equipment or technology is much more
difficult than selecting the proper tools from a
well designed and well thought out condition
monitoring program.
Even an existing program can benefit from a
review starting at the top of this list. Fine tuning
of the program will increase effectiveness and
efficiency and often reduce the cost of
operating the program.
Selecting Machinery to Monitor
• Problem machinery
• Affect on production
• Probability of failure
• Personnel safety
• Manning level
• Payback
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
Machinery monitoring should be implemented
on a priority basis. The first machines to be
included in a condition based maintenance
program should be those with known problems
or a history of problems – the bad actors.
Solving problems on high-profile machinery not
only provides potentially rapid financial
paybacks but also proves the long-term
effectiveness and benefits of condition based
maintenance.
Cost and Effect of an Unexpected Shutdown
or Failure
Would loss of this machine create a
catastrophic failure, or be financially disruptive?
Probability of Failure
Equipment operating at design limits and/or
handling aggressive material should be
monitored more closely than equipment in light,
routine service.
Personnel Safety
Can machinery failure or abnormal operating
condition create unsafe conditions for
personnel, the environment, or the public?
Manning Level
Is the equipment in a continuously manned
facility or is it operating unattended in a remote
location? Equipment operating unattended
normally requires automated/continuous
condition based maintenance.
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
Machinery Classifications
Critical Equipment – On-Line Protection
Systems
• Essential, un-spared machines
• High maintenance dollars
• High impact on production output
• Progress very rapidly toward catastrophic
failure
• Critical failure causes high safety risk
• Vibration/TSI monitoring is an integral part
of operating critical equipment
• Run up / Run down
Critical equipment is typically essential,
unspared machinery. Should a failure occur, it
might progress very rapidly toward catastrophic
failure (e.g., turbines, generators). Machinery
in this classification requires the protection
offered by On-Line Protection Systems.
While protection systems provide an important
function for critical rotating machinery, they are
generally not designed to provide a condition
based maintenance function. They operate
based on the current condition of the machine,
and many systems do not trend historical data
or forecast future problems. On-line Protection
Systems perform Vibration, Thermal, and TSI
measurements very quickly and, if pre-set
alarms levels are exceeded, provide relays to
shut down the problem machine before
catastrophic failure occurs.
Critical machinery operators are typically “tuned
into” their equipment and On-Line Protection
Systems, and can mentally note minor changes
in operating parameters before alarm levels are
exceeded.
Fully integrated condition monitoring systems
provide an interface module that can be added
to On-Line Protection Systems to provide
trending, forecasting, and analysis features
from the measurements they routinely acquire.
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Toxic, un-spared, high polling requirement
(no shut-down protection required) –
Surveillance Systems
• Hazardous/unsafe environments
• Lack of manpower
• More frequent monitoring (continuous data
collection)
• Network capabilities
• Consistent data collection
• Permanently mounted sensors
• No automatic shut-down features
Paper machines are examples of machinery
requiring automated on-line surveillance
systems. Instead of continuous data collection,
data are collected every few minutes, compared
to alarm settings, and the stored for trending
purposes.
Automatic data collection is preferred due to
potentially hazardous environments and the
need for early detection of machinery problems.
Balance of Plant - Portable Systems
• Require less frequent monitoring (every
week, month, quarter)
• Non-critical machinery
• Low safety risk
• Failure has little effect on production
Industry Systems Overview
Power generation
• Protection systems on large equipment
such as turbines and feed pumps
• Walk-around systems for balance of plant
machinery
• Use vibration monitoring (TSI) to start up
and operate machinery
Pulp and paper
• On-line monitoring used in production and
quality control systems
• Walk-around systems for pumps, fans, etc.
1-8
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
• Sites with power plants utilize combinations
of on-line and surveillance systems
Petrochemical
• On-line monitoring for critical non-spared
machinery
• Walk-around systems for support equipment
such as lube oil pumps
• Surveillance systems utilized in hazardous
environments
The best way to determine monitoring
requirements is to assess the requirements of
each machine and it’s location, environment,
and accessibility. Also, determine whether the
machine already has a monitoring system.
Redundant data collection for trending and
analysis purposes is often a good alternative
when the protection system is limited.
An assessment will also identify machinery that
does not require condition monitoring due to the
cost of monitoring versus the cost of the
machine running to failure. Often, these
machines are only checked at startup to identify
assembly or installation problems.
The final condition monitoring system in any
industry will consist of combinations of on-line
protection, on-line surveillance, and walk-
around monitoring equipment. Innovations in
data collection technology may improve
monitoring options on some machinery.
Therefore, a reassessment of the system every
five years is recommended.
What Measurements Do I Perform?
The secret to effective maintenance based on
condition is in choosing measurements that
effectively identify changes in machinery
condition over time. At this stage, careful
thought provides a large return.
Measurements such as vibration and
temperature are the best indicators of rotating
machinery condition. Oil condition is often
equally useful. Each of these is discussed in
detail on later pages.
Information available in a machine's control
system such as pressure, flow, and speed; or
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
from machine gauges can be incorporated into
a condition based maintenance program for
assessment and historical trending. This
additional data helps with machinery condition
analysis. Monitoring performance parameters
separately from a machine's control system
also serves as a backup to the accuracy of the
control system and provides additional alarm
and report control.
The “key” to detecting and isolating specific
faults is to perform the appropriate
measurement (or measurements) that best
detects the expected faults.
The technologies employed in condition
monitoring must be integrated into the plant
environment, as opposed to attempting to adapt
a plant and the machines to the tools. The task
of adapting a plant and machinery to a piece of
equipment or technology is much more difficult
than selecting the proper tools from a well
designed and well thought out condition
monitoring program.
Even an existing program can benefit from
periodic reviews. Fine-tuning the program will
increase effectiveness and efficiency and often
reduce the cost of operating the program.
More detailed measurement parameters for
machinery will be discussed later in this course.
How Often Do I Measure?
• Machinery that have experienced past
problems, or for which problems have
historically developed quickly, require
shorter measurement intervals.
• For machinery with a good, reliable
operating history, measurement intervals
are longer.
Much of the same thought process and criteria
used in selecting machinery and measurement
types is used in selecting measurement
intervals. For example, equipment where
damages proceed very rapidly from inception to
failure and the consequences are great requires
continuous protection with very short time
intervals (on the order of 1 reading per second).
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
Experience provides excellent guidance for
selecting measurement intervals. Machinery
that has experienced past problems, or for
which problems have historically developed
quickly, requires shorter measurement
intervals. For machinery with a good, reliable
operating history, measurement intervals are
longer.
Continuous Monitoring - Examines
measurements taken on a continuous basis.
With continuous monitoring, an automated data
collection system logs measurements from
permanently installed sensors. Continuous
monitoring requires a relatively large initial
expenditure, but once installed, cost of
operation is low.
Periodic Monitoring – Is based on
measurements taken at regular time intervals.
Measurements are usually obtained manually
with a portable instrument when the data
collection intervals are greater than a week.
More frequent periodic data collection is
generally handled with a surveillance system.
What Type of Monitoring Do I
Perform?
Lubrication
Wear Particle Analysis - Monitoring oil
condition warns of an increase in foreign
substances, such as water, which can degrade
the lubricating properties of the oil and cause
bearing failures. Particle size and
concentration of ferrous materials are
measured. These metallic particles are
analyzed to determine which part of the
machine is wearing and how fast.
Ferrography - The study and analysis of
particles contained in the lubricating oil. The
composition, size, and relative quantities of
particles can be recorded, trended, and
analyzed to deduce problems associated with
wear and contamination.
Oil Degradation - Typically monitors viscosity
and acidity. Viscosity is the most important
characteristic.
1-9

Viscosity is affected by:
• Change in oxidation characteristics
• Excessive Mechanical Stress
• Contamination
• A 20% increase or decrease in oil viscosity
indicates a problem that should be
investigated!
Spectrochemical & Physical Properties
Analysis
• Indicates quality of lubricant.
• Categorizes and quantifies wear metals and
additives
• Reported in parts per million (ppm)
Wear Particle Analysis
• Indicates wear mechanism.
• Wear particle analysis characterizes particle
size and concentration of ferrous materials,
and provides visual inspection of particle
formation
• Wear particle concentration characterizes
particle size and concentration of wear
particles
Particle Count
• Provides information of particle size vs.
concentration
• Units are counts per 100 ml fluid,
categorized by particle size
• 5–10 u/100 ml; 10–25 u/100 ml; 25–50
u/100 ml; 50–100 u/100 ml; >100 u/100 ml
Water
The maximum water allowed is 200 ppm (parts
per million). 0.1% (1000 ppm) of water will
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Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
reduce the effective viscosity of the lubricant by
50% and will reduce the bearing life by 90%!
Temperature
In General - Temperature measurement is a
useful indicator of mechanical condition or the
load applied to a specific component, such as a
thrust bearing. As a bearing fails, friction
causes its temperature to rise. Installing
thermocouple sensors in the housing of a
bearing and measuring temperature changes
within the bearing or lubricant allows problems
to be detected in the early stages and to
schedule maintenance before a more serious
and expensive failure occurs.
For electric motors, a 10 degree Celsius (50
degree Fahrenheit) increase causes a 50%
drop in the life of the windings.
Infrared - Infrared Thermometry (IR) is being
used extensively in a variety of manufacturing
facilities and power plants to detect energy
losses and monitor temperatures of motors,
other equipment, and processes. Simple “point
and shoot” models make this technology easy
to use. A major advantage of this technology is
that measurements can be taken instantly and
safely from a distance without having to touch
hot, hazardous, or moving objects or to access
hard-to-reach surfaces.
There are three basic methods of using a
portable IR thermometer: spot measuring,
scanning, and determining temperature
differentials. Spot measuring determines the
absolute surface temperature of an object,
while scanning identifies hot spots as the
thermometer is moved along the selected
target. The temperature-differential method
compares two or more separate spot
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
measurements, either in different locations or at
the same location over time.
Infrared thermometers only measure surface
temperatures, and they cannot read through
panels, covers, or glass. It is also
recommended that black paint or masking tape
be applied to shiny or polished metal surfaces
in order to obtain accurate measurements.
Airborne particles such as steam, dust, and
smoke may also reduce accuracy.
Thermography - Thermography is the use of
an infrared imaging and measurement camera
to "see" and "measure" thermal energy emitted
from an object.
Thermal, or infrared energy is light that is not
visible because its wavelength is too long to be
detected by the human eye; it's the part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that we perceive as
heat. Unlike visible light, in the infrared world,
everything with a temperature above absolute
zero emits heat. Even very cold objects, like ice
cubes, emit infrared. The higher the object's
temperature, the greater the IR radiation
emitted. Infrared allows us to see what our eyes
cannot.
Infrared thermography cameras produce
images of invisible infrared or "heat" radiation
and provide precise non-contact temperature
measurement capabilities. Nearly everything
gets hot before it fails, making infrared cameras
extremely cost-effective, valuable diagnostic
tools in many diverse applications. In addition,
as industry strives to improve manufacturing
efficiencies, manage energy, improve product
quality, and enhance worker safety, new
applications for infrared cameras continually
emerge.
Ultrasonic - Some of the most common plant
applications are: leak detection in pressure and
vacuum systems (i.e., boilers, heat exchangers,
condensers, chillers, distillation columns,
vacuum furnaces, specialty gas systems),
bearing inspection, steam trap inspection, valve
blow-by, pump cavitations, detection of corona
in switch gear, compressor valve analysis,
integrity of seals and gaskets in tanks, pipe
systems and large walk-in boxes.
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
All operating equipment and most leakage
problems produce a broad range of sound. The
high frequency ultrasonic components of these
sounds are extremely short wave in nature, and
a short wave signal tends to be fairly
directional. It is therefore to isolate these
signals from background noises and detect their
exact location. In addition, as subtle changes
begin to occur in mechanical equipment, the
nature of ultrasound allows these potential
warning signals to be detected early, before
actual failure.
Airborne ultrasound instruments, often referred
to as "ultrasonic translators", provide
information two ways: qualitatively, due to the
ability to "hear" ultrasounds through a noise
isolating headphone, and quantitatively, via
incremental readings on a meter. This is
accomplished in most ultrasonic translators by
an electronic process called "heterodyning",
which accurately converts the ultrasounds
sensed by the instrument into the audible range
where users can hear and recognize them
through headphones.
Although the ability to gauge intensity and view
sonic patterns is important, it is equally
important to be able to "hear" the ultrasounds
produced by various equipment. That is
precisely what makes these instruments so
useful; they allow inspectors to confirm a
diagnosis on the spot by being able to
discriminate among various equipment sounds.
The reason users can accurately pinpoint the
location of a particular ultrasonic signal in a
machine or from a leak is due to its high
frequency short wave. Most of the sounds
sensed by humans range between 20 Hz and
20 kHz (20 cycles per second to 20,000 cycles
per second). They tend to be relatively gross
when compared with the sound waves sensed
by ultrasonic translators. Low frequency sounds
1-11

in the audible range are approximately 1.9 cm.
to 17 meters in length, whereas ultrasounds
sensed by ultrasonic translators are only 0.3 -
1.6 cm long. Since ultrasound wavelengths are
magnitudes smaller, the ultrasonic environment
is much more conducive to locating and
isolating the source of problems in loud plant
environments.
Vibration
Vibration is considered the most valuable tool
available for monitoring rotating machinery
condition. Vibration technology has a sound
technical and historical background and there is
extensive data available on its application.
There are many vibration tools that can be used
to monitor a machine’s condition that range
from basic instruments where the readings are
manually recorded to full-function instruments
that are capable of performing sophisticated
analysis in addition to routine data collection.
Hand-Held Instruments
Hand-Held Instruments.
A hand-held vibration meter is an inexpensive
and simple to use instrument that should be a
part of any vibration monitoring program.
Hand-held meters are carried by machinery
maintenance personnel and, when placed in
contact with vibrating machinery, provide a
display of vibration data. Vibration levels are
assessed on the spot for normal or abnormal
machinery vibration conditions.
Typical hand-held vibration meters are battery
powered and use an accelerometer pickup
because of its wide range and rugged
construction. Vibration meters should be as
small and lightweight as possible, and ruggedly
packaged for maximum resistance to abuse.
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Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
The advantages of a hand-held vibration meters
are low price, convenience and flexibility in use.
They have limited analysis capabilities and
should be used as a supplement to a program
rather than the only tool. Some companies
have had great success in early detection by
having operators take these simple instruments
into the field when performing their routine shift
inspections.
Hand-Held Meters with Storage Capabilities
Data Collectors.
Plants are finding it beneficial to have machine
or process operators participate in the program.
Data collection devices have been developed
that allow operators to not only easily record
important operating parameters from gauges
and other indicators, but to also easily collect
overall vibration data. These operating
parameters are stored in the same database as
the vibration data for easy trending, reporting,
and cross-referencing. A typical operator-
based collection device is shown in Figure 6.
Hand-held instruments combine compact size
with data storage capabilities, providing an
inexpensive starting point for a periodic
condition based maintenance program.
User defined measurements are downloaded to
the instrument. An operator or mechanic then
walks a route through the plant, collecting
vibration, temperature, and process data, along
with visual inspections. As each measurement
is collected, its results are automatically
recorded in the collection instrument.
After the route is complete, measurement data
is easily uploaded to database analysis
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
software for reporting, long term trending and
analysis.
Portable Data Collectors/Analyzers
instruments and entered through the data
collector's keypad. Visual observations such as
leaks and dirty oil are also entered through the
keypad.
Machinery measurements display on the
portable data collector’s display screen and can
be analyzed in the field, or when the route is
complete, the operator can connect the data
collector to a host computer and transfer the
measurements and observations to database
management software for analysis.
On-Line Surveillance Systems

Portable Data Collector / Analyzers.

Portable Data Collectors / Analyzers perform all
the functions necessary for a periodic
machinery condition program and are
considered the “work horse” of most vibration
condition monitoring programs.
Based on a machine’s historical performance,
industry and insurance recommendations, and
manufacturer recommendations, vibration data
is acquired on a periodic basis (e.g., weekly,
monthly, quarterly) to detect changes in
machine health or condition. Some systems,
known as on-line surveillance systems, may
acquire data every few minutes on critical
machinery and/or machines that progress
rapidly from the first indications of failure to total
failure. A variety of data is acquired, including
overall vibration trend information, vibration
spectra, time waveform readings; and special
bearing failure detection measurements.
LMU On-Line Local Monitoring System.
Portable data collectors / analyzers collect and
record machinery vibration data and display On-Line Local Monitoring Units (LMUs) perform
high-resolution FFT frequency spectra and time automated, periodic monitoring using sensors
domain waveforms on an LCD screen. permanently attached to the monitored
Collected vibration measurements can be machine. They provide much more frequent
analyzed on the spot, or downloaded to a host monitoring and therefore, earlier detection of
computer's database management program for problems. They interface with vibration
analysis and long term trending. analysis database management software.
The data collector is carried by an operator to Measurements are taken automatically and
each measurement point, and vibration transferred to host computer and database
measurements are made with a temporarily management software for analysis and
attached probe or from sensors permanently trending.
attached to the machinery. Other
Because sensors are permanently attached to
measurements such as process pressure,
the machinery, LMU system measurements are
temperature, and flow can be read from
taken much more frequently than portable

SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition 1-13


system measurements (on the order of minutes
instead of weeks and months). This allows for
earlier detection of machinery problems and
additional trending data for scheduling repair
efforts.
Other advantages of permanently attached
sensors are:
• Consistent data collection
• Access to unsafe environments
• Access to hard-to-reach measurement
locations
On-Line Monitoring / Protection Systems
On-Line Monitoring / Protection Systems.
On-Line Monitoring Systems provide earliest
detection and protective action.Performs
automated / simultaneous monitoring, many
times up to more than 2000 channels
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Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
• Sensors are permanently attached using
eddy current probes, accelerometers, and
temperature sensors. Many of these
systems interface with vibration analysis
database management software.
Simultaneous measurements may be
performed automatically and may be displayed
and analyzed on the local monitoring
equipment, or, with newer equipment, may be
transferred to a host computer and database
management software for analysis and
trending. Because the monitoring equipment is
wired permanently to the sensors,
measurement time intervals can be short
enough to be considered continuous.
Chief among the advantages of on-line data
acquisition and analysis equipment is its ability
to continuously monitor machinery condition.
Continuous monitoring provides for early
detection of, and protective "action on critical
machinery problems."
Protective action taken by local protection
equipment includes the tripping of alarms that
warn machinery maintenance personnel of a
problem, or the tripping of relays that
automatically shut down machines approaching
catastrophic failure.
High Speed Data Acquisition
High Speed Data Acquisition System.
Programmable, high speed data acquisition /
monitoring systems provide continuous
scanning, on-line machinery monitoring, long
term steady state machinery data storage, run
up / run down transient data capture, and very
Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
powerful machinery analysis displays for
numerous inputs simultaneously.
Parallel / simultaneous data collection not only
greatly enhances data collection / processing
speed, but also automatically produces
absolute phase information and provides a
means to easily cross reference
measurements.
With permanently attached dynamic and static
sensor input and programmable
measurements, alarm set points, and rule base
criteria, these systems:
• Sense machinery change very early and
automatically warn maintenance personnel
of machinery problems.
• Automatically capture run up / run down
transient data.
• Provide real time control room displays for
visually monitoring steady state and
transient conditions.
• Provide very powerful analysis displays for
analysis of both long term and short-term
steady state and transient data.
• Compare collected data to programmable
rule base criteria and automatically indicate
rule transgressions.
Database Management Software
Database Management Software.
Vibration analysis / database management
software is available to aid in the collection,
SKF Reliability Systems - Fundamentals of Machine Condition
management, and analysis of your machinery
data.
These database management programs for
machinery maintenance store machinery data
and make comparisons between current
measurements, past measurements, and pre-
defined limits (alarm set points).
Measurements transferred to the vibration
analysis software are rapidly screened for
departures from normal conditions. Overall,
FFT, and time domain spectra are produced to
help identify, localize, and analyze these
vibration changes. Reports are generated
showing machines whose vibration and process
levels transcend alarm set points. Current data
is compared to baseline data for analysis and
trended to show a machine's condition changes
over a period of time. Trend plots provide early
warning of machinery problems, and are used
to schedule the best time for repair.
Vibration analysis software is also used to
configure and control the collection of
machinery data, either from a portable data
collector (i.e., setting up new routes), or from
permanent on-line data acquisition and analysis
equipment.
Root Cause Analysis and
Correction
No vibration job is complete without a viable
solution. Finding the source of the vibration is
often an easy task compared to correcting the
problem. With unbalance or misalignment, the
solution is relatively straightforward. However,
when dealing with resonance, flow induced
vibration, certain electrically induced problems,
and unusual bearing problems, the correction to
eliminate or control the problem may require
extensive effort and inspiration.
Control is actually an important concept in
vibration. No matter how well balanced, any
rotor will still have a small amount of residual
unbalance. No shaft alignment will be perfect.
The correction is to reduce the unbalance or
misalignment forces to the point that the
vibration falls below acceptable limits. On the
other hand, a pump or piping system vibration
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 Basics of Condition Based Maintenance
due to recirculation can be virtually eliminated 2. Factors to consider when selecting
when the pump’s flow is corrected through machinery for condition monitoring are
process changes, piping design improvements, ________________ .
or impeller modifications.
a. machinery history
A failing rolling element bearing often produces
b. cost of an unexpected breakdown or
distinctive vibration patterns. A
failure
recommendation to merely replace the bearing
has not provided a correction to the underlying c. personnel safety
source or cause of the original bearing failure. d. is the equip. manned or operating
Correction takes vibration from a “find and unattended?
replace” mode to a true proactive process.
e. all of the above
A comprehensive proactive vibration program is
therefore a combination of the elements
described below: 3. The secret to effective condition monitoring is
• Detection of problem machinery or those ______________ .
with levels that may be damage causing a. selecting a large amount of
• Diagnosis of the probable fault or source measurements

• Analysis of the machine to confirm the b. selecting a wide variety of

diagnosis measurements

• Determination of corrective measures c. taking measurements on a continuous

basis
• Generation of corrective and proactive work
recommendations d. choosing measurements that most
accurately define machinery condition
• Verification of the correction
A person that successfully performs these steps
4. Critical machines prone to rapid deterioration
has graduated from a data collection technician
from fault inception to failure require
to a vibration analyst. In addition, a company
_________________ .
that follows these steps has moved from purely
reactive maintenance into a proactive mode. a. continuous monitoring
b. visual inspection
Review c. periodic monitoring
Answer the questions below and review with a d. a large insurance policy
group discussion.

1. ______________ is considered the best

operating parameter to judge dynamic
conditions, such as balance, bearing stability,
and stress applied to components.
a. temperature
b. oil analysis
c. vibration
d. none of the above

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