1.7 Funcţii.

Definiţie

(A)

(B) (C)

(D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I)

Drepte şi non-drepte
funcţia rectilinie – explicită de felul:

y = ax + b
iar implicită de felul:

mx + ny +p = 0

Funcţii rectilinii şi non-rectilinii

N CRITERIU FUNCŢIA
R. RECTILINIE NON-
RECTILINIE
1. Variaţia legăturii între Strânsă Relaxată
variabile
2. Panta (tangenta unghiului Fixă Variabilă
cu axele)
3. Intersecţia cu axele Obligatorie Cazuală
I.8

Planşa I
SINTEZA
studiului economiei cu ajutorul graficelor rectangulare

Nr. BAZA DETALII COMENTARIU

Ordin DESCRIPTI
e VĂ
I Felul curbe individu
reflectării ale
multiple
reflectare directă se cere
concretizare
(inaplicabilă
graficului
abstract)
indirectă
matematic funcţii
nonfuncţ
ii (x)
II Forma dreaptă
non- tipică funcţii
dreaptă elementare
atipică
III Forma + crescătoare monotone
panta
descrescătoare
mixtă ne-monotone
IV Puncte interse cu axele
importante cţii
inter-funcţii
 non-intersecţii asimptote
puncte extrem minim-maxim
puncte inflexiune numai pentru
curbe mixte

Planşa II
Îndreptar elementar al studiului grafic al economiei
(i) Curba rectilinie (dreaptă):
 Obligatoriu monotonă şi prezintă pantă constantă
 Intersectează obligatoriu axele, afară de situaţia abstragerii
intersecţiilor:
 Cu ambele axe – când funcţia este descrescătoare în cadranul NE
 Cu o singură axă – când funcţia este crescăroare, perfect elastică
sau perfect inelastică în cadranul NE
(ii) Curbele (tipic) convexe (cadranul NE):
 Un domeniu creşte în detrimentul celuilalt (curbă
descrescătoare)
 Curbe tipice relaţiei de substituţie
 Domeniul care creşte o face accelerat
 Domeniul care descreşte descreşte încetinit
 Intersecţia cu axele este mai puţin prezentă şi/sau relevantă
(iii) Curbele (tipic) concave (cadranul NE):
 Curbă descrescătoare – un domeniu creşte în detrimentul
celuilalt
 Curbe tipice relaţiei de substituţie
 Caracteristici opuse curbeilor convexe, de-a lungul curbei, cu
excepţia pantei descrescătoare şi concretizărilor în substituţii
 Intersecţia obligatorie şi relavantă cu axele rectangulare
(iv) Curbe ne-monotone (mixte):
 Derivă exclusiv din funcţii polinomiale
 Prezintă intersecţii cu Ox, reale sau imaginare, după gradul
polinomului
 Prezintă puncte de extrem (minime plus maxime) după gradul
polinomului minus unu
 Prezintă puncte de inflexiune după gradul polinomului minus
doi
 Regulă importantă: un punct de inflexiune se asociază la două
puncte de extrem şi se trasează pe curbă între cele două puncte
de extrem succesive
 Astfel, polinomul de gradul doi se redactează (parabolic) cu un
singur punct de extrem şi fără puncte de inflexiune
I.9, I.10 Mathematical and graphical expressions of the
linear function

The linear function so consist in a straight line and expression, like:

mx + ny +p = 0 -- in its implicite (non explicit) expression ;
y(x) = ax + b -- in its explicite expression(as binomial), the

x y
y(x) B

A  O x

-b/a

Figure 6a

(i) The b (free) coefficient:

y

y(x) = ax

y(x)

O x
Figure 6b

y
(x=m)

O x

Figure 6c

y
(y=b)

O x

Figure 6c
 (ii) The a coefficient
Table 1
o a = tg () INFLUENCE CORRELATION
OF x UPON y
0 0 NONE NONE
0 – 45 1 LOW LOW
45 1 MEDIUM MAXIMAL
45 - 90 1 HIGH LOW
90 + MAXIMAL NONE

x y
y(x) B
y(x) = ax + b y(x) = - ax + b
b

A  O - x

(a  0)
I.11 Funcţia liniară:

influenţa – exogenei asupra endogenei –

şi corelaţia – dintre exogenă şi endogenă –

sunt constante & reprezentate în parametrii funcţiei.

I.12 Funcţia multi-liniară:

Y (xi) = a1x1 + a2x2 + a3x3 + ... + anxn + b

I.13 Funcţii lineare şi ne-lineare

Figure 7 Linear and non-linear curves, expressing through

shapes and slopes
y y y

(a)
O x O x O
x
(a1) (a2) (a3)
y y y

(b)

O x O x O
x
(b1) (b2) (b3)
Oy

(c)
 O x

(a) increasing (a1) linear (a2)abrupt (a3)

curves increasing increasing curve decelerating
curve increasing
curve
(b) decreasing (b1) linear (b2) abrupt (b3)
curves decreasing decreasing curve decelerating
curve decreasing
curve
(c) increasing and decreasing curve
I.13 Brief description of several non linear functions
and corresponding curves

The common feature for the following non-linear function and curves
is the econometricians’ option for them, as for replacing the linear
functions, when needed. Actually, there are significant common features
equally between the linear functions (straight lines) and each of the non-
linear functions, as resulting from the explanations below.

1. The exponential function

This function expresses like:
y(x) = ax
and it is chosen by econometricians to replace the straight line for the
reason of emphasizing the varying slope. In other words, whenever
statistical data about the function between two economic variables indicate
an accelerated increasing function, the exponential function will be chosen,
with an a>1 parameter. On the contrary, when data indicate a decelerated
decreasing function, there will be the exponential function with a<1 to be
chosen, in its turn.

2. The logarithmic function

This function expresses like:
y(x) = loga (x)
and it is the converse mathematical function for the exponential – see the x
and y(x) reversing their roles between the two above equations. This is the
essential aspect able to fill the picture of accelerating-decelerating variation
of the functions for the help of econometricians. Meaning that a logarithimic
function with a>1 will be decelerated increasing function and its pair with
a<1 will be an accelerated decreasing function.
And let us repeat that all of these two nonlinear functions reported
above are able to replace corresponding linear functions with proportional
(non accelerated and non decelerated) variation and corresponding
constant slopes. In other words, the exponential and logarithmical curves
might be called typical, as for their slopes’ variation.

3. The hyperbolas
There are two kinds of hyperbolas, like in the two graphs of the
Figure 1.

Figure 1 The convex (a) and the concave (b) hyperbolas

(a) (b)

y y
(f/a) (f/b)

O x O x

The convex hyperbola is reported like :

axy + b = 0
in an implicit form, whereas the concave hyperbola expresses like:
ax2+by2+c=0
at the same.
So, both types of hyperbola are curves surrounding the origin and
express in implicit mathematical reports, due to the fact that they are both
no functions – see, two values of x for a corresponding one of y etc.
The list of their similarities might continue – as for instance, the fact
that the two curves show increasing and decreasing parts at the same for
each quarter of the graph.
Dissimilarities are also important. Mathematically, they are different
enough from each other, while, graphically, crossing or not the axes is a
different storry for each of the two.
The most highly important aspects of these curves, as for the
graphical analysis, are that:
(i) graphically, they might be called typical curves, as for their
convexity and concavity – this is the most obvious aspect of their
pictures;
(ii) so that, economically, they are (typically, as well) for describing
substitution and related phenomena, on the “North-East” sector of
the graph.

4. The polynomial functions

This kind of functions has equally been described in the above text.
They express like:
Y(x) = axn + bx (n-1) + c x (n-2) +…+ mx1 + n
for which the corresponding curve will cross the Oy axis just once,
complying with the same rule as the linear function – see the role played by
the free coefficient n. The Ox axe, in its turn, will be crossed for n times,
according to the highest power of the exogenous (Figure 2).
 y

O x
Figure 2 A polynomial function

Those intersections identify the solutions of the above equation for

y(x)=0. Whenever this kind of curve does not succeed to cross the Ox line, it
is about non-real solutions.
The first degree derivate of the same function is:
y’(x) = na x(n-1) + b(n-1) x(n-2) + …+ jx + m
and its solutions (y’=0) indicate the coordiantes (x) of the points of extreme
(maximums and minimums), and the (y) coordinates will be worked out by
introducing the (x) solutions of (y’=0) into the equation of y(x).
As for both maximum and minimum (all points of extreme):
(i) they do not necessarily identify real maximal or minimal values of
the curve;
(ii) all maximum and minimum points are referred to the ordinate
(endogenous) dimension, when the exogenous is supposed to rise
naturally (proportionally) on the other (abscise) axis.
The second degree derivate, in its turn, will be:
y’’(x) = an(n-1) x(n-2) + b(n-1)(n-2) x(n-3) + …+ix + j
which’s solutions (y’’=0) indicate the coordinate (x) of the points of
inflexion(turning points), and the (y) coordinate will be worked out by
introducing the (x) solutions of (y’’=0) into the equation of y(x).
 The polynomial functions will not be met in our graphical analyses, as
reported in their general form above. But the most highly important features
of these functions are that:
(1) the typical non-monotony proven by them, plus the fact that they are
really the lonely category of functional curves hosting increasing and
decreasing, convex and concave components;
(2) including parabolas – for n=2 – meaning, typical varying curves in
both senses. Increasing-decreasing curves are typical for the
production function, while decreasing-increasing curves are for
reflecting the costs’ behaviour.
To be noticed that, respecting the rule of the polynomial functions, parabola
keeps just one point of extreme and no points of inflexion;
(3) finally, including even the straight line—the linear curve – for n=1 –
which has been deeply analysed above with their significant
particularities against the non-linear curves.
The highest the n power, the highest the freedom of the slope’s dynamic
dragging the points of extreme and the convexity-concavity. Lowering
(spoining) the n power of x means a curve losing such qualities step by step
– this finally is the linear curve.
So, this might be a significant end of the story. The straight line
(linear curve) found its true family and gets included in a larger variety of
functions, as the mathematics postulate. Just its simplicity makes it priorly
eligible for the graphical analysis.
I.14 Reprezentări grafice fără funcţii

Oy

(j)

O Ox

Oy

(m)

O Ox