12-1

Chapter 12:
Static
i Equilibrium
ilib i and
d Elasticity
l i i

12 1 Conditions for Equilibrium

12.1
12.2 Centre of Gravity
12.3 Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium
12.4 Elastic Properties
p of Solids

12-2
 LECTURES of FE1001

Over 13 Weeks (39 hrs):

I. Vectors and Dynamics

y ((22 hrs)

II. Static Equilibrium and Elasticity (6 hrs)

• Chapter 12: Static Equilibrium and Elasticity

III. Fluid
l id Mechanics
h i (3 hrs
h )

IV. Thermodynamics
y ((8 hrs)

12-3

CONTENTS
CO Soof PART II LECTURES
C U S

L23 Conditions for Equilibrium

L24 Equivalent Force Systems, Centre of Gravity

L25 Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium (1)

L26 Rigid
Ri id Objects
Obj t ini Static
St ti Equilibrium
E ilib i (2)

L27 Analysis of Trusses.

L28 Elastic Properties of Solids: Young’s Modulus, Shear

Modulus and Bulk Modulus

12-4
 TEXTBOOK and
d REFERENCES

Textbook:
• R. A. Serway and J W Jewett, Jr, Physics for
Scientists and Engineers, 6th Ed, Vol 1, Thomson,2004.

References:
• R. C. Hibbeler, Engineering Mechanics – Statics, 2nd
SI Ed, Prentice Hall,
Hall 2001
2001.

• A. Gupta and C. K. Soh, Intelligent Interactive Tutoring

System (IITS) on CD-ROM,
CD ROM Prentice Hall
Hall, Version 2000
2000.

12-5

12.1 Conditions for Equilibrium

q

• Equilibrium - General
• Torque (or Moment)
• Equilibrium Equations
• End Supports

12-6
 Static Equilibrium
q

„ Equilibrium
E ilib i implies
i li theth object i att restt (static
bj t is t ti )
or its center of mass moves with a constant
velocity (dynamic)
„ Static equilibrium is a common situation in
i i
engineering
„ Principles involved are of particular interest
to civil engineers, architects, and mechanical
engineers

12-7

Static vs. Dynamic Equilibrium

„ In this chapter, we will concentrate on Static

Equilibrium
„ The object will not be moving
„ Dynamic
y Equilibrium
q is also possible
p
„ The object would be translating with a constant
velocityy and/or rotating
g with a constant angular
g
velocity ω
„ In either case,, ΣFi = 0 and Στi = 0

12-8
 Conditions for Equilibrium
q

„ Net force equals zero

„ ΣFi = 0

„ If th
the object d l d as a particle
bj t iis modeled ti l ,
then this is the only condition that must
be satisfied
„ Net torque (or moment) equals zero
„ Στ
Σ i = 0 (or ΣMi = 0)
„ This is needed if the object cannot be

modeled as a particle (i e a rigid body)

(i.e.
12-9

Torque (or Moment)

„ τ = r × F (or Μ = r × F)
„ Use the right
right-hand
hand screw
rule to determine the
direction of the torque
„ The tendency of the force
to cause a rotation about
O depends on F and the
moment arm d

12-10
Vector Representation
p of Moment,, 2

12-11

Moment of a Force
about (an Axis through) a Point

12-12
Vector Representation
p of Moment

12-13

Cross Product of Two Vectors

12-14
 Couples

12-15

Coordinate Independence of Couples

d2 d1
F

F
A

12-16
 Rotational Equilibrium

„ Need the angular acceleration α (vs.

a a o a acceleration
translational a a o a) ofo the object
obj to
o
be zero
„ For rotation, Στi = Iα
„ For rotational equilibrium,
Σ i = 0 (or ΣMi = 0 )
Στ
„ This must be true for any axis of rotation

12-17

Axis of Rotation for Torque

q Equation
q

„ The net torque is about an axis through any

point in the xy plane
„ The choice of an axis is arbitrary
„ If an object is in translational equilibrium and
the net torque is zero about one axis
axis, then
the net torque must be zero about any other
axis,, i.e.
„ ΣFx = 0
„ ΣFy = 0
„ Στz = 0 (or ΣMz = 0), about any other axis
12-18
 Axis of Rotation for Torque Equation, 2

Given that: ΣF = 0 and

d
ΣτO = 0 (or ΣMO = 0)

∑τ 0 = r1 × F1 + r2 × F2 + L = 0

∑τ 0' = (r1 − r ')× F1 + (r2 − r ')× F2 + L

= r1 × F1 + r2 × F2 + L − r '×(F1 + F2 + L)
=0
--- If an object is in translational equilibrium and the
nett ttorque iis zero about
b t one axis,
i th
then ththe nett
torque must be zero about any other axis 12-19

Equilibrium Equations

„ There are two necessary conditions for equilibrium

equilibrium.
„ Translational equilibrium => resultant external
force must equal zero:
ΣFi = 0
„ The acceleration of the center of mass of the object must
be zero when viewed from an inertial frame of reference
„ Rotational equilibrium
q => resultant external
torque about any axis must be zero:
Στi = 0 (or ΣMi = 0 )
„ The angular acceleration must equal zero
12-20
 Equilibrium Equations, 2

„ We will restrict the applications to situations

in which all the forces lie in the xy plane
„ These are called coplanar forces since they lie in
the same plane
„ There are three resulting equations
„ ΣFx = 0
„ ΣFy = 0
„ Στz = 0 or ΣMz = 0

12-21

Equilibrium Equations, 3

12-22
 End Supports

„ Simple Supports:

M
Ry
Roller Hinge Fixed End
Fixed-End

Can move Can rotate in Fixed

horizontally and the plane
rotate in the plane
12-23

Support Provided by a Smooth or

R
RoughhS
Surface
f

12-24
 Support Reactions: Simply Supported Beam –
2D Equilibrium Equations (2 for Force and 1 for Torque)
for finding Reactions

RAx RAx

y y

y RAx

ΣF = 0
X RAx=0
12-25

Principle
cpeo of Transmissibility
a s ss b ty

12-26
 Equivalent
q Force Systems
y

„ Forces and couples applied to certain rigid

body form a force system
v v v v v v v v
( F11 , F21 , L M 11 , M 21 L) ( F12 , F22 , L M 12 , M 22 L)

„ Two force systems (applied to the same rigid

body) are equivalent when:
„ The resultant forces vof the vtwo force systems
y are
the same; ∑ Fi = ∑ Fj
1

i
2

j
„ The net torques
q of the two force systems
y (about
(
v1 v
the same point) are the same ∑τ (O ) = ∑τ 2 (O )
12-27

Equivalent Force System

12-28
 Force and Moment Vectors

12-29

Simplification of Force Systems

„ Any force system (on a rigid body) can be

equivalent to a force applied at the given
point (i.e.,
(i e A) plus a moment (or couple).
couple)
v v
FA = ∑ Fi1
i
v v
M A = ∑ M ( A)

„ (or, any force system can be simplified to be

a force plus a moment)

12-30
 12.2 Center of Gravity
y

„ Consider the distributed gravitational

force applied to a rigid body (or
particle system)
system). A
rA
„ Find a point (i.e., A) such that the r

simplified
f moment is just 0.
v v v v v
M A = ∑ M ( A) = ∫ (r − rA ) × dW = 0
V
v v v v v v
⇒ ∫
V
r × d W = rA × ∫ = rA × W
d
V
W

--- Th
The di
distributed
t ib t d gravitational
it ti l force
f is
i equivalent
i l t tot the
th
concentrated simplified force applied at the point A.
12-31

Center of Gravity

„ All the
th various
i gravitational
it ti l
forces acting on all the
various mass elements are
equivalent to a single
gravitational force acting
g g
through a single point
called the Center of Gravity
(CG)
x CG =
m1g1x1 + m 2 g 2 x 2 + L
=
∑m x
i i
for constant g i
m1g1 + m 2 g 2 + L ∑m i
12-32
 Center of Gravity, 2

„ The torque due to the gravitational force on

an object of mass M is the force Mg acting at
the Center of Gravity (CG ) of the object
„ If g is uniform over the object, then the
Cente of G
Center Gravity
a it (CG ) of the object coincides
with its Center of Mass (CM )
„ If th
the object
bj t iis homogeneous
h andd symmetrical,
ti l
the Center of Gravity (CG ) coincides with its
G
Geometric
ti C Center
t
12-33

Centre of Gravity and Mass for Particles

x = ∑ ~xiW i y = ∑ ~y iW i z = ∑ ~z iW i
∑ Wi ∑ Wi ∑ Wi for CG
~ ~ ~
x= ∑ xi mi
y= ∑ y i mi
z=
∑ zi m i
for CM
∑ mi ∑ mi ∑ mi
~
x, ~
y, ~
z :coordinates of
each particle

x , y , z : coordinates of the
centre of gravity
G of particles

12-34
 CG and CM of a body

W = ∫ dW M = ∫ dm
d
xW = ∫ ~
x dW xM = ∫ ~
x dm
, dm or dW
yW = ∫ ~
ydW yM = ∫ ~
y dm
zW = ∫ ~
z dW zM = ∫ ~
z dm

12-35

CG and CM in 2-D
2 D

W = ∫ dW
xW = ∫ xdW ⇒ x = (∫ xdW ) W
yW = ∫ ydW ⇒ y = (∫ ydW ) W
12-36
 Ex 12.1: Locate the CM of the
P
Parabolic
b li Rod,
R d x = y2
2
dL = dx + dy = dy 1 + ⎛⎜ dx
2 d
2 ⎞⎟ = 1 + (2 y )2 dy
⎝ dy ⎠
1 1
L = ∫ dL = ∫ 1 + 4 y 2 dy = 1 .479 m
0 0

∫ ydm = ∫ yρdL = ρ ∫ y 1 + (2 y ) dy = ρ × 0.8484 m

1 2
2
0

ρ: ρ: density per length

y= ∫ ydm M = 0.574 m

∫ xdm = ∫ xρdL = ρ ∫ x 1 + (2 y ) dy = ρ ∫ y 1 + (2 y ) dy = ρ × 0.6063 m

2 1 2
2 2
0

x = ∫ xdm M = 0 . 410 m
12-37

Ex: Locate the Center of Geometry of

the Shadowed Area
y
2 2 (3)
(1) (2)
1

= - -
2

x
Parts Ai xi Aixi yi Aiyi
x=
∑x A i i
=
14 .2
= 2 .07
1 12 2 24 1.5 18
∑A i 6 .86

2 -3.14 1 -3.14 2 -6.28 y=

∑yA
i i
=
10.39
= 1 .51
3 -2 3.33 -6.66 0.67 -1.33 ∑A i 6 86
6.86

∑ 6.86 --- 14.2 --- 10.39

12-38
12.3 Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium

• Problem-Solving Strategy
• External and Internal Forces
• Equivalent Force System
• Support Provided by a Surface
• Ex 12.2:
12 2: Weighted Hand Example
• Ex 12.3: Standing on a Horizontal Beam
• Ex 12.4: Leaning Ladder
• Ex 12.5: Negotiating a Curb
• Truss
12-39

Problem-Solving
g Strategy
gy

„ Draw a diagram of the system

„ Isolate the object being analyzed
„ Draw a free-body diagram (FBD )
„ Show and label all external forces acting on the
object
„ Indicate the locations of all the forces
„ For systems with multiple objects, draw a
separate free-body diagram for each object

12-40
 Problem-Solving Strategy, 2

„ Establish a convenient coordinate system

„ Find the components of the forces along the two axes
„ Apply the first condition for equilibrium, ΣFi=0
0
„ Be careful of signs
„ Choose a convenient axis for calculating the net
torque (moment) on the object
„ Remember that the choice of the axis is arbitraryy
„ Choose an origin that simplifies the calculations as
much as possible
„ A force that acts along a line passing through the
origin produces a zero torque
12-41

Problem-Solving Strategy, 3

„ Apply the second condition for equilibrium,

Στi = 0 (or ΣMi = 0 )
„ The two conditions of equilibrium will give a
system of equations
„ Solve the simultaneous equations
„ If the solution gives a negative for a force
force, it is in
the direction opposite what you drew in the free-
body diagram

12-42
External and Internal Forces

12-43

External and Internal Forces,, 2

12-44
 External
te a and
a d Internal
te a Forces,
o ces, 3

section.

12-45

Ex 12.2: Weighted Hand Example

„ Model the forearm as a

rigid bar
„ The
h weight
h off the
h forearm
f
is ignored
„ There are no forces in
the x-direction
„ Generate the equilibrium
conditions from the free-
bodyy diagram
g

12-46
 Ex 12.2: Weighted Hand Example, 2
„ Solve
S l for
f the
th unknown
k
forces (F and R)
„ A l the
Apply th condition
diti for
f
torque equilibrium using the
joint O as the axis of
rotation (Στo =0)

∑τ o = Fd − mgl
= F(3) − (50)(35) = 0
F = 583 N
12-47

Ex 12.2: Weighted Hand Example, 3

„ Apply the condition for force

equilibrium (ΣFy = 0)

∑F y = F − R − mg
= F − R − 50.0 N = 0
R = F − 50
= 583 − 50 = 533 N

12-48
 Ex 12.3: Standing on a Horizontal Beam

„ The beam of 200 N is

uniform
„ => the center of gravity
is at the geometric center
of the beam
„ The
h person off 600 N is
standing on the beam
„ Wh t are th
What the ttension
i T
in the cable and the
force R exerted by the
wall on the beam?
12-49

Ex 12.3: Standing on a Horizontal Beam, 2

„ Draw a free-body
diagram
„ Use the pivot in the
problem (at the wall)
as the pivot
„ This will generally be
easiest
„ Note there are three
unknowns ((T,, R,, θ)

12-50
Ex 12.3: Standing on a Horizontal Beam, 3

„ The forces can be

resolved into components
in the free
free-body
body diagram
„ Apply the two conditions
of equilibrium
q to obtain
three equations
„ Solve for the unknowns
T = 313 N
∑τ A = T sin 53° × 8 − 200 × 4 − 600 × 2 = 0
R = 580 N
∑F x = R cos θ − T cos 53° = 0
θ = 71.1°
∑F y = R sin θ + T sin 53° − 600 − 200 = 0
12-51

Ex 12.4: Leaning Ladder

„ The
h ladder
l dd is uniform
f
„ => the weight of the ladder
acts through its geometric
center (its center of gravity)
„ There is static friction
(µs=0.4) between the
ladder and the ground
„ Find the minimum angle
θmin at which the ladder
d
does not slip
li
12-52
 Ex 12.4: Leaning
g Ladder,, 2

„ Draw a ffree-body
D b d diagram
di for
f
the ladder
„ The normal reaction is n
„ The frictional force f is:
n where µs is coeff
ƒ = µsn, coeff. of
static friction
„ Let O be the axis of rotation
„ Apply the equations for the
two conditions of equilibrium
„ Solve the equations
12-53

Ex 12.4: Leaning Ladder, 3

„ Solve the equations

l
∑τ = Pl sin θ − mg 2 cosθ = 0
o

∑ F = n − mg = 0
y

∑F = f − P = 0
x

from 1st and 2nd eqs:

mg
P= cot θ and n = mg
2
from 3rd eq:
mg
f =P= cot θ ≤ μ s n = μ s mg
2
1
Q tan θ ≥ = 1.25 ⇒ θ min= 51.3°
2μ s
12-54
 Ex 12.4: Leaning Ladder, Extended

„ Add a person of mass M

at a distance d from the
base of the ladder
„ The higher the person
climbs,, the larger
g the
angle at the base needs
to be in order to remain
in equilibrium
„ Eventually, the ladder
may slip
li
12-55

Ex 12.5: Negotiating a Curb

(A) Find
Fi d magnitude
it d off
force F to be
applied to roll up
(B) Magnitude and
direction of
reaction R
„ mg =700 N
„ r = 30 cm
„ h = 10 cm

12-56
 Ex 12.5: Negotiating a Curb, 2

„ Find magnitude of force F to

be applied to roll up
∑M A = mgd − F(2r − h) = 0

d = r 2 − (r − h) = 2rh − h 2
2

mgd d
F= = 313 N
2r − h
R= (mg)2 + F2 = 767 N „ Magnitude and
mg
direction of reaction R
θ = tan −1 = 66° „ Vectors R, mg and F
R mg,
F
form a triangle
12-57

Roof Truss

12-58
 Bridge Truss

12-59

Simple Truss

Truss: (1). Weightless members;

(1)
(2). Connected by joints;
(3). Loads are applied to joints.
Simple (1). Start from a triangle;
truss: (2). Add every 2 members to form a new joint;
(3) Supported by a pin and a roller.
(3). roller

12-60
 Simple Truss

A simple truss can be solved by Joint Method with 3 steps:

(1). Find reactions;
(2). Number the joints (from 0 to n);
(3). Solve the joints (from n to 0).
(a) Free body diagram of joint with tension convention;
(b) ΣFx = 0; ΣFy = 0;
(c) ‘+’ is tension force, ‘-’ indicates compression force.

12-61

(1)Statically Determinate Reactions

12-62
 Analysis of a Truss

„ Determine forces
acting at the pins
„ Rockers / rollers at
pp
supports A&E
„ Fg = 7200 N
B FBD FDB D
„ Note that FAB = FBA FBA
FBC FDC FDE
FAB
„ L = 50 m FCB
C
FCD FED
A E
FAC FCA FCE FEC

nA nE
Fg

12-63

Analysis of a Truss, 2
B FBD FDB D
FBA FDE
FBC FDC
FAB FCB FCD FED
A C E
FAC FCA FCE FEC
„ (1) Overall
nA nE
equilibrium Fg

∑F = n y A + nE − Fg = 0, ∑M A = nE L − (L 2)Fg = 0 ⇒ nE = 3600N = nA

„ (3) Joint A equilibrium

∑ F = n + F sin 30° = 0 ⇒ F = −7200 N (compression)
y A AB AB

∑ Fx = FAC + FAB cos 30° = 0 ⇒ FAC = 6235 N (tension)

12-64
 12.4 Elasticity
as c y

• Deformation
• Elastic Modulus
• Young’s Modulus
• Shear Modulus
• Bulk Modulus
• Moduli and Types of Materials

12-65

Deformation
eo a o

„ So far we have assumed that objects

remain rigid when external forces act on
them
h
„ Except springs
„ bj t are deformable
A t ll objects
Actually, d f bl
„ It is possible to change the size and/or shape
of the object by applying external forces
„ Internal forces resist the deformation

12-66
 Stress and Strain

„ Stress
„ Is p
proportional
p to the force causingg the
deformation
„ It is the external force acting on the object per
unit area
„ Strain
„ Is the result of a stress
„ Is a measure of the degree of deformation

12-67

Elastic Modulus

„ Elastic modulus is the constant of proportionality

between stress and strain
„ For sufficiently small stresses, strain is directly proportional
to stress
„ It depends on the material being deformed
„ It also depends on the nature of the deformation
„ Elastic modulus in general relates what is done to a
solid object to how that object responds
stress
t
elastic modulus ≡
strain
„ Various types of deformation have unique elastic
moduli
12-68
 Three Types of Moduli

„ Young’s Modulus
„ Measures the resistance of a solid to a change in
its length
„ Shear Modulus
„ Measures the resistance to motion of the planes
within a solid parallel to each other
„ Bulk Modulus
„ Measures the resistance of solids or liquids to
changes in their volume

12-69

Young’s
Young s Modulus

„ The bar is stretched

by an amount ΔL
under the action of
force F
„ Tensile stress is the
ratio of the external
force to the cross-
sectional area A, i.e.
F A

12-70
 Young’s
ou g s Modulus,
odu us, 2

„ Tension
T i strain
t i is i the
th ratio
ti off the
th change
h in
i
length to the original length, i.e. ΔL L
„ Y
Young’s ’ modulus,
d l Y, is
i the
th ratio
ti off those
th two
t
ratios:
tensile stress F
Y≡ = A
tensile strain ΔL
Li
„ Units are: N / m2 (Pa)

12-71

Stress vs. Strain Curve

„ Experiments
p show that for certain
stresses, the stress is directly
proportional to the strain
„ This is the elastic behavior part of
the curve
„ The elastic limit is the
maximum stress that can be
applied to the substance before it
becomes p permanentlyy deformed
„ When the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the substance will
be permanently deformed
„ The curve is no longer a straight line
„ With additional stress, the material ultimately breaks
12-72
 Shear Modulus

„ Another type of
deformation occurs when
a force acts parallel to one
of its faces while the
opposite face is held fixed
b another
by th force
f
„ This is called a shear
stress
„ For small deformations, no change in volume occurs
with this deformation
„ A good first approximation
12-73

Shear Modulus, 2

„ Shear stress is F / A
„ F is the tangential force
„ A is the area of the face being sheared
„ Shear strain is Δx
Δ /h
„ Δx is the horizontal distance the sheared face moves
„ h is the height
g of the object
j
„ Shear modulus is the ratio of the shear stress to
the shear strain:
shear stress F A
S= =
shear strain Δx
h
„ Units are: N / m (Pa)
2

12-74
 Bulk Modulus

„ Another type of deformation

occurs when a force of uniform
magnitude is applied
perpendicularly over the entire
surface of the object.
„ The object will undergo a
change in volume, but not in
shape.
h
„ Volume stress is defined as the ratio of the magnitude
of the total force
force, F, exerted on a surface to the area
area,
A, of the surface.
12-75

Bulk Modulus,, 2

„ This (F/A) is also called the pressure.

pressure
„ Volume strain is the ratio of the change in
volume to the original volume.
volume
„ Bulk modulus is the ratio of the volume stress
to the volume strain:
ΔF
B=
volume stress
=− A = − ΔP
volume strain ΔV ΔV
Vi Vi
„ The negative sign indicates that an increase in
pressure will
ill result
l in
i a decrease
d in
i volume.
l
12-76
 Compressibility

„ Compressibility is the inverse of the bulk

modulus.
„ It is often used instead of the bulk modulus.

12-77

Moduli and Types of Materials

„ Both solids and liquids have a bulk modulus

„ Liquids cannot sustain a shearing stress or
a tensile
t il stress
t
„ If a shearing force or a tensile force is applied
to a liquid, the liquid simply flows in response.

12-78
 Moduli Values

12-79

A rigid body is supported by 3 deformable rods, find

reactions NA, NB and NC ((all the self weights
g are negligible).
g g )
y
P = 100 N
x
Modulus:
M d l E = 10000 N/mN/ 2
Rod length: L=1 m
Cross area: A=0.1 m2
Distances between rods: 1 m

NA NB NC

Forces are in equilibrium:

∑F = 0 :
y NA + NB + NC − 100 = 0

∑M = 0 :
A NB (1) + NC (2) − 100(0.5) = 0

Deformations are compatible: Points A, B and C are on the same line

⎛ N L⎞ ⎛ N L⎞ ⎛ N L⎞
A : ⎜ 0, − 1 + A ⎟ B : ⎜1, − 1 + B ⎟ C : ⎜ 2, − 1 + C ⎟
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎝ AE ⎠ ⎝ AE ⎠
12-80
Thank You !

12-81