Matrices, determinants and linear systems -I

Radu MICULESCU

Transilvania University of Braşov

octomber 2020

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 SISTEMUL DE NOTARE

- 20% temele din decursul semestrului; acestea se vor preda seminaristului

în s¼
apt¼
amâna 7 şi în s¼
apt¼
amâna 13
- 20% activitatea, la seminar, din decursul semestrului
- 60% examenul …nal de tip gril¼a

¼ RI
SISTEMUL PRIVIND MODALITATEA DE A ADRESA ÎNTREBA

- la …nalul …ec¼arei ore de curs voi aloca 10 minute pentru întreb¼ ari
- întreb¼
arile suplimentare (ivite dup¼a studiul individual al cursului) se vor
adresa la seminar

R. Miculescu (Institute) Matrices, determinants and linear systems -I octomber 2020 2 / 45

 SFATURI ACADEMICE

- este extrem de important s¼ a studiaţi cursul şi seminarul în …ecare

s¼
apt¼amân¼ a
- cea mai nefericit¼ a strategie este aceea de a v¼ a apuca de înv¼ aţat în sesiune
- înv¼
aţatul la materia ALGAD se face, însoţit de întrebarea "de ce?", cu
creionul/pixul în mân¼ a; în mod cert, lecturarea materialului/slide-urilor nu
este su…cient¼ a, …ind nevoie ca ea s¼ a …e însoţit¼ a de conspecte, notiţe şi
discuţii (în cadrul seminarului şi între dumneavoastr¼ a); prezentarea unui
caiet conţinând notiţele dup¼ a curs şi de la seminar v¼ a asigur¼ a un punct
suplimentar la nota de trecere
- vom studia elementele de algebr¼ a liniar¼a şi geometrie analitic¼ a la un cu
totul alt nivel de rigoare, comparativ cu ceea ce aţi f¼ acut în liceu, i.e. vom
pune un accent puternic pe înţelegerea noţiunilor; prin urmare, nu v¼ a
bazaţi pe ideea c¼a materia v¼ a este cunoscut¼ a din anii de liceu, deşi o bun¼a
cunoaştere a ei v¼a este de folos

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 CE TEME VOM STUDIA?

Determinanţi, matrici, sisteme

Spaţii vectoriale, spaţii euclidiene
Transform¼ ari liniare
Forme p¼ atratice
Spaţiul vectorilor liberi, operaţii cu vectori
Dreapta, plan, unghiuri, distanţe
Conice şi cuadrice
Curbe plane şi în spaţiu
Suprafeţe
Câmpuri vectoriale 1 curs

R. Miculescu (Institute) Matrices, determinants and linear systems -I octomber 2020 4 / 45

 ¼ ŞI GEOMETRIA
LA CE FOLOSC ALGEBRA LINIARA
¼
ANALITICA/DIFERENŢIALA¼?

Ele constituie instrumente esenţiale în orice problem¼

a de modelare
matematic¼ a ce apare în:
- …zic¼
a
- chimie
- biologie
- informatic¼ a
- inginerie
- economie
- medicin¼ a
- sport
- etc

R. Miculescu (Institute) Matrices, determinants and linear systems -I octomber 2020 5 / 45

 BIBLIOGRAFIE

Cursuri

A. Ionescu, A. Friedl, M. Neagu, Curves and Surfaces, Editura Universit¼ aţii

Transilvania din Braşov, 2019.
E. Popovici-Popescu, M. Neagu, Linear Algebra and Analytic Geometry in
Space, Editura Universit¼ aţii Transilvania din Braşov, 2020.
E. Stoica, M. Purcaru, N. Brînzei, Linear Algebra, Analystic Geometry,
Di¤erential Geometry, Editura Universit¼ aţii Transilvania din Braşov, 2008.
E. Stoica, N. Minculete, Algebr¼ a Liniar¼
a, Geometrie Analitic¼ a, Editura Fair
Parteners, Bucureşti, 2016.
G. Toader, S. Toader, T. Laz¼ ar, Algebr¼
a Liniar¼ a, Geometrie Analitic¼a şi
Geometrie Diferenţial¼a, U.T. Press, Cluj-Napoca, 2014.

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 BIBLIOGRAFIE

Culegeri de probleme

S. Chiriţ¼
a, Probleme de Matematici Superioare, Editura Didactic¼ a şi
Pedagogic¼ a, Bucureşti, 1989.
P. Georgescu, G. Popa, Structuri fundamentale în algebra liniar¼ a, geometria
vectorial¼a şi geometria analitic¼
a, Editura Matrix Rom, Bucureşti, 2003.
C. Udrişte, C. Radu, Probleme de algebr¼ a, geometrie şi ecuaţii diferenţiale,
Editura Didactic¼ a şi Pedagogic¼
a, Bucureşti, 1981.

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 The concept of matrix

De…nition. Let us consider m, n 2 N . A function

a : f1, ..., m g f1, ..., ng ! K

is called m n matrix over K .

Remark. Here K = R or K = C.

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 The classical notation

Remark. If we use the notation

not
a(i, j ) = aij ,

for every (i, j ) 2 f1, ..., m g f1, ..., ng, we obtain a representation of the
matrix as a rectangular array having:
- m rows
and
- n columns,
as follows:
a11 ... a1n
. ... . not
A=( . . ) = (aij ).
. .
am1 ... amn
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 The entries aij

De…nition. aij are called the entries of the matrix A.

- aij is the entry which appears in the i th row and j th column

- i is the row index

- j is the column index

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 Mm,n and Mn

De…nition. The set of all m n matrices will be denoted by Mm,n .

Remark. For m = n, we shall use the following notation:

not
Mm,n = Mn .

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 Equal matrices

De…nition. The matrices A = (aij ) 2 Mm,n and B = (bkl ) 2 Mp,q are

equal if:
i)
m = p and n = q;
ii)
aij = bij ,
for each i 2 f1, ..., m g and each j 2 f1, ..., ng.

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 The sum of two matrices

De…nition. Let us consider A = (aij ) 2 Mm,n and B = (bij ) 2 Mm,n .

The sum A + B is an element of Mm,n whose entries are

cij = aij + bij .

So
(aij ) + (bij ) = (aij + bij ).

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 The product of a scalar with a matrix

De…nition. Let us consider A = (aij ) 2 Mm,n and a scalar λ. The

product λA is an element of Mm,n whose entries are

cij = λaij .

So
λ(aij ) = (λaij ).

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 The product of two matrices

De…nition. Let us consider A = (aij ) 2 Mm,n and B = (bjk ) 2 Mn,p .

The product AB is an element of Mm,p whose entries are
n
cik = ∑ aij bjk =
j =1

= ai 1 b1k + ai 2 b2k + ... + ain bnk .

So
n
(aij )(bjk ) = ( ∑ aij bjk ).
j =1

Note. Frequently we shall write products such as AB without explicitly

mentioning the sizes of the factors and in such cases it will be understood
that the product is de…ned.
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 Examples I

1.
1 0 5 1 2 5 1 2
( )( )=( ).
3 1 15 4 8 0 7 2

2.
1 0 0 6 1
2 3 0 6 1 9 12 8
( )( )=( ).
5 4 3 8 2 12 62 3
0 1 3 8 2

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 Examples II

3.
2 1 1 8
( )( ) = ( ).
5 4 6 29

4.
1 2 4
( )( 2 4 ) = ( ).
3 6 12

5.
1
( 2 4 )( ) = (10).
3

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 The zero matrix

De…nition. The matrix (0) 2 Mm,n is denoted by 0 and it is called the

zero matrix.

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 The unit matrix

De…nition. The matrix (δij ) 2 Mn , where

1, i = j
δij = f ,
0, i 6= j

is denoted by In and it is called the unit matrix of order n.

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 Diagonal matrices

De…nition. A matrix A = (aij ) 2 Mn is called diagonal if:

i) there exists k 2 f1, ..., ng such that

akk 6= 0;

ii)
aij = 0,
for every i 6= j, i, j 2 f1, ..., ng.

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 The transpose of a matrix

De…nition. For A = (aij ) 2 Mm,n , the transpose of A is the matrix

t A = (b ) 2 M
ij n,m , where
bij = aij ,
for every i 2 f1, ..., m g, j 2 f1, ..., ng.

So t A is obtained by transforming rows into columns for A.

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 Examples

1.
1 2 3 1 4 7
t
( 4 5 6 ) = ( 2 5 8 ).
7 8 9 3 6 9
2.
1 2
t 1 3 5
( 3 4 )=( ).
2 4 6
5 6
3.
1 4
t 1 2 3
( ) = ( 2 5 ).
4 5 6
3 6

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 Symmetric and skew symmetric matrices I

De…nition. A matrix A 2 Mn is called symmetric if

t
A= A.

De…nition. A matrix A 2 Mn is called skew symmetric if

t
A= A.

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 Symmetric and skew symmetric matrices II

Remark. For a matrix A 2 Mn , we have

A + tA A tA
A= + .
2 2

A + tA A tA
Note that 2 is symmetric and 2 is skew symmetric.

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 Triangular matrices

De…nition. A matrix A 2 Mn is called triangular if it has all its non-zero

elements under or above the main diagonal.

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 Orthogonal matrices I

De…nition. A matrix A 2 Mn is called orthogonal if

At A = t
AA = In .

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 Orthogonal matrices II

cos θ sin θ
The matrix A = ( ) 2 M2 is orthogonal since
sin θ cos θ

cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ

At A = ( )( )=
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ

cos2 θ + sin2 θ sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ

=( ) = I2
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ cos2 θ + sin2 θ
and
t
AA = I2 .

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 The powers of a matrix

De…nition. Given a matrix A 2 Mm we can de…ne the powers of A, by

using the mathematical induction, in the following way:

A0 = Im
An +1 = AAn ,
for every n 2 N.

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 The matrix polynomial

De…nition. Given a matrix A 2 Mm and a polynomial function

f = a0 + a1 x + ... + ap x p ,

the matrix
a0 Im + a1 A + ... + ap Ap
is called a matrix polynomial which is denoted by f (A).

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 Example

a b
Given a matrix A = ( ) 2 M2 and the polynomial function
c d

f = ad bc (a + d )x + x 2 ,

we have
f (A) = 0.

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 The properties of matrix operations I

Proposition. For every A, B 2 Mn we have:

i)
A + B = B + A;
ii)
(A + B ) + C = A + (B + C );
iii)
A + 0 = A;
iv)
A + ( A) = ( A) + A = 0;
v)
t
(A + B ) = t A + t B.

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 The properties of matrix operations II

Proposition. For every A, B 2 Mn and every scalars λ, µ, we have:

i)
1A = A;
ii)
(λ + µ)A = λA + µA;
iii)
(λµ)A = λ(µA);
iv)
λ(A + B ) = λA + λB.

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 The properties of matrix operations III

Proposition. For every A, B, C , D 2 Mn , we have:

i)
A(BC ) = (AB )C ;
ii)
A(B + C ) = AB + AC ;
iii)
(B + C )D = BD + CD;
iv)
AIn = In A = A;
v)
t
(AB ) = t B t A.

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 A word of warning I

Matrix multiplication is not commutative.

Just consider
1 1 0 1
A=( ) and B = ( )
2 0 2 2

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 A word of warning II

It is not true that

AB = 0 ) A = 0 or B = 0.

Just consider
1 0 0 0
A=( ) and B = ( ).
0 0 0 1

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 Homework I

1. Prove that for A, B 2 Mm such that AB = BA, we have

n
(A + B )n = ∑ Cnk An k
Bk , (*)
k =1

for every n 2 N.
Prove that the condition AB = BA is crucial.

Hint.
For ( ) one can use the mathematical induction method.
For the second part just consider

1 1 0 1
A=( ) and B = ( ).
2 0 2 2

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 Homework II

2. Prove that
7 4 n 1 + 6n 4n
( ) =( ),
9 5 9n 1 6n
for every n 2 N.

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 Homework III

a b
3. Let us consider A = ( ), where a2 + b2 6= 0. Prove that:
b a
i) there exists θ 2 [0, 2π ) such that
p cos θ sin θ
A= a2 + b 2 ( ).
sin θ cos θ

ii)
p cos nθ sin nθ
An = ( a2 + b 2 )n ( ),
sin nθ cos nθ
for every n 2 N.

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 Homework IV

4. Find all X 2 M2 such that

1 1
X2 = ( ).
1 1

5. Let A 2 Mn such that AB = BA for every B 2 Mn . Prove that there

exists a scalar λ such that
A = λIn .

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 The notion of n-permutation

De…nition. A function σ : f1, ..., ng ! f1, ..., ng, where n 2 N , which is

one-to-one and onto is called n-permutation.

Notation.
1 2 ... n
σ=( ).
σ(1) σ (2) ... σ(n)

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 The set of all n-permutations

Notation.

Sn = fσ : f1, ..., ng ! f1, ..., ng j σ is a n-permutationg.

Remark.
#(Sn ) = n!.

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 The sign of a permutation

De…nition. The sign of a n-permutation σ, denoted by ε(σ), is

ε(σ) = ( 1)#f(i ,j )2f1,...,n g f1,...,n gj1 i <j n and σ(i )>σ(j )g

2 f 1, 1g.

De…nition. A permutation σ is called even if ε(σ) = 1.

De…nition. A permutation σ is called odd if ε(σ) = 1.

Remark.
n!
# f σ 2 Sn j ε ( σ ) = 1 g = # f σ 2 Sn j ε ( σ ) = 1g = .
2

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 The notion of determinant

De…nition. The determinant of the matrix

a11 ... a1n
. ... .
A=( . . ) = (aij ) 2 Mn , denoted by det(A), is
. .
an1 ... ann

det(A) = ∑ ε(σ)a1σ(1) ...anσ(n ) .

σ 2S n

Remark. n is called the order of the determinant.

Remark. We shall also use the following notation:

a11 ... a1n
not . ... .
det(A) = . . .
. .
an1 ... ann

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 Determinants of order 2

a11 a12
= a11 a22 a12 a21 .
a21 a22

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 Determinants of order 3

a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23 =
a31 a32 a33

a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32

(a13 a22 a31 + a12 a21 a33 + a11 a23 a32 ).

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