Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Daylight illuminance in urban environments for visual comfort and

energy performance
Nazanin Nasrollahi n, Elham Shokri
Architecture Department, Technology and Engineering Faculty, Ilam University, Ilam, Iran

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Daylighting is a passive strategy which is significant in increasing the liveliness, performance, and visual
Received 23 December 2015 comfort of the residents. It helps to reduce the overall electrical energy consumption of a building. The
Received in revised form absorbed radiation by the façade and building interior varies depending on different factors including the
18 July 2016
sky, environmental barriers, vegetation and position of the sun. The urban environmental factors are
Accepted 24 August 2016
Available online 2 September 2016
fairly effective in creating an appropriate visual space while reducing the energy consumption of a
building. This paper aims to review the relevant literature including the basic concepts of daylighting, sky
Keywords: types, movement of the sun and effective architectural parameters in an urban context. The importance
Daylight illuminance of these factors regarding daylight absorption by the facade and interior part of a building, visual comfort
Daylighting
and energy efficiency are discussed thoroughly. The concluded results indicate that these factors are of
Visual comfort
high significance and their impact on the amount of daylight and energy consumption is undeniable.
Building façade
Urban context Based on the geometry of urban canyons (height to width ratio of a street), by increasing the street
Energy consumption width, the amount of radiation reaching urban canyons significantly increases whereas the energy
consumption reduces. In addition, by increasing reflectivity coefficient of materials in exterior surfaces of
horizontal and vertical directions, the amount of daylight reaching the interior portions of a building is
increased and the need for artificial lighting is consequently reduced. Exterior shading devices also
provide visual comfort and decrease the energy consumption of a building. The amount of radiation
(daylight) shone into a building is considered an energy saving option, which depends on the region
climate. However, a street orientation might cause an uneven distribution of the general radiation on
surfaces of the urban canyons.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
2. Daylighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
2.1. Physical definition of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.2. Different types of lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.3. Models considered for the daylight factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.3.1. Sky model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.3.2. Room model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.3.3. Designing the element model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
3. Visual comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
3.1. Reflectivity of materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
4. Lighting standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
4.1. EN 12,464-1 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
4.2. CIE Standard (iinternational commission on illumination) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
5. Daylight simulation software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
6. Energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867

n
Correspondence to: Architecture Department, Technology and Engineering Faculty, Ilam University, PO Box 69315-516, Ilam, Iran.
E-mail addresses: nazanin_n_a@yahoo.com, n.nasrollahi@ilam.ac.ir (N. Nasrollahi), Tdoshokry8847@yahoo.com (E. Shokri).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.052
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
862 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874

7. Solar radiation in urban areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868

7.1. Parameters affecting solar radiation in urban environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
7.2. Visual comfort in urban blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
7.2.1. Sky view factor (SVF). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
7.2.2. External shading devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
7.2.3. Width and orientation of the street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
7.3. Energy consumption in urban blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
7.3.1. Geometry of urban canyons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
7.4. External shading devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
7.4.1. Reflectivity of surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872

1. Introduction modeling, improvement of data verification and enhancement of

its relative data [11]. In addition, Sanaieian and et al. [16] in 2014
Daylighting is a significant parameter in lighting industry. It is studied the proximities of buildings thermal behavior. They stated
an essential factor for granting the certificate of Leadership in that the precise evaluation of this behavior is difficult, since si-
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)1 [1]. Considering the multaneous evaluation of the whole relative branches is highly
proper process of design and its implementation, daylighting complex. The majority of articles are focused on solar radiation
could perform as a natural adaptable light with the environment, and solar potential estimation on the urban scale. In 2013, in an
otherwise illumination of the spaces becomes inefficient [2]. The article by Dereli and et al. [56], studied the growth of trees and
importance of daylighting has had its mixed opinions throughout their lifetime impact on the efficiency of photovoltaic solar tools.
history. The debate on this topic started during beginning of the This article provides a new method for prediction of the shadow
twentieth century, which introduced daylighting as a primary loss of any specific tree species. The investigated characters of the
source of lighting and a special element in enhancing architecture tree growth are: height, width of the crest and the growth rate.
[3]. Due to the low cost of lighting design, implementing florescent The minimum distance between the plants is measured according
light came to attention during the post-war era [4]. Architects to the species of trees and its direction of planting. The obtained
became interested in daylighting shortly after the oil crisis during results of this research present that the shadows could decrease
70's. However, this desire experienced a severe decline between the outcome of the photovoltaic tools. This low cost method is
1980 and 1990 [3]. However, the efforts in modern architecture by used to protect efficiency of the photovoltaic roofs from the ne-
owners and architects in order to increase the lighting of buildings gative impacts of the trees’ shadows. The simulation is done with
lead to increasing daylighting usage [5]. In order to study day- google sketch up, due to its low cost and availability. In the articles
lighting in detail and obtaining a better insight regarding the past [57–60,61], daylighting is researched in general; due to the lack of
research, it is essential to conduct a comprehensive study about space they are just referred to concisely rather than a precise re-
the previous research studies in this matter. However, this article view of the topics. The general review of the literature regarding
is focused to research the general topics about daylighting, visual the lighting urges the need for prioritizing the daylight as an im-
comfort and reduction of energy consumption (electrical) on ur- portant research topic. The existing knowledge is restricted to the
ban scale. During the recent years, numerous research studies are impact of external barriers on the amount of lighting and visual
conducted regarding daylighting and its specific effects on the comfort outside and inside of buildings. However, study of the
urban environment. The majority of these studies are conducted in existing gaps and the major undiscussed topics are highly desired
the past three years. This shows a growth of interest in the topic of for future investigations. In general, daylight and visual comfort in
daylighting and discussing it from various viewpoints, particularly the recent years are thoroughly investigated via simulations and
architecture and energy aspects. The conducted studies and in- other methods. Although, less research is done on architectural
vestigations regarding the completion of previous researches on elements and reflection of materials outside of the buildings.
daylighting, highly contribute in scientific growth and creation of
efficient urban plans. In order to clarify this issue, the global re-
Table 1
search profusion is indicated annually in Table 1. The concise re- Indication of annual profusion of global authentic
view of the topics and its corresponding research results that are scientific research about daylight in urban scale
conducted in duration of 1993–2015 are shown in Table 2. during 1993–2015.
As previously mentioned, Table 2 indicates the topics as well as
Dissemination year of the articles Profusion
results of the recent research projects on daylighting, specifically
in the urban environments. Among these articles, the article 1993,1994 1
written by Freitas and et al. published in 2015 [11] indicates some 1998,1999 1
interesting facts, including using diverse methods of research like 2001 4
2002 3
authentic up-to-date software, named Radiance [54], GIS [55]. The
2003–2005 1
solar maps and its vast information about daylighting is another 2006 3
advantage of this research. However, these models have major 2007 2
limitations which require data enhancement in the future. It is 2010 3
2011 4
essential to overcome such constraints in order to present detailed
2012 3
information about radiation, implementation of energy conversion 2013 9
2014 8
2015 8
1
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design.
 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874 863

Nomenclature VCP visual comfort probability

DGR discomfort glare rating
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design CIE International Commission on Illumination
SVF Sky view factor ISO International Standards Organization
DF daylight factor EN European Standard
SC sky component IEC International Electro technical Commission
ERC externally reflected component IES Illuminating Engineering Society
IRC internally reflected component

Table 2
Review of the summary of scientific articles published during 1993–2015 in the field of urban daylighting.

Year Resource Research topics Research results

2015 [6–13] Energy and exploitation of resources in shape and facades of high-rise buildings, Sustainable architecture, external lighting and access to solar
passive design systems, the balance between solar radiation and building's energy radiation
requirements, topography and vegetation in cities, SVF, urban canyons, sky compo-
nent and reflection of external components, urban morphology and environmental
sustainability.
2014 [14–20] Solar sustainable urban plans, brightness reached to building facades in city forests, The brightness distribution in the cloudy sky, the role of urban
form and location of urban blocks, thermal behavior and access to sunlight inside and canyons in thermal comfort.
outside of buildings, solar geometry and natural light, geometry of urban canyons,
SVF.
2013 [21–28] Light in open urban spaces, solar radiation and solar brightness in vertical facades, Solar radiation reached to the building façade and the sun
the impact of design on the amount of light reached to the building, the shape of movement.
building skylights.
2012 [29–31] The impact of building and urban design parameters in the amount of light reached to Developing a new simulation tool to study daylight in urban
building based on the situation of sun and sky and the geometry of urban canyons, plans.
sustainability of environment and urban spaces.
2011 [32–35] Solar radiation, urban context and energy usage, the impact of the geometry of urban The positive impact of the geometry of urban canyons on
canyons on energy consumption of buildings, vertical and horizontal brightness, SVF. energy consumption reduction in the buildings.
2010 [36–38] Reflection from the ground and the buildings’ surrounding in daylighting design, The positive impact of orientation on the radiation reached to
daylighting brightness on horizontal and vertical surfaces. building, reducing lighting energy consumption.
2006 [5,39,40] Reflection of the light from materials around building, the relationship between a The light reached to the facades, optimization of daylighting in
building and its context to access to sunlight. the urban spaces.
2005 [41] daylight and its impact on human, brightness in buildings, sustainable urban plans The relationship between comfort conditions and urban
environment.
2004 [42] Solar radiation, energy consumption, thermal comfort inside of the building. Calculation methods of solar radiation.
2002 [43–45] Solar radiation reached to the building façade in urban districts. Consideration of solar energy in urban design.
2001 [46–49] Natural light in high-rise buildings, natural light in city, geometry and conditions of Daylight, satisfaction and thermal comfort of the users.
the sky, reflections of the ground and surfaces.
1999 [50] SVF in urban forests, comparison of daylight software, shading devices, visual com- Comprehensive urban planning guide to access solar energy.
ponents to access daylight.
1998 [51] Passive solar heating in building, direct solar radiation. Anticipation of the tools for various situations to access
sunlight.
1994 [52] Daylight for lighting of the building. Reduction of electricity consumption.
1993 [53] Distribution of sky brightness, SVF. Developing a mathematical framework for sky brightness.

Conducting a comprehensive and reviewing research in this field
could offer a wide range of detailed information, and also con-
tribute to clarify the amount of light emitted to the urban facades
and the interior space of buildings. This creates the desirable vi-
sual comfort and enhances the architectural principles and stan-
dards in this regard, which offers practical outcomes. Therefore,
this research aims to investigate the effects of daylight on urban
environments approaching the visual comfort and energy con-
sumption to fill the existing research gaps in terms of important
parameters such as architectural elements and reflections of the
building materials.
2. Daylighting
Daylighting is known as an important element in architecture
as well as a useful strategy in energy optimization of buildings
[38]. Daylight creates a sense of happiness and vitality that could
positively affect people. Integration of daylighting and artificial
lighting is highly recommended in order to reduce the energy
consumption of buildings. The amount of daylight entered to a
building from the openings is related to creation of space illumi-
nation, yielding in visual comfort enhancement. It is highly sig-
nificant to address the daylight both outside and inside of build-
ings as well as recognizing its impact on saving electrical energy
[38]. Furthermore, daylight is a sustainable development strategy
to increase the visual comfort, energy optimization and develop-
ment of the green buildings. Building openings which allow the
daylight to enter the building not only create a pleasurable indoor
environment, but also allow the residents to have their visual
connection with the outdoors. Daylight is the best resource for
colorful renders [62–64]. Generating electricity consumes a lot of
fossil fuels that its negative impacts on the environment, building
pollution, acid rains and hazardous diseases are undeniable. The
unnecessary increase in emission of carbon dioxide results in
global warming and climatic changes. This shows that saving
electricity does not exploit any non-renewable fossil fuel, but also
environmental friendly by reducing the pollution and emission of
864 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
greenhouse gases o environmental friendly [65]. Additionally, 20–
30% of electrical energy consumption belongs to office buildings
[66,67] and 10% belongs to residential portion, which it can be
reduced by efficient utilization of daylight [68]. The architectural
style of buildings influence the intensity and the light distribution
in order to create a bright and desirable environment. Therefore, a
window should act as a protection against excessive amount of
heat gain as well as the visual and thermal discomfort of the oc-
cupants. In order to avoid experiencing glare, controlling bright-
ness and distribution of sunlight is vital. The windows are also
need to be controllable to offer privacy and sheltering against
human vision. Finally, all of these reasons are effective in the
adaptable relationship between the environment and the design of
light dynamics, which is highly dependent on the space and time
[69]. A normal level of sunlight has a number of advantages for
human and improves the overall living quality [70]. Increasing the
dimensions of openings results in increasing the volume of light in
a room. A design which optimizes the openings in order to in-
crease the light, creates a balance between the visual comfort and
proper lighting. As a result of improper design of openings, day-
lighting becomes a barrier for vision as well as providing an un-
pleasant environment for the occupants [71]. Researchers have
come to the conclusion that a uniform distribution of daylight is
not desired, but instead there should be a level of acceptable
contrast which might not cause a glare. However, this level of
daylight remains to be specified yet [72]. The relationship between
daylight and architecture is considered as a combination of both,
offering various solutions regarding both matters [73]. The ceiling
of a building has a relationship with the environment, which also
filters the link between human and the environment. Direct or
indirect access to a window that changes the central attention of
the eyes and runs a relationship with natural environment allows
people to recognize the time and climate [74]. Daylight is con-
sidered as a powerful lighting resource. Throughout the entire
process of lighting design, the essential purpose is to supply
brightness for visual activities as well as visual comfort. The Sun is
a great source of light that is integrated with architecture. The
proposed design allows an appropriate amount of sunlight into the
openings. The light should be exploited properly and create a
brightness balance within the building. In other words, the design
aims to regulate the amount of light entering the building [69].
The presence of light within interior spaces not only improves the
spirit and comfort of the residents but also prevents or reduces
eyes tiredness and body fatigue. One of the most important mental
aspects of the sunlight is the mental connection with the outer
environment [75]. Various research studies show that human need
a specific amount of light as well as darkness for their health. More
light is needed during the day while this need decreases during
the night. In order to efficiently design a system consist of day-
lighting, controlling the amount of sunlight entering the openings
is vital, considering that the required light is offered to the re-
sidents at the appropriate time [69]. In contrast, daylight is con-
stantly changing with time. The acceptable amount of daylight is
determined based on functional requirements of the room, sea-
sonal changes, environmental and geographical conditions,
building positions and requirements of the occupants. The re-
sidents' adaptability with the dynamic changes of the environ-
ment is important. Conditions of brightness considerably change
as moving from the interior space to the exterior environment or
vice versa. However, human eye is able to cope with physical,
neural and photochemical mechanism in order to adapt with
changes in lighting condition [76]. The amount of entering day-
light to the space (Fig. 1) is calculated by the daylighting factor
formula (1) [77]:
DF = SC + ERC + IRC
Fig. 1. Different ways of daylight penetration into the building [78]. Directly from
the sky . Direct reflection from an external
barrier . Reflection from the floor and ceil-
ing . Reflection from the ground, ceiling and
the walls .
Whereas DF is daylight factor, SC is sky component, ERC is
externally reflected component and IRC is internally reflected
component.
2.1. Physical definition of light
The non-visual impacts of light are defined as a spectrum part
of the electromagnetic waves (380–780 nm), which increase the
visual sense [39]. Light is a radiant energy that stimulates the vi-
sual sense. The visual sense is one of the most important senses in
all creatures which enables them to recognize their surrounding
objects. In the absence of light, it is impossible for the eyes to work
and distinguish different objects. Some portions of the light beam
diffuse when the light is emitted to a non-uniformed object. These
diffused rays of light enter the eyes from the object, enabling them
to recognize the objects [79].
2.2. Different types of lighting
Gordon's research [80], indicates that there are two main fun-
damental methods for the art of lighting: uniformed brightness
and non-uniformed brightness. The uniformed brightness is for
the entire vertical surface that receives the light and offer the art
of relief to architecture; it allows the observer to concentrate on
their personal affairs. The non-uniformed brightness creates a
sequence for concentration on objects regardless to the sur-
rounding environment with darkness [81].
2.3. Models considered for the daylight factor
2.3.1. Sky model
In this model, the building model could be tested in a labora-
tory under the conditions of an artificial sky [82]. In this model,
external conditions are either hypothesized or defined based on
the current standards. Thus, the presumed conditions of a stan-
dard sky for a clear sky [83] or a cloudy sky [84] is defined based
on the given standards [82].
2.3.2. Room model
A room model consists of some information about geometry of
the room, columns, partitions, doors, furniture, location and size of
the windows as well as the physical properties of room compo-
nents, like reflection and transmission. They are all assumed to
benefit from daylight. In this model, the given conditions are si-
mulated and utilized together with some tools to measure the
(1)
required brightness of a room [82].
 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874 865

Table 3
Existing models for the simulation of the daylight factor and its properties [82].

Models Details

Sky model For daylighting scheme only, different CIE sky condition
such as overcast, clear etc. are accommodated
Process model For light process: radiosity and raytracing methods used
Room model For incorporating different room configurations and
geometry
Design element For specifying shading devices such as window blinds,
louvers, luminaries, furniture objects, door, model sensors
Occupancy model To define lunch breaks for people and to create, record,
interpret and analyze occupancy pattern of the given
space

2.3.3. Designing the element model

The details of this model consist of room elements such as Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the radiation reaching a tilted surface by the sky
anisotropic concept, including the anisotropy of the ground reflected component [90].
windows, doors, clerestories and picture formation. The room
should be taken into consideration in order to properly select a
clerestory. In addition, cubes, columns, walls, partitions, furniture, amount of sky view, radiation reached to the façade and visual
trees, plants and working surfaces like desks or drawing boards comfort. Koo et al. [93] achieved a controllable method for auto-
could be specified and defined [82]. In Table 3, various existing mated blinds to maximize comfort of the residents of a given
models of the daylight factor and their properties are stated. building. This new method protects the residents from glare as
well as allowing the maximum possible amount of light inside
in accordance to daily requirements of the residents. There are
3. Visual comfort research literatures in this field that are fully explained in the
Section 7 of this article.
Function of the eye depends on its distance from an object and
the angle between them, which is called angle of vision [85]. The
4. Lighting standards
direct glare of a light is determined by comparison of the max-
imum mean of brightness of that light for various angles within
In order to conduct an authentic scientific research, there is a
the vision field [86]. The VCP (visual comfort probability) [87] has
need for a series of standards in the relative subject. Similarly,
studied and analyzed the lights with a special field of vision; hence
daylight and brightness within the interior and exterior spaces
a combination of VCP defines every specification of the discomfort
require a set of standards. Some daylight standards are: CIE (In-
glare rating (DGR) [88]. This method is suggested by Guth (1966)
ternational Commission on Illumination) [94], ISO (International
[87] for fundamental principles and is revised and proposed by
Standards Organization) [95], EN (European Standard) [96], IEC
DiLaura (1976) [89] for computer functions [79]. Visual comfort
(International Electro technical Commission) [97] and IES (Illumi-
refers to being free from sensitivity, pain and distraction. Visual
nating Engineering Society) [98]. All of these standards have var-
comfort in a space is directly related to surface contrast and di-
ious numbers and different subjects in each number. These stan-
versity of brightness. In the brightness design, glare is the key
dards consider daylight in interior spaces and exterior (urban)
point which disturbs the visual comfort. Glare is the result of ex-
environments from various viewpoints and specification of the
treme contrast in a given field that causes scratch around the eyes
required details; consequently, the results are published as a series
or squinty eyes in human. Visual comfort for a glared radiation of standards for the researchers. A couple of these standards: EN
depends on the relationship between brightness and size of the and CIE are stated in the following.
source, situation of the object in the vision field and adaptability of
the observer's eyes [81]. 4.1. EN 12,464-1 Standard

3.1. Reflectivity of materials
Light reflection is usually assumed as the percentage of re-
flected lighting energy from a surface [81]. In general, there are
three modes for reflection from a surface:
– If the light is reflected from a material, that material is called
reflective.
– If the reflected picture is preserved, the surface is called
specular.
– If the picture is not preserved, the surface is called diffusing [81].
Fig. 2 indicates various reflections (from surrounding surfaces,
sun and the sky dome) reached to a building on the urban scale. As
it is shown in the picture, every object in the space is reflective and
has a reflection of (ρ). However, most of objects are diffusing and a
few of them are specular.
Johnson [90] and other researchers [9,91,92], studied the sky
view factor (SVF) in urban environments and its impact on the
The EN 12,464-1 Standard [96] which is designed for interior
spaces and outdoor environments is one of the new methods for
qualitative and quantitative measurement of brightness. Visual
tasks could be performed with precision and efficiency consider-
ing this standard. In this standard, the required degree of visibility
and comfort in a wide range of working environments is de-
termined by diversity and duration of the activities. The brightness
could be defined by daylight, artificial light or a combination of
both [99]. In this method the required brightness is specified for
the area of activity and its surrounding environment; which yields
to energy consumption saving. Considering the main purpose of
having such standard is not solely security and health of the users,
yet it fulfills the security and health requirements of the users. This
standard does not offer a specific solution; hence, the designers
are not restricted to develop new techniques. In addition, it does
not confine the usage of innovative tools [99]. The EN 12,464-1
European Standard [96] for indoor and outdoor environments is
one of the new methods of quantitative and qualitative mea-
surement of brightness. Visual tasks could be performed with
866 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874

Table 4
Simulation software used in the field of daylight [82].

Name of software Light process Detail Salient features

Radiance Ray tracing Global illumination using Monte Carlo method

Relux RADIANCE engine supplemented with Radiosity In built with Relux CAD, energy calculation by EN15193 and DIN8599 standards
Method
ADELINE Radiosity ADELINE contains SCRIBE.MODELLER as CAD interface, the lighting tools SUPERLITE and
RADIANCE
DIALux Integrated Ray tracing Emergency lighting according to EN1838, Energy evaluation according to DINV 18,599 and
EN15899
Light scope Radiosity Made by Autodesk, possible to change viewpoints without recalculating the scene
Inspirer Bi-directional Monte Carlo Appearance of aerospace object and automobiles in outdoor spaces under clear or cloudy sky can
Ray tracing method be simulated
Rayfront Ray tracing Makes use of radiance engine and has interfaces for enhancement of geometry and complexity
issues
3D studio MAX Ray tracing Improved rendering and integration with other toolkits for enhancements
Superlite Radiosity Quick on numerical feedback on a given design on aperture reflectance and glazing
Lumen Micro Ray tracing Product library of over 70 manufacturers luminaire data
Specter Bi-directional Monte Carlo Accurate simulation results for models involving arbitrary long sequences of specular and diffuse
Ray tracing method inter-reflections
ESP vision Ray tracing Simulated camera and rendering features
Light works Ray tracing Progressive rendering gives immediate feedback of the final image with a fast preview of the
lighting and materials within the scene
DAYSIM Ray tracing Precise sky modeling taking into account the sun position and real sky distribution

precision and efficiency in this standard. The degree of visibility
and comfort required in a wide range of working environments is
determined by a variety of activities and duration of the activity. In
the European Standard of EN 12,464-1 some new indicators are
introduced for measurement of brightness:
Rendering Appearance (Ra2) [100]: Is the ratio of objects re-
cognition or pictures color under a source of light to the recogni-
tion under the sunlight. This index is assumed as 100 for the sun.
Unified Glare Rating ( UGRL) 3 [101]: Glare is a sense created in
bright areas located in the vision field of a person. It might be
experienced as an unpleasant or a disabling glare.
Illumination(Em ) 4 [102]: By definition, illumination is the average
value of brightness intensity over a specific surface; brightness
should not be less than this amount [99].
4.2. CIE Standard (iinternational commission on illumination)
One could perform their high quality visual activities accurately
in presence of appropriate amount of light in the space. The
brightness could be supplied by daylight, artificial light or a
combination of these two. The required vision degree in a wide
range of working space is classified according to the type and time
of the activity.
The CIE Standard [94] of lighting determines the requirements
for a daylighting system, which is considered for an interior space,
an outdoor environment or its surrounding area. In fact, this
standard aims to provide the desired quality and quantity. In ad-
dition, some essential recommendations are made for a proper
lighting. This European standard specifies the required equipment
for interior working space that offer visual comfort and high effi-
ciency to the users while the entire visual activities are presumed
in this standard [102]. This standard targets the security and
and explanations related to the light and brightness are mentioned
in the statement. Daylight, visual comfort, energy consumption in
interior and exterior spaces as well as all the required information
regarding natural and artificial lighting are precisely defined in the
CIE Standard [102].
5. Daylight simulation software
Daylight is a recently added factor in the simulation process.
There has not been a significant focus on this issue so far, making
daylight simulation is quite a new field of simulation studies [103].
In North America, there has been a lot of growth of interest re-
garding lighting simulation, which is attributed to the building
standards and the certification system of green buildings. Ac-
cordingly, the ASHRAE Standard emphasis the utilization of day-
light in a specific space for the purpose of energy conservation
[104]. At the same time, Soviet Union used the certification system
of green buildings (LEED) [1] extensively and developed daylight
simulation as an approach in obtaining daylight certificates.
Therefore, developing daylight simulation became demanded to-
pic with almost similar importance of building modeling simula-
tion, but there is a fundamental difference between these two
simulations. However, ASHRAE defines a technical evaluation
standard for thermal performance of the buildings in computer
programs, there is no standard for daylight simulation software.
Thus, in this area there is a requirement for being cautious [104].
Furthermore, during the last fifteen years there have been some
studies on validation of the internal brightness intensity. Radiance
Table 5
Profusion of studies operated with various research methods and lighting specific soft-
ware on the field of daylight in the urban scale during the last few years (1993–2015).

health of the users and determines the amount of standard light.

Articles (references) Year
In addition, it proposes some specific solutions for restricting the
design and innovation in the design. [5,6,39,40,63] 2006
The CIE European Standard of lighting consists of references [106,107] 2007
[103] 2009
with and without dates, which are from other resources and are
[30,36–38,108] 2010
referred in the statement of the standard. All of the required terms [32–35,82] 2011
[29–31,109] 2012
[81,110–116,21–28] 2013
2
Rendering appearance. [117–123,14–20] 2014
3
Unified Glare Rating. [6–13,124] 2015
4
Illumination.
 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Fig. 3. Profusion of the recent research methods in authentic worldwide resources during the last few years (1993–2015).
is used systematically during the last decade as a daylight simu-
lation software [105].
Table 4 shows a collection of software and their simulation
processing in the field of daylight in interior spaces and urban
environments. Numerous articles have studied independent vari-
ables like building height, ratio of a building height to street's
width, SVF, roof shape, building façade, building elevation, mate-
rials reflectivity, streets orientation, urban blocks and their im-
pacts on dependent variables, brightness amount, daylight factor,
visual comfort and energy consumption. While conducting such
studies, simulations software of daylight and brightness have been
used on both interior and urban scale [24,31,36,40,44,47,49, 106].
Table 5 indicates a summary of the articles and authentic
worldwide resources that have been published during the last few
years regarding urban daylight. In order to give a better under-
standing of this table, profusion of every research method utilized
in the article is shown in Fig. 3. As it is obtained from the figure, the
method of field measurement is the most frequent used method
while the Radiance software holds the second place. In 2004, Relux
software [82] as a brightness simulation software, increased its
popularity and its rendered results prove that this software is able
to accurately model the illuminance of interior daylight for various
sky conditions, type of geometry and room configuration. Ad-
ditionally, Relux supports a wide range of data, such as reflections,
transmittances of real layers and materials, outputs like 3D displays,
isolux curves and evaluation, brightness distribution, output of the
tables and also 3D sun path diagram of height and brightness of the
sun. This advanced brightness simulation software is also used for
analyzing the behavior of light in a building. The main users of this
tool are energy consultants, engineers, brightness designers, ar-
chitects and researchers. According to their comments, there are
some complications and insufficient documents in the field [82].
This stands in the third rank of Fig. 3. In fact, this issue can be due to
the capabilities and proper responsiveness of these research tools.
The results of numerical simulations in these articles indicate
that daylight is measured by softwares like Does [125], Radlink
867
[126] and Radiance [127]. In an article in 2010, the hot climate of
California is investigated [108]. This research needs more studies
on cold climates by focusing on internal comfort conditions and
reduction of energy consumption. A conducted research by
Tagliabue in 2012 [109] in which visual comfort parameters are
studied by modeling of an office space using the Ecotect software
[128]. Subsequently, the results are used as outputs in Radiance
[127], Evalglare [129], and Daysim [130]. The Radiance software
calculates illuminance [131] and daylight factor [132]. Evalglare
[129] examines the data in the case of Daylight Glare Probability
(DGP)5 [133], Daylight Glare Index (DGI)6 [134] and Unified Glare
Rating (UGR)7 [135]. Daysim software is used to simulate Day-
lighting Autonomy (DA)8 [136] and Useful Daylighting Index
(UDI)9 [5]. Daysim creates visual pictures of daylight autonomy
and distribution of interior sectors, where daylight on the surfaces
is likely to be usable [109]. The articles [137,138] have explored
urban light by exploitation of appropriate tools.
6. Energy consumption
In the recent years, the interest in bright buildings has in-
creased. In fact, after spatial and visual quality and aesthetical
aspects of architecture, daylight plays an important role in mini-
mization of electrical energy consumption [27]. An important step
towards reduction of the energy requirements of buildings is to
make them smart. A proper lighting design is meant by an ap-
propriate utilization of daylight, efficient and optimized usage of
lamps and accurate control of light in the buildings. Daylighting is
a passive strategy that lessens the load of electricity consumption
5
Daylight Glare Probability.
6
Daylight Glare Index.
7
Unified Glare Rating.
8
Daylighting Autonomy.
9
Useful Daylighting Index.
868 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
for lighting; it also enhances the performance of users and con-
tributes to provision of liveliness in people [139]. Considering if
provision of brightness by daylight is impossible, the desired
outcome should be achieved by artificial lighting. For this purpose,
it is necessary to examine the effectiveness of the lamps and the
light distributer tools; lumen (the total amount of visible light
emitted by a source) is the unit of light, which is measured per
watt electricity. Lighting for a working environment demands
different requirements than lighting of other purposes and these
requirements vary depending on the type of work. Designing the
light in a manual way allows the users to benefit from the light
when they need brightness. Manual light can be combined with
smart automatic controls, which makes lighting more effective
while being efficient. In addition to saving energy, an appropriate
lighting contributes to heat loss prevention and reduction of the
cooling load. All of these implementations are effective steps to-
wards having zero energy buildings [140]. In an article by Ra-
phaela Walger da Fonseca [112], it is noted that when a light is
used as a complement for artificial lighting, it has the ability of
saving energy. This founding has revealed that artificial neural
networks offer a high ability of analysis for daylight in a building.
This study is conducted by the statistical performance method
based on neural networks. Neural networks are compared with
multi variable linear regression technique to show saving ability
by daylight in office buildings. The simulation is parallel to the
approximate model by Daysim and Energy plus software with the
usage of neural network. The results indicate that neural networks
perform better in this case [112]. Jian Yao's [139] tests show that
exterior solar shadings which are mobile perform as proper sha-
dow makers. They can decrease the sunlight passage by the
minimum fluctuation of 8% and they can keep the internal
brightness around 1000 lx. In contrast, mobile solar shading de-
vices which are used for south façades decrease the energy con-
sumption of the buildings up to 30.78%. They also enhance the
indoor temperature during the summer up to 21% and deduct the
spectacular unwanted dangers up to 80.4%. They diminish the vi-
sual comfort conditions by 19.9% [139].
7. Solar radiation in urban areas
Daylight is an influential issue in architecture, visual comfort
and energy consumption of the buildings [111,141]. The amount of
daylight reached to a building interior is often supplied by its
openings; which makes the spaces attractive, desired and over-
looked to the outside space [142]. Early examination of daylight is
an important step in design of using daylight in a building. Con-
sequently, brightness of natural resources from the daylight factor
aspect is often calculated based on conditions of the cloudy sky
(CIE) and direct sunshine [143].
The sun is a vital resource for heat, energy and rhythm of hu-
man life [16]. It is possible to gain information by the sun's
movement regarding the world, which makes the sun necessary in
terms of energy consumption and quality of life. The sun's
movement is also informative and helps to comprehend the world.
Therefore, the sun is a significant factor for energy consumption
and life quality [144]. The emitted radiation by the sun is an im-
portant climatic factor for human thermal comfort in both indoor
and outdoor spaces [29,144]. In traditional architecture, access to
daylight used to be one of the most important factors in urban
designs around the world. There are various examples of verna-
cular architecture indorsing this fact [145–147]. The aim of solar
design approach is to allow the sun radiation enter the buildings
specifically during the cold days of the year. Moreover, ignoring
and neglecting the solar rights of buildings and open spaces causes
inconvenience and dissatisfaction of the users [148].
Fig. 4. Hierarchy of the factors affecting the amount and quality of solar radiation
and also energy consumption in urban environments.
7.1. Parameters affecting solar radiation in urban environments
According to the existing literature regarding daylight in urban
environments, three impressive factors are shown in the Fig. 4
which are: the amount of daylight, visual comfort and energy
consumption in urban environments. As it is evident in Fig. 4, the
most influential factors in achieving daylight in open urban en-
vironments are geometry of the canyons and urban blocks, width
and orientation of buildings as well as the roof shapes of buildings.
This significant achievement is the obtained result of recently
conducted research projects [149–151].
7.2. Visual comfort in urban blocks
Sunlight is a very essential climatic factor that affects human
comfort in both indoor and outdoor spaces [29,144]. Lack of at-
tention to the daylight factor leads to discomfort inside the
buildings as well as in open spaces. There are several studies fo-
cusing on the significance of influential urban physical factors
regarding achieving daylight [30,48,51,151–156]. On the other
hand, building façade could act as a connecting factor between
architecture and urban environments. Therefore, in order to en-
hance the daylight access in urban blocks, it is important to in-
vestigate the relevant influential factors thoroughly [16].
7.2.1. Sky view factor (SVF)
The Sunlight Radiation models in urban environments depend
on characters like degree of view to other buildings, topography
and vegetation. These characters are achieved by a parameter
called sky view factor (SVF)10 [9]. Fig. 5 indicates two different
definitions from SVF [90].
In order to elaborate on this topic, various SVF(s) in an urban
environment are presented in Fig. 6. As it is shown, SVF in compact
urban environments is quite low and it increases in the country-
side. SVF is less than 0.5 in center of the city, while it increases
approaching the countryside areas [92]. In fact, the higher the SVF,
the more sky view, visual comfort and solar radiation can reach to
the city and buildings facades.
In Fig. 7, the relationship between building's height and view of
the sky from the ground is illustrated. As it is shown, there is an
inverse relationship between height and SVF as the height in-
creases, the SVF decreases accordingly.
7.2.2. External shading devices
In a research article the shading system of a building façade is
analyzed, in which the amount of brightness entering the building
is measured with and without the shading devices [139]. Con-
sidering the visual comfort aspect of the design, the amount of
daylight passage and brightness of building interior are in a more
balanced state with the presence of the shading system. However,
10
Sky view factor.
 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Fig. 5. The geometric definition (left) [91] and cosine-weighted (right) definition of Sky View Factor (the right diagram is redrawn according to [90].
Fig. 6. Fish-eye photographs from the three different built-up urban environments (a) urban dense, (b) multi-family, (c) single houses. A fish-eye photograph, (d) from a
station which represents an ‘open’ area is also shown [92].
Fig. 7. The relationship between façade area (0.2bSkyEFb0.4) per unit floor area
and building height [91].
without the shading system, the amount of brightness may be
excessive, causing inconvenience.
7.2.3. Width and orientation of the street
Van Esch in his article in 2012 [29] took advantage of TRNSYS
software [157]. In this article, the impact of urban design para-
meters such as building's width, orientation and design (roof
shape and design of the building development) are studied based
on the amount of daylight achieved by residential buildings. This
study highlights that street width has an increasing impact on the
radiation reached to the building's facades. A 5-m increase causes
869
a 17–20% increase in receiving radiation. This amount is higher
during summer while it decreases in the winter. In fact, every
5-meter widening in a street's width, yields in 19% increase in the
radiation reaching the buildings' façade in an urban block. In
contrast, orientation of the building could barely affect the amount
of global radiation reaching a canyon throughout the year. The
variation in this amount for various orientations is around 5%. In
addition, north-south oriented canyons are more influential dur-
ing the summer in comparison to the east-west oriented canyons
[29]. The roof shape also has a minor impact on radiation reaching
the canyons. One sloping canyons produce more radiation than
other canyons in winter. The narrower the streets, fewer the south
radiation shots [29]. Figs. 8 and 9 show how street's orientation
impacts the amount of light reaching the building's facades in
warm and cold seasons.
7.3. Energy consumption in urban blocks
After the industrial revolution, the use of fossil fuels for pro-
viding a comfortable ambient temperature increased. Cities
around the world consume large amounts of energy and are the
main source of producing more than 70% of the released carbon
dioxide in the world [158–162]. As a result, the usage of energy in
cities is growing while a considerable amount of sunlight in cities
can reduce this negative growth effectively. The amount of sun-
shine, daylight and brightness on vertical building's surface spe-
cifically in urban areas can be assumed as vital factors in reduction
of energy consumption in buildings. Fig. 10 shows a diagram of
influential factors in energy consumption on urban scale. The role
of urban contexts is taken into consideration here.
7.3.1. Geometry of urban canyons
Energy consumption in urban blocks is studied by Strømann-
Andersen and is published in an article in 2011 [33]. According to
870 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874

Fig. 8. Influence of street direction and season. Percentage of street surface that is directly irradiated when the street direction is east–west direction (left) and north–south
(right) for the reference canyon (gable roofs and street width of 15 m) [29].

Fig. 9. Influence of roof shape. Percentage of street surface that is directly irradiated when the street direction is east–west (left) and north–south (right) at the 21st of March,
for different roof shapes (street width of 15 m) [29].

Fig. 10. The contribution of five factors in energy usage of buildings; according to Ratti et al. [152].

Figs. 11 and 12, this article shows that geometry of urban canyons
(height to width ratio of buildings) has a 30% impact on reduction
of energy consumption in office buildings. This impact is 10% on
residential units. In office buildings, the amount of energy usage
varies from 2% to 30% whereas this amount is between 2–19% in
residential buildings. This fundamental understanding reveals that
the amount and diversity of energy consumption in various
building types is greater than residential buildings.
7.4. External shading devices
Yao [139] has published an article in 2014, focusing on a study
about solar shading devices. In this article, it is stated that utili-
zation of these solar shading devices can reduce the passage of
light up to 8%. In addition, these shading devices offer a balance
between the amounts of brightness required by the inhabitants
and daylight. The usage of these shadings on a building's facades
 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Fig. 11. Relative deviation (%) of energy consumption for a 5-storey office building as a function of urban density compared to free horizon [33].
Fig. 12. Relative deviation (%) of energy consumption for a 5-storey housing building as a function of urban density compared to free horizon [33].
Fig. 13. Reflections on the different surfaces of the urban environment [44].
reduces energy consumption up to 30.87% and enhances visual
comfort up to 9.19% [139].
7.4.1. Reflectivity of surfaces
Reflectivity of the buildings and their surrounding in urban
areas can have a great influence on the energy consumption of
buildings [8]. Reflections of the walls, surfaces and urban canyons
considerably contribute to distribution of daylight in the building
interior and consequently the overall energy consumption. Fig. 13
shows, the rays are emitted from the sun and the sky dome to
buildings. Accordingly, in addition to reflectivity of surfaces, geo-
metry and neighborhoods, there are two other effective factors
regarding the amount of brightness reaching a building that are:
position of the sun and the sky type.
This shows that all of the existing surface materials have the
same reflection ( ρ); however, some architectural materials do not
follow this rule and their reflection diversity varies depending on
the emitted rays and position of the observer [44]. Some of them
can intensively distribute in a directional way (almost digitally).
This leads to experiencing glare for certain directions. According to
the Lambert's cosine law 11 [163], in order to obtain visual comfort
11
A law which states that the energy emitted in any direction by a radiating
surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle formed between the direction of
871
there is a requirement for having accurate parameters for defining
specifications of the surfaces’ material [164]. Fig. 14 illustrates the
distribution of daylight inside the buildings, where the urban
canyons have walls with 0.75 and 0.45 reflection. The figure in-
dicates that reflectivity of the materials on urban facades influ-
ences the amount of daylight entering the buildings as well as the
usage of artificial light.
8. Conclusion
This article presents a comprehensive review of daylighting in
urban environments, visual comfort and energy consumption. The
literature review reveals that the recent research studies are in-
fluenced by the growing rate of population, requirements for re-
duction of energy consumption as well as existence of the sunlight
as an unlimited natural resource. Accordingly, utilization of the
natural daylight in urban environments and also inside the
buildings are studied extensively. The meaning of daylight, visual
comfort and energy consumption in the urban blocks are the
frequent subject of current scientific studies.
Various subjects including sustainable architecture, lighting of
urban exterior surfaces, achieving solar radiation, geometry of
urban canyons, sky view factor, the sun and sky position, external
awnings and effects of light on human comfort are specifically
discussed thoroughly in different articles and scientific studies.
There are many standards which are being used for daylight, out of
which the European Standards of EN and CIE proved to be com-
plete and covering different conditions that subsequently lead to
more utilization of those standards. The application of different
methods of research including field measurement and lighting
simulation software especially Radiance and Relux are also dis-
cussed in many articles.
The main concern of this article is daylighting on urban scale
and urban blocks. The reflectivity of used materials in both vertical
(footnote continued)
emission and a perpendicular line extending from the same surface. Also called
lambert's law, or cosine emission law.
872 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Fig. 14. Annual illuminance in street canyon with surface reflectance variables [165].
and horizontal directions as well as the sky view factor are of high
significance in terms of the visual comfort. Various studies from
different authentic resources confirm that from the visual comfort
aspect there are several important influential factors: building's
height, the impact of building's height to the street width ratio on
the sky view factor and also the amount of radiation reaching the
street surface and building's facades. The existence of external
shading devices permits a more balanced range of brightness in
buildings and offer a higher visual comfort in indoor environ-
ments. In other words, shading devices increase visual comfort.
From the energy consumption point of view, when reflectivity
coefficient in the surface of the materials increases, the more
daylight radiation entering the buildings and consequently, the
usage of artificial lighting is diminished.
Appropriate geometry of urban canyons (height to width ratio
of streets) causes a decrease in energy consumption of buildings.
In fact, widening the streets have a considerable increasing impact
on the amount of radiation reaching the urban canyons and it
reduces energy consumption. Moreover, orientation of streets
causes variation in distribution of general radiation over the sur-
faces of urban canyons (streets, facades and roof shapes). In con-
clusion, all of the findings indicate that the influential parameters
on the amount of radiation reaching the urban blocks, visual
comfort and reduction of energy consumption are as followings
and are listed according to their priority; geometry of urban can-
yons, reflectivity of surfaces, external shading devices, roof shapes,
street orientation and sky view factor (SVF).
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