Power Amplifiers

During this course, we've already learned how to amplify small voltages using transistors and
operational amplifiers. The maximum output current of these amplifiers was very low and therefore not
suitable for driving a loudspeaker. In this lesson we will learn how to increase the maximum output
current.
We already know that transistors are made for this job. Take a look at the picture below.

RL is an 8Ω loudspeaker. VBE does not depend on the AC input voltage; it's always about 0.6V. This
means that for AC voltages vE = vB => vBE = 0 => vRL = vIN. Since the AC emitter voltage 'follows' the
base voltage, this kind of amplifier is also called an 'emitter follower'. The picture next to the schematic
above shows the output signal. As you can see, this amplifier works only for the positive half period of
the input signal. During the negative half period, the base voltage drops below 0V, and T1 can be
considered as an open switch. If we replace T1 with a PNP transistor (and connect its collector to -15V),
the amplifier works only for the negative half period of the input signal. So we must combine these two:

Ah, that's much better. But what's that horrible distortion at ground level? When vIN = 0V, VB1 = VB2 =
0V (assumed R1 = R2). Since VRL is also 0V, VBE1 = VBE2 = 0V. This means that when VIN is between
-0.6 and 0.6V, T1 and T2 both remain open. This usually happens when vIN crosses the 0V line. That's
why it is called 'cross-over distortion'. To get rid of this, we must make sure that the quiescent voltages
VBE1 = 0.6V and VBE2 = -0.6V. This can be simply accomplished by adding two diodes:
This looks much better. Let's now calculate the proper values for R1 and R2. Assume RL is an 8W
loudspeaker, VBE = 0.7V and hFE = 20. So u2rms/RL = 8W => u2rms = 8W·8Ω => urms = 8V => utop =
8V·√2 = 11.3V => VRL,max = VE1,max = 11.3V => VB1,max = 11.3 + 0.7 = 12V => VR1 = VS - VB1 = 15
- 12 = 3V. IRL,max = VRL,max/RL = 11.3/8 = 1.4A => IE1,max = 1.4A. IB1,max = IE1,max/(hFE+1) =
1.4A/21 = 67mA = IR1 (IB>>ID1). R1 = VR1/IR1 = 3V/67mA = 45Ω.
The quiescent diode current will be (2·15V - 2·0.7V)/(2·45Ω) = 302mA. The power dissipation in R1
and R2 will be I2·R = 3.6W each! Needless to say, this is not a very economical amplifier. And to make
things even worse: every diode has a certain resistance. And even if this resistance is just 5Ω, it results
in a 302mA·5Ω = 1.5V voltage drop. This means that the voltage across the diodes increases from 0.7V
to 2.2V! This means that VBE1 and VBE2 also increase. And if VBE increases, IC will also increase.
Result: the quiescent collector current will be very large!
Of course we could replace the diodes with resistors, making sure VBE will always be 0.7V. However,
diodes have a major advantage: thermal stability. Transistor and diode parameters are temperature-
dependent. If you keep VBE (or VD) constant, IC (ID) will increase with temperature. And vise versa: if
you keep IC constant, VBE decreases with 2mV/°C. So if you use resistors to keep VBE 0.7V, an increase
in temperture will cause IC to rise. This may heat up the transistor, so IC increases even more, and so
on... This is called thermal runaway. However, if you use diodes instead of resistors and attach the
diodes to the transistors (to make sure they have the same temperature) there will be no thermal
runaway: if the transistor heats up, the diode also heats up, reducing VBE preventing and increase of IC.
The only way to reduce the power dissipation in R1 and R2 and the voltage drop across D1 and D2, is to
reduce the (quiescent) current flow through these components. And that is only possible with larger hFE
values. So we need darlingtons!

Assume hFE3 = hFE4 = 100. This means that the total hFE of each darlington is 2000. IRL,max = 1.4A =>
IE1,max = 1.4A. IB1,max = IE1,max/(hFE+1) = 1.4A/2001 = 0.7mA = IR1. VB1,max = 11.3 + 2·0.7 = 12.7V
=> VR1 = VS - VB1 = 15 - 12.7 = 2.3V. R1 = VR1/IR1 = 2.3V/0.7mA = 3.3kΩ.
Let's now calculate the maximum power dissipation in T1 and T2. PT1 = VCE1·IE1 = (VS - VRL)·(VRL/
RL) = (VS·VRL - V2RL)/RL. PT1 reaches its maximum value if dPT1/dVRL = VS - 2·VRL = 0 => VRL =
VS/2 = 7.5V. PT1,max = (15·7.5 - 7.52)/8 = 7W. Since T1 works only during the positive half periods,
T1's (and T2's) maximum dissipation will be 3.5W.
If you want to build an operational amplifier and a power amplifier into one device, you can do it like
this:

You don't need diodes or resistors anymore to prevent cross-over distortion; the opamp takes care of
this. Since the opamp tries to keep Vp equal to Vn, the voltage gain is 2. Variable resistor
(potentiometer) P1 allows you to adjust the quiescent output voltage to exactly 0V.

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