1.

0 ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM

The functions of the Engine fuel system are to provide the engine with fuel in a form
suitable for combustion and to control the flow to the required quantity necessary for
easy starting, acceleration and stable running, at all engine operating conditions. To
do this, one or more fuel pumps are used to deliver the fuel to the burners (spray
nozzles), which inject it into the combustion system in the form of an atomized spray.
Because the flow rate must vary according to the amount of air passing through the
engine to maintain a constant selected engine speed or pressure ratio, the controlling
devices are fully automatic with the exception of engine power selection, which is
achieved by a manual throttle or power lever. A fuel shut-off valve (cock) control lever
is also used to stop the engine, although in some instances these two manual controls
are combined for single lever operation.

It is also necessary to have automatic safety controls that prevent the engine gas
temperature, compressor delivery pressure, and the rotating assembly speed, from
exceeding their maximum limitations.

With the turbo-propeller engine, changes in propeller speed and pitch have to be taken
into account due to their effect on the power output of the engine. Thus, it is usual
to interconnect the throttle lever and propeller controller unit, for by so doing the
correct relationship between fuel flow and airflow is maintainted at all engine speeds
and the pilot is given single-lever control of the engine. Although the maximum speed
of the engine is normally determined by the propeller speed controller, overspeeding
is ultimately prevented by a governor in the fuel system.

The fuel system often provides for ancillary functions, such as oil cooling and the
hydraulic control of various engine control systems.
MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL

The control of power or thrust of the gas turbine engine is effected by regulating the
quantity of fuel injected into the combustion system. When a higher thrust is required,
the throttle is opened and the pressure to the burners increases due to the greater fuel
flow. This has the effect of increasing the gas temperature, which in turn increases
the acceleration of the gases through the turbine to give a higher engine speed and a
correspondingly greater airflow, consequently producing an increase in engine thrust.

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This relationship between the airflow induced through the engine and the fuel supplied
is, however, complicated by changes in altitude, air temperature and aircraft speed.
These variables change the density of the air at the engine intake and consequently the
.weight of air induced through the engine. A typical change of airflowwith altitude is
shown in Fig. 1. To meet this change in airflow a similar change in fuel flow (fig. 2)
must occur, otherwise the ratio of airflow to fuel flow will change and will increase
or decrease the engine speed from that originally selected by the throttle lever position.

Some engines are fitted with an electronic system of control and this generally involves
the use of electronic circuits to measure and translate changing engine •conditions to
automatically adjust the fuel pump output.

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1.1 TYPICAL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM

Tlie fuel flow begins at the aircraft fuel tank and is assisted by wing mounted boost
pumps. Fuel-is delivered to the. fuel system components as shown in Fig.3.

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TJie fuel passes to Hie engine driven pump at a fairly low pressure, this ensures an
adequate 'head of pressure' at the inlet to the pump, preventing cavitation of the pump
during normal operation.

Tlie fuel flow is then directed through the fuel heater. However, this may be an
optional extra depending on the design requirements of the system. The fuel heater ".^
ensures that any ice particles are removed from the fuel before the fuel reaches the Fuel
Control Unit (FCU). Hot air for heating the fuel is drawn from the engine compressor.

The fuel control unit meters and supplies the correct amount of fuel to the engine
burners depending upon throttle position and the various environmental conditions that
affect the engine performance. It is a hydromechanical computer, consisting of two
parts, a metering section and a computing section. The fuel control unit is fitted with
a fuel filter.

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 A fuel flow transmitter indicates to the flight deck crew the amount of fuel flowing
from the fuel control unit to the engine.

The fuel cooled oil cooler, although pan of the fuel system has a primary function to
cool the oil from the engine lubricating system. The cold fuel cools the oil and at the
same time the oil heats the fuel.

The flow divider directs the fuel flow to either the primary or the secondary fuel
nozzles. These nozzles provide an atomised flow of fuel into the engine combustion
chamber for burning purposes.

1.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

A gas turbine fuel system must satisfy the following requirements:-

• the pilot must have control of the engine power at all times,

• thefuelflow must be such that the engine has good acceleration capabilities,

• the fuel fed to the burners must burn readily and easily,

• engine starting must be easy,

• automatic safety devices must be built into the system to prevent

overspeeding and overheating (overtemping) of the engine,

• the system must be designed to automatically control the following

variations:-

(i) Aircraft forward speed,

(ii) Altitude.

(Hi) Acceleration,

(iv) Air temperature,

(v) Engine rpm.

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 (vi) Gas temperature.

1.3 SYMBOLS USED

Before we move on perhaps it -would be wise to list the symbols that you will find in
this book dealing with fuel control. By no means complete, they do represent a
selection of common symbols that we will be using, they include:-

Nl - Low pressure compressor rotation speed - rpm.

N2 - High pressure compressor rotation speed - rpm.

Pom - Ambient pressure.

Tom - Ambient temperature.

TT2 - Temperature at compressor inlet.

CDP - Compressor discharge pressure.

PB - Burner pressure (combustion chamber) used by fuel control.

TT5 - Turbine inlet temperature.

1.4 FUEL CONTROL AND SPEED GOVERNING

Generally speaking, the operator of a gas turbine engine does not control the engine
directly, he acts~through an intermediary, namely-the fuel control unit. The means of
conveying orders to the fuel control unit is by the use of a throttle or power lever.

In this case, the operator cannot ask for a certain amount of thrust or power, as in
a car for instance, but instead, positions his throttle for a given % of available thrust.

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The fuel control unit, through signal sensing (inputs from the throttle) and fuel
metering, determines what the available thrust should be.

Gas turbine engines are normally controlled by one of two methods:-

• Constant speed governing.

• Variable speed governing.

1.4.1 CONSTANT SPEED GOVERNING

Single axial flow compressors and centrifugal compressors are normally

controlled by the constant speed governing system as speed is an acceptable
controlling force with single compressor, low or medium compression ratio
engines. In this system, a fixed power lever (throttle) position, represents a
fixed engine speed in rpm. This speed will not vary with compressor inlet
temperature or burner pressure changes.

Consider the illustration in Fig. 4(a) the Turbine Inlet Temperature (TT5)
varies inversely with compressor inlet temperature when the compressor
speed is constant.

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 Note that the turbine inlet temperature (ITS) has to be limited to the coldest
day, the colder the air the greater the thrust. As the air warms up the thrust
reduces (due to density changes), then any drop in ITS as the engine moves
into the warmer air, must be at the sacrifice of thrust and efficiency,
however, these losses are not so great as to render the engine unusable.

1.4.2 VARIABLE SPEED GOVERNOR

With the dual compressor engine, the losses due to a lowering of TT5
because of an increase in TT2 (inlet temperature) are prevented by the use of a
variable speed governor system. Instead of allowing TT5 to drop because of
a reduction in air density (warmer air) the high pressure compressor (N2) is
made to go faster when in warmer air. The required increase in speed is
determined as that amount which is sufficient to maintain a constant turbine
inlet temperature. This condition is illustrated in Fig.4(b). Here the
Compressor Inlet Temperature (TT2) is used as the signal to change the
engine speed. This is achieved by having a sensor in the engine inlet that
directs a signal to the fuel control unit to increase or decrease, fuel flow in
order to achieve a constant turbine inlet temperature.

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 Any movement of the throttle will, in general, be in excess of the engine's
ability to produce an immediate increase in thrust. For example, during
acceleration, (throttle advanced), the restraining forces of N2 speed, and
TT2 will control the fuel flow, this will happen irrespective of how rapid the
throttle is moved. During deceleration, Burner Pressure (PB) is the
controlling factor. This ensures that the engine passes through the transitory
conditions as quickly as possible without surging, overtemping or flame out
conditions (rich blow-out and lean die-out) being reached.

2.0 MAIN FUEL PUMPS (ENGINE DRIVEN}

Main fuel pumps are designed to deliver fuel to the engine at the correct pressure at
all times during the engine's operation. A satisfactory atomization at the fuel nozzle
is dependent upon the high pressure fuel delivery from the pump.

Engine driven fuel pumps can be divided into two categories:-

• Constant displacement (pressure relief controlled).

• Variable displacement (multi-plunger piston type).

Constant displacement pumps use gears as the means of providing a constant pressure,
the variable displacement pump uses pistons to achieve the pump output pressure.

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2.1 CONSTANT DELIVERY PUMP

This pump has a straight line flow capability, and is not controlled by the fuel
requirements as they change with altitude and mode of flight. This means that the
pump must be capable of supplying sufficient fuel during all engine operating
conditions and ranges, and will have an excess capacity over that needed for most of
the ranges and conditions normally used.

A typical constant displacement gear type pump is shown in Fig.5. The impeller
initially boosts the inlet pressure from the wing mounted boost pump to between 20 and
45 psi. This impeller is driven by a gear drive from the engine accessory gearbox. The
fuel on leaving the impeller portion of the pump is directed through a fuel heater, if
fitted.

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 From the fuel healer the fuel is then directed through the filter assembly. The system
is protected from a filter blockage by a by-pass relief valve ensuring that fuel flow will
take place in the event of filter blockage. The fuel then enters the high pressure
portion of the pump and is boosted to a pressure of900psi, any excess pressure above
this figure is relieved through the high pressure relief valve.

You should notice that fuel is also directed back to the pump from the fuel control unit
(FCU), this fuel is surplus to the FCU's requirements and is mainly used for cooling
purposes within the FCU.

The impeller and high pressure gear pumps are on the same drive shaft, so in the
event of a failure of any one of these pumping elements, the fuel pump will still supply
a limited amount of fuel pressure to the fuel control unit.

2.2 VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT TYPE FUEL PUMPS

The fuel pressure output from this type of pump is controlled by changing the angle
of an integral camplate which in turn alters the length of the pumping stroke, thus
adjusting fuel delivery to the system. Various control elements act on the servo piston
rod to alter the angle of the camplale, and therefore the fuel flow. The connection of
the camplale to the servo- piston is usually hydraulic, hence the reason why this system
is called a hydro mechanical system.

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The complete provides a hardened circular track against which the ends of the
pumping pistons are bedded, and the angle of the camplate is controlled by the servo
piston.

The rotor is bored to accommodate a series of hardened steel pumping pistons as

shown in Fig.7.

As the rotor rotates, the pistons move in and out as they rub against the camplate
which is at an angle. The greater the angle of the camplate the greater will be the fuel
pressure generated.
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The rotor is bored along Us axis and the outer (camplale end) is splined to receive the
fuel pump drive. The hole at the other end of the rotor aligns with a fuel inlet port
which is connected to the series of piston bores. THE hole is fed -with low pressure fuel
from the wing tank boost pumps. As the rotor turns, the pistons pressurise this fuel to
the high pressure values required by the engine speed governor.

A sequence of the operation of the camplale is shown in Fig.8.

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When the engine is stationary the servo valve spring holds the complete in the
maximum pumping position, awaiting engine start. This ensures maximum fuel
delivery during the starting sequence.

As the engine reaches its designated speed, the fuel pump may be providing more fuel
than is necessary, so the pump is offloaded. This is achieved by using a spill valve to
adjust the servo valve pressure which allows the angle of the complete to reduce.

A typical device for controlling the spill valve is known as a kinetic spill valve, the
purpose of which is to:-

• insert an interrupter blade to open the spill valve when the engine requires
less fuel,

• withdraw the interrupter blade to close the spill valve when the engine
requires more fuel.

A kinetic spill valve is shown in Fig.9.

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15
In Fig.9(a), the valve is fully closed and the kinetic energy of the pump delivery fuel
prevents leakage from the servo chamber. Servo fuel pressure therefore increases, and
with assistance from the spring overcomes the pump delivery pressure. The piston is
then moved to increase the pump stroke (camplate angle increases) and therefore the
output.

When the kinetic valve is in the open position, Fig.9(c), the blade separates the
opposing flows from the pump delivery and the servo cylinder. As there is no
opposition to the servo flow the volume of the servo flow reduces. The piston moves
against the spring under the influence of pump delivery pressure, this movement of the
piston reduces the camplate angle and hence the pump stroke and leads to a reduction
in the output pressure.

Finally, fg.9(b) represents steady running conditions. Here the kinetic valve assumes
an intermediate position, such that the servo fuel and spring pressure exactly balance
the pump delivery pressure.

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3.0 FUEL HEATERS

The primary purpose of a fuel heater in a fuel system is to prevent ice particles that
have an adverse effect on the operation of the FCU. A typical fuel heater and heater
indicator panel are shown in Fig.10.

Normal fuel flow is from the fuel pump to the fuel heater, the operation of the heater
depends on the icing indications sensed by the differential pressure switch.

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The ice particles could cause the complex pilot valves and servos within the FCU to
malfunction, which could lead to fuel metering problems. A filter is normally used in
conjunction with a filter blockage differential pressure switch.

At low fuel temperature, the water in the fuel will be in the form of ice, which would
collect in the filter and cause a filter blockage. The filter differential pressure switch
will sense the difference between the inlet and outlet pressure of the filter.

If the inlet pressure is greater than the outlet pressure, the filter light will illuminate
on the fuel heater control panel (see Ffg.10), at a predetermined differential pressure.
When the fuel heater is selected ON, the hot air shut-off valve opens and allows hot
air to heat up the fuel. An indicator on the fuel heater control panel indicates when
the valve is open. As the warm fuel flows through the fitter, the ice particles melt, the
differential pressure is removed and the filter light is extinguished. The crew can then
select fuel heaters to the OFF position. In the event of a blockage or malfunction
within the fuel heater assembly, a by-pass valve will open and allow fuel to by-pass the
fuel heater. A typical filter and differential switch arrangement is shown in Flg.ll. -

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Although we have briefly talked about differential pressure switches, we can see from
Fig.ll a typical example. As well as giving an indication of filter icing it also indicates
the condition of the fuel in respect of foreign particles. Fuel icing should dissipate
after 30 - 60 seconds of fuel heating, if the light still remains on after this period of
time, then blocking of the filter by foreign particles must be assumed.

The filter assemblies have a high degree of filtration, filters are classed according to
size, in microns, (i.e., one thousandth part of 1 millimeter = 1 micron). Incorporated
into the filter is a by-pass system should the filter element become blocked with
impurities, which will allow unfiltered fuel to the FCU. If this by-pass was not
available the engine could shutdown due to fuel starvation.

The differential fuel sensing ports which are situated in the filter head direct the fuel
to the differential pressure switch.

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 To facilitate maintenance, the Jitter body will have a shut-off valve to allow the filter
element to be changed without draining down the system. Before carrying out a filter
element change consult the relevant Maintenance Manual.

4.0 FUEL FLOW METERS

The fuel flow meter provides a continuous visual indication of fuel flow. This
information is given to the flight crew to indicate the amount of fuel going to the
engine. The quantity of fuel may be measured in pounds, gallons or liters per hour,
depending on the operator's requirements. Illustrated in Fig.12 is a motor less fuel
transmitter, this type does not require electrical power. Some types of fuel flow
transmitter use a small electrical motor for their operation.

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OPERATION

The fuel flow transmitter shown in Fig.12 operates as follows:-

Fuel entering the flow meter passes through a flow director onto the swirl generator which
gives the fuel a rotary motion.

This motion causes the rotor to rotate at a velocity dependent on the rate of fuel/low.

• The fuel flow leaving the rotor is directed through the turbine, deflecting the turbine against
the restraining spring tension, by an amount proportional to fuel flow rate.

The magnet in the rotor passing over the stater coil induces an electrical pulse for each
rotation.

• The second magnet attached to the rotor, rotating in the path of the circumferential coil,
induces an electrical pulse each time it passes the pulse generator which is fixed to the
turbine.

The elapsed time between the two pulses is proportional to the fuel flow rate.

Note that as the flow meter measures mass flow it is not affected by temperature and specific gravity
changes of the fuel.

5.0 FUEL/OIL HEAT EXCHANGERS

The fuel/oil heat exchanger or oil cooler dt*es not really take any part in the
operation of the fuel system. Its main purpose is for the fuel to absorb the heat from
the engine scavenge oil. Ftg.13 shows a fuel/oil heat exchanger.

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Tlie fuel/oil heat exchanger cools the oil, but at the same time the hot oil heats the fuel before it
reaches the fuel nozzles

The oil cooler consists of a multi-tube core that contains four ports - inlet and outlet for oil and inlet
and outlet for fuel. Consider Ftg.13, the oil passes around the tubes containing the fuel thus
allowing the cooler fuel to extract heat from the oil. A pressure relief valve allows the oil to by-pass
the oil tubes at engine start up during cold weather operations when the oil is thick.

6.0 FUEL CONTROL UNIT (F.C.U.)

Fuel control units for most jet engine vary the thrust by controlling the engine rpm.
On early jet engines, thrust and turbine inlet temperatures were allowed to vary
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 inversely with compressor inlet temperature. However, modern jet engines, both single
and dual axial flow compressors are protected when engine thrust increases on cold
days. Remember:-

• cold day - air more dense - more thrust,

• hot day - air less dense - less thrust.

To obtain all the thrust possible on hot days, and still protect the engine on cold days, it is necessary to control
the turbine inlet temperature to a constant value and allow the rpm to vary.

This is the primary task of the fuel control unit.

6.1 FUEL CONTROL UNIT (REQUIREMENTS)

This booklet will be considering some of the major inputs that control the operation
of the fuel control unit. However, I must stress that we are talking in general terms,
and you may find differences in control and terminology on the equipment that you
may work on.

Now let's look at a typical fuel control unit illustrated in Fig.14 and 15.

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 In addition to the internal sensors, the fuel control unit will have external components
that are essential to its correct operation.

The trim adjusters allow for any minor alterations to the engine's performance to
ensure that the correct amount of thrust is produced for a given setting. This
information is normally given in engine trimming charts or graphs, the trimming
figures can change with differences in pressure and temperature. These charts or
graphs can be found in Maintenance Manual.

The throttle lever is part of the mechanical linkage between the fuel control unit and
the aircraft's flight deck. It is the means of controlling the selected speed or rpm of
the engine.

The fuel shut-off valve or high pressure cock as it is sometimes known, shuts off the
fuel to the engine, normally on engine shutdown. It can either be mechanically
operated from a lever on the flight deck that operates a valve within the FCU (Fig.14)
or it can be electrically operated by an actuator remote from the FCU. In both
operations its purpose is to stop high pressure fuel from going to the engine.

Also in Fig.14 and 15 we can see the inlet temperature sensor. This may be called:-

<• the TT2 sensor (total inlet temperature) or • the CIT sensor

(compressor inlet temperature).

Its purpose is to alter the fuel flow from the FCU to the engine as the compressor inlet
temperature changes due to the aircraft and engine operations.

6.2 FUEL CONTROL UNIT (INPUTS)

Although the basic requirements which a fuel control unit must fulfil apply, in
general, to all gas turbine engines, the means by which individual controls satisfy these
needs cannot be conveniently generalised. There are as many types of fuel control unit
as there are manufacturers, each manufacturer developing his own means of control
and design using the following basic parameters for his fuel control unit calculations.

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 These basic inputs are:-

• N2 speed input,

• compressor discharge pressure (CDP),

• compressor inlet temperature (TT2 or CIT),

• ambient pressure.

Illustrated in Fig. 16, is a typical fuel control unit with system inputs. This type ofFCU is
used in conjunction with a constant supply high pressure fuel pump, hence the purpose of
the pressure regulator

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6.3 PRESSURE REGULATOR

Because the pump produces far more fuel pressure and volume of fuel than the FCU
requires, the regulator ensures that a predetermined fuel pressure is maintained within the
FCU for its correct function. Excess fuel is directed back to the pump to be used
again, in effect it is an idling circuit. Situated with the FCU are various pilot valves
and sensors that are dependent upon clear fuel for their correct operation, therefore
filters are fitted to the main fuel supply 'inlet' port and also to the servo supply port.

6.4 SERVO SUPPLY

The servo supply is used to operate various pilot valves and sensors within the FCU, it
also serves as a lubricant for the moving parts, and as a coolant during: FCU
operations. The servo fuel supply is normally taken from the main fuel inlet supply
and is directed back into the by-pass circuit once it has been used.

6.5 THROTTLE VALVE

The throttle valve is dependent upon many inputs for its operation, its main purpose is
to ensure that only the correct amount of fuel is allowed through to the engine fuel
nozzles and thus restrict the engine speed to the selected speed setting (rpm). Consider
Fig.l6,'in this case the throttle valve has received all its inputs, so the throttle valve
will move and reposition itself to ensure that the correct fuel flow is maintained
automatically without relying upon the pilot to perform these adjustments, in fact this
is the whole essence of the fuel control unit.

6.6 COMPRESSOR INLET TEMPERATURE SENSOR (CFD

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 The operation of the fuel control unit sensor the compressor inlet temperature (CIT)
is a function of the density of the air entering the engine. In addition to compressor
inlet temperature sensing; the fuel control unit also senses N2 speed and engine burner
pressure. Note that engine burner pressure (BP) is rarely used and it has been
superseded by compressor discharge pressure (CDP). These three variables affect the
amount of thrust that an engine will produce for a given fuel flow. In addition the
CDP sensor will also protect the engine from any excessive internal pressures .which
may build up within the engine. If the compressor discharge pressure is above the
recommended figure it would indicate that too much fuel was being burnt. Because of
fuel flow schedules within the FCU, the CDP Limiter shown in Flg.16 would
automatically trim back the throttle valve, thus reducing fuel flow and speed with an
eventual reduction in CDP back to within its limits.

6.7 TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE

Turbine inlet temperature is the main limiting factor on gas turbine engines, the
optimum thermal efficiency and maximum thrust is obtained by maintaining this
temperature close to its allowable limits. The turbine inlet temperature is not directly
sensed as a mechanical failure of a temperature sensor fitted-close to the turbine discs
would lead to the ingress of the sensor into the turbine blades with catastrophic results.
Additionally, the sensors do not have a quick response, so any inputs of this type of
sensor to the FCU would be too sluggish.

This problem is resolved however, by the use of a 3D cam within the fuel control unit.

The variable, i.e , CDP and CIT are taken into account, and the scheduling of the fuel
control is achieved by movement of this 3D cam to ensure that the turbine temperature
is kept within operating limits.

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 The direct result of varying the fuel flow leads to a raising or lowering of the turbine
temperatures. As fuel is increased, the temperature of the air passing through the
burner increases, with a resultant increase in the pressure that reacts on the turbine
and the compressor. The turbine receives added heat and pressure energy, whilst in
the compressor there is a small back pressure. The compressor rotors accelerate in
spite of this back pressure, forcing additional air through the engine. The pilot, on
selection of his thrust requirement, causes the FCU to automatically increase or
decrease the fuel flow to keep the thrust constant with varying temperatures. This is
done by the compressor inlet temperature sensor (CIT).

6.8 ENGINE ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION

The handling of the engine during steady-state operations is only one function of the
fuel control unit. When the engine is accelerated, the turbine is subjected to an
excessive amount of energy, more than it requires to maintain a constant rpm.

Should the fuel flow be increased too rapidly, an over rich mixture or over fuelling
may take place which could lead to an over temperature condition at the turbines, or
may cause a compressor surge leading to a rich blow out (flame-out) condition.

Equally, on deceleration, reducing the fuel flow too quickly may result in a lean die
out condition which is caused by reducing the fuel flow at a faster rate than the
compressor can reduce the rate of airflow to the burners. The fuel control unit must
maintain the engine's operation within limits of the fuel/air ratio which will reduce the
possibility of a flame-out condition during acceleration or deceleration. This is
achieved by using CDP air as a control medium onto the 3D cam.

6.9 FUEL SHUT-OFF VALVE

Finally with reference to Fig.16, the fuel shut-off valve is operated mechanically via
a linkage from the flight deck. The shut-off valve ensures that on engine shutdown,
fuel cannot pass to the burners during the engine rundown. If this were to happen,
fuel would accumulate within the combustor section, and may cause a fire hazard
during the next start sequence.

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6.10 TRIM ADTUSTERS

Up to this point we have discussed the various sensors and the operation of the
components that are located within the fuel control unit, they are not visible to the eye
and cannot be normally adjusted. In fact most FCUs have only trim adjusters to
initially adjust the fuel control to a standard day condition. From Fig.16 we can see
that the FCU receives a signal from a compressor inlet temperature sensor, which in
most cases, is hydro mechanical in operation.

6.11 COMPRESSOR INLET TEMPERATURE SENSOR

A typical example of a fluid sensor, the compressor inlet temperature sensor (CIT) is
shown in Fig.17.

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 The sensing bulb, which is fitted with helium, senses the variations in temperature. If
the temperature rises the pressure in the bulb rises causing the motor bellows to
expand and compress the spring. Compression of the spring modulates the valve
towards the closed position thus increasing the differential fuel pressure A - B. The
differential pressure is proportional to compressor inlet temperature, and results in a
signal input to the fuel control 3D cam which adjusts the fuel flow in terms of inlet
temperature sensing.

7.0 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

The primary purpose of an electronic engine control system is to reduce the pilot's
work load by computing, displaying and maintaining the selected engine settings as a
function of external sensors and selected flight modes.

Electronic engine control is not designed to supersede the hydro mechanical FCU, but
to work alongside it, integrating the FCU sensors and controls with the aircraft's
computers to facilitate thrust settings and engine protection from over speed and over
temperature conditions.

You may find slight differences in the system described to that which you work on.

Let's begin by looking at a typical system layout.

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7.1 COMPONENTS OF ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM

The major components within this system are the:-

• digital air data-computer,

• thrust management computer,

• fault monitor,

• fuel control unit,

• electronic engine control computer.

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7.1.1 DIGITAL AIR DATA COMPUTER

This is the primary source of pressure and temperature sensing. This

information is passed to the thrust management and the electronic engine
control computers.

7.1.2 THRUST MANAGEMENT COMPUTER

Although not part of the fuel metering system, it allows the flight crew to
select a thrust setting in flight, i.e., climb, cruise, take-off, etc. It also
displays, on the flight deck, the maximum engine speed for a given thrust
setting.

7.1.3 FAULT MONITOR

Stores fault information from the electronic engine control unit.

7.1.4 FUEL CONTROL UNIT

Meters and computes the fuel flow to the engine, a hydromechanical

computer.

7.1.5 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL COMPUTER

Controls the engine speed to suit the pressure and temperature conditions
of the day.

Let's now discuss the primary reasons for having an electronic fuel control
system. Illustrated in Fig.19 are comparative throttle settings for varying
conditions and equipment.

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View 'A' shows a typical range of throttle travel from the idle stop to the take-off
power position under hot day and cold day conditions. For the older type of fuel
control unit, a variation of as much as 4CP can be expected. In this case, throttle
positioning requires much concentration and continual adjustments during take-off,
additionally flight crews must consult take-off charts displaying figures for differences
in ambient temperature and pressure to ensure that the correct engine take-off thrust
is achieved as there is always the possibility of over boosting or over temping the
engine.

View *B' represents a take-off throttle position setting, with only a spread of 4* for the
latest type of fuel control unit.

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 Finally, View *C* is the result of linking up the electronic engine control with the
advanced fuel control units. Take off power is provided at full throttle setting (max
stop) and throttle stagger is reduced to 10. In this case, full rated take-off power is
achieved at full throttle position everyday irrespective of the ambient temperature and
pressure.

How can that happen you might say, surely if it's a cold day and you put the throttle
against the maximum stop, you will end up by over boosting or over temping the
engine.

This is where the electronic engine control takes over. 7.2

ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL INPUTS

•
The inputs shown in Fig.20are typical of those needed for an electronic engine control
system.

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37
The digital car data computer inputs ambient pressure (Po) and temperature (T2)
signals to the electronic engine control computer to compute an engine speed for those
conditions. However, the electronic engine control computer has its own independent
information on these two conditions. In the event of a disagreement between these
figures, that is the two (T2) figures and two (Po) figures, the electronic engine control
computer will automatically shutdown and indicate to the crew that it has done so, by
indicating lights on the flight deck. Assuming everything is well the electronic engine
control computer computes a target speed for the conditions (temperature and pressure)
for that day.

To enable the electronic engine control computer to compute this figure it must know
the actual speed the engine is turning and the angle of the throttle lever. We shall
consider the metering valve positioning feedback later.

To ensure that the electronic engine control computer will operate in the event of a
total power failure of the aircraft's generators, it normally has its own independent
power source. This is in the form of a small generator driven from the engine gearbox.

ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL OUTPUTS

Flg.21 indicates the outputs from the electronic engine control.

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 We have already established that during take-off, the throttle lever will always be at
the maximum position, irrespective of the temperature and the pressure (the main
factors determining fuel flow). Tlie electronic engine control computer has received
this information, and its computer has computed an engine speed corrected to the
actual conditions.

Consider the case where the engine needs only 96% thrust for take-off, the electronic^,
engine control computer will sense that if the throttle is moved to the maximum
position, the engine will produce 105% thrust. Now as this figure, (105%) is above the
computed thrust setting, (96%) then the engine could over speed or over temp. In this
case the-electronic-engine control computer, takes aver without the pilot touching the
controls, to send a signal via the torque motor to down trim or reduce the amount of
fuel going to the burners. This in effect will reduce the thrust level to the correct
computed figure, note that the throttle position hasn't moved but the engine speed has
fallen. The electronic engine control computer (EECC has taken the load off the pilot
by eliminating the need to consult take-off charts for the correct thrust rating for that
day. When the correct thrust has been achieved the electronic engine control computer
needs to know when to stop the torque motor, and this is achieved by the metering
valve position feedback signal and actual speed signal shown in Fig.20.
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 The electronic engine control computer also indicates on the engine speed gauge in the
cockpit, a maximum speed bug to inform the crew of the maximum allowable engine
speed for that day's conditions.

In the event of a failure of the electronic engine control computer any down trim that
is on the FCU is held there by the fail/fixed solenoid. This solenoid ensures that the
engine will not accelerate above the computed speed for the day. As the conditions
change the electronic engine control computer will allow the torque motor to remove
or increase the down trim condition with any changes in daytime conditions. So now
we can see therefore, the electronic engine control computer controls the fuel going
to the burners by adjusting the metering systems within the fuel control unit.

7.3 FUEL CONTROL UNIT OUTPUTS

The output signals from the fuel control unit are shown in Fig.22 (a)..

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 The outputs from the fuel control unit are:-

• the metered fuel flow signal,

• the. metering valve position feedback signal.

7.3.1 METERED FUEL

The fuel from the FCU to the aircraft is fuel which has been metered to
enable the engine to produce the correct amount of thrust for a given
condition and throttle lever position.

7.3.2 METERING VALVE POSITION FEEDBACK

Metering valve position feedback relates to the position of the metering valve
as the torque motor alters the fuel flow. It provides a null signal when the
metering valve reaches its computed position.

7.4 FUEL CONTROL UNIT INPUTS

Flg.22 (B) shows the signal inputs into the fuel control unit.

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The inputs to the FCU from the engine are the standard ones that relate to a hydro
mechanical FCU, in fact we must have these inputs in the event of an electronic
engine control computer failure.

• C1T,

• engine speed,

• CDP,

• T2,

• Po.

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 Should the electronic engine control computer fail the FCU would compute and meter
the fuel flow, but not to such a fine degree as the electronic engine control computer.
Additionally, we would be back to a pilot managed system, thus increasing the work
load of the crew. Illustrated in Ftg.22 is a fuel control shut-off switch which controls
an electrical actuator or gate valve to close off the fuel flow this shut-off valve can
also be controlled by cables from the flight deck.

7.5 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL COMPUTER LOCATION

Flg.23 shows a typical electronic engine control computer location.

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 Electronic engine control computers are normally located on the engine assembly. The
various electrical plugs connect it to the air data computer, the thrust management
computer and the fuel control unit. You should also note that some means of external
cooling must be provided. In Ftg.23 ram air cooling is employed to dissipate the heat
generated within the computer, this heat is normally directed overboard once cooling
has taken place.

7.6 T2 FJMCTRICAL SENSOR

The hydro mechanical FCU uses ambient temperature sensing in its computation for
fuel flow adjustments. This is achieved using the fuel pressure signals and sensing
:
bellows.

The electronic engine control computer requires an independent source for the above
information, in this case T2 is sensed in the engine intake and an electrical signal is
passed to the electronic engine control computer.

A typical T2 electrical sensor is shown in Fig.24.

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The T2 sensor is a platinum resistance sensor that receives its electric power supply
from the electronic engine control computer. The resistance of the element varies with
inlet air temperature changes to provide a circuit voltage that is directly proportional
to inlet air temperature. The sensor is protected from the effects of ice by an ice guard.
Warm air is circulating around the sensor for ice protection.

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8.0 FUEL SPRAY NOZZLES

Fuel nozzles or fuel burners as they are sometimes known play an integral part in the
operation of the fuel system. The function of the nozzle is to inject fuel into the
combuster chamber in a highly atomised form, which aids the combustion of the fuel.
The type and design of fuel nozzles is closely related to the type of combuster chamber
in which they are installed.

The shape of the spray indicates the degree of atomisation. The atomisation of the fuel
is generally achieved by imparting a swirli into the fuel, to ensure that the burning is
completely even, and takes place in the shortest possible time and in the smallest
possible space. It is also important that the fuel is evenly distributed and well centered
within the combuster chamber. This precludes the formation of any hot spots in the
combuster chamber. It also prevents the flame from burning through the inner and
outer liners of the combuster chamber.

Illustrated in Fig.25 are the stages of atomisation and how fuel pressure affects the
fuel flow.

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The spray pattern in Fig.25 (a) represents low pressure fuel flow. The continuous flow
of fuel creates a 'bubble'. In Fig.25(b) the fuel flow has increased to create an
intermediate fuel pressure, the spray pattern is known as the Tulip' effect.

The high pressure flow shown in Fig.25'(c) forms a highly atomised spray.

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 8.1 NOZZLE TYPES

The two types of nozzle in general use are:-

• simplex nozzles,

• duplex nozzles.

8.1.1 SIMPLEX NOZZLES

In the case of the simplex nozzle only a single manifold supply is required.
The duplex nozzle is usually associated with a dual flow manifold, which
receives both secondary and primary fuel flow. This is achieved with the use
of a flow divider. However, some duplex nozzles incorporate a flow divider
arrangement within the nozzle assembly, thus negating the need for a
separate flow divider assembly.

Illustrated in Fig.26 is an early type of fuel nozzle -the simplex nozzle. This
gave good atomisation at high fuel pressures but was quite unsatisfactory at
low pressures. As the fuel was ported into the vortex chamber via the
tangential ports, a swirl was induced into the fuel, which enabled easier
combustion to take place. Because the simplex burner is only efficient at
high pressures, some other means has to be found to satisfy the various fuel
: . pressures required for high and low engine power settings.

This problem was overcome with the development of the duplex burner.

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8.1.2 DUPLEX FUEL NOZZLES

The duplex burner 'requires a primary and secondary fuel flow which is
normally achieved by the use of a flow divider. The operation of the duplex
burner shown in Fig.27 is relatively simple, basically we require a primary
and secondary fuel flow. In this case each fuel flow requires its own
independent orifice, one smaller than the other. Tlie smaller of the two
orifices handles the lower fuel flow, while the larger orifice provides the
higher fuel flow during high fuel pressures. With this method, a good
atomisation of the fuel is ensured depending upon which orifice is providing
the spray, during all engine operating speeds.

49
At starting and low rpm, and at low airflow, the spray angle needs to be
fairly wide in order to increase the chances of ignition and to provide good
mixing of fuel and air, but at higher rpm and airflow, a narrow pattern is
required to keep the flame of combustion away from the walls of the
combustion chamber (Fig.27). The small fuel flow that is used in idling is
broken up into a fine spray by being forced through a small outlet formed
by the primary holes. The secondary holes are larger, but still provide a fine
spray at higher rpm because of the higher fuel pressure. The chief
advantage then, of the duplex nozzle, is its ability to provide good fuel
atomisation and proper spray pattern at all rates of fuel delivery and airflow
without the necessity of utilizing abnormally high fuel pressures.

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In addition to the two fuel ports shown in Fig.27, note the additional port surrounding
the nozzle assembly. Tliis allows air, normally compressor discharge air t to be
continually ported across the nozzle assembly. The purpose of this airflow is to prevent
the formation of carbon deposits over the spray orifices.

Two independent fuel flows, primary and secondary, are required and may be achieved
by using a flow divider or pressurising valve.

The flow divider illustrated in Fig.28 is typical of most types of primary and secondary
flow divider systems.

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 8.2 FLOW DIVIDER OPERATION

As the fuel enters the valve it passes through a wire mesh screen removable filter. A
' bypass valve is fitted in the event of filter blockage.

With increase in fuel pressure, the dump valve moves to the left allowing the fuel to
flow to the primary manifold. When the primary fuel pressure reaches a predetermined
\ figure the pressurising valve moves to the right against spring pressure allowing
additional fuel to flow to the secondary manifold.

On engine shutdown the fuel pressure drops and the dump valve moves to the right
under spring pressure so preventing any fuel from draining into the combuster
chamber to create afire hazard.

Ftg.29, 30 and 31 are few examples of duplex type burners which consists of the flow
divider and the manifolds in one unit.

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FIG 29. (a) SINGLE-ENTRY DUPLEX NOZZLE WITH COMBINED PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY FLOWS

(b) ANOTHER FORM OF SINGLE-ENTRY DUPLEX NOZZLE

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54
55
 .During initial engine starting the primary manifold provides the atomised fuel. As the
pressure increases to a predetermined level the secondary flow divider valve opens and
allows the correct fuel flow to be provided at high power settings. The check valve
ensures that on engine shut down the fuel is prevented from draining from the fuel
manifolds into the combuster chambers.

8.3 NOZZLE MOUNTING

The two most popular methods of mounting fuel nozzles are:-

• externally mounted,

• internally mounted.

The type of mounting used depends upon the design of the combuster chamber.

Flg.32 shows a typical nozzle and fuel manifold arrangement fitted to an engine with
an annular type combuster chamber.

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8.3.1 EXTERNALLY MOUNTED

The manifold assembly has a number of fuel nozzles running

circumferentially around the combuster assembly. The fuel supply manifold
has-an outer shroud, to port any fuel leakage from the nozzle supply
tubes overboard. As the manifold is in a hot zone, near the combuster
chambers, the shroud reduces the possibility of afire.

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8.3.2 INTERNALLY MOUNTED

The other common type of fuel nozzle arrangement is the internally mounted
assembly shown in Flg.33. This type is normally associated with the can-
annular type of combuster chamber arrangement.

The-fuel-nozzle in this arrangement-are-of the dual flow type (duplex) with

the separate primary and secondary fuel manifold supplies via a flow
divider. Between each can there are inter connectors to help propagate the
flame on start-up. The corrugated effect of the fuel manifold allows for the
expansion of the fuel manifold pipes during engine running conditions.

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8.4 TORCH IGNITER AND Primer JET

Although the normal combuster is designed to allow for ease of combustion during
engine starting, certain combuster systems have additional features to aid combustion.
One of these features is known as a torch igniter and primer jet system (see Fig.34).

Fuel is tapped from the metered supply that normally feeds the fuel nozzle, and is
injected into the vaporising chamber through Jive primer jets, two of these jets are
positioned next to the .igniter plugs. The fuel which is supplied via the primer jets
assists the initial light-up of the engine, and is controlled by a solenoid operated valve
within the ignition system. Check valves permit a small flow of fuel to the primer jets
at all times during varying engine speeds, this prevents the jets from becoming blocked
with carbon deposits and also stabilises the flame during deceleration operations.

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The combuster drain valve is fitted at the lowest port of the combuster assembly. It
consists of a diaphragm operated valve which is spring loaded to hold the valve open ,-
(see Fig.35). "v-

When the engine is running, the pressure in the combuster closes the valve against the
spring pressure.--When the engine is shut down .the .spring extends and allows the
residual fuel in the lower part of the combuster chamber to drain to atmosphere thus
eliminating afire hazard.

60