14

K A R L F IS H E R A P P A R A T U S A N D IT S
P E R F O R M A N C E V E R IF IC A T IO N

RICK JA IRA M, ROB E RT ME TCA LFE , P H.D ., A N D YU-HON G TS E , P H.D .

GlaxoSmithKline Canada, Inc.

14.1 I N T R O D U C T I O N

The K arl Fisher titration is one of the most common and most sensitive methods
used in the analytical laboratory. The titrimetric determination of water is based
on the quantitative reaction of water with an anhydrous solution of sulfur diox ide
and iodine in the presence of a buffer that reacts with hydrogen ions. This titration
is a two-stage process:

S O2 + MeOH + RN → (RN H)S O3 Me (14.1)

(RN H)S O3 Me + I2 + H2 O + 2RN → (RN H)S O4 Me + 2(RN H)I (14.2)

where RN is a base, typically pyridine or imidazole. Reaction (14.1) reaches

equilibrium and produces methylsulfite as the reaction intermediate. Reaction
(14.2) the redox process, is very rapid. From equation (14.2) the direct relation
between water and iodine consumption can be seen, which enables the amount
of water to be determined. Complete esterification of the sulfur diox ide with the
alcohol, and the ability of the base to neutralize the methyl sulfurous acid, are
the key requirements for the reaction above to be stoichiometric.

A naly tical M ethod V alidation and Ins tr u ment P er for mance V er ifi cation, E dited by Chung Chow
Chan, Herman Lam, Y. C. Lee, and Xue-Ming Zhang
IS B N 0 -47 1-25 9 5 3-5 Copyright  20 0 4 John W iley & S ons, Inc.

221
222 KARL FISHER APPARATUS AND ITS PERFORMANCE VERIFICATION

Pyridine was used in the beginning of the development of the method. The
reaction was slow and the endpoint unstable because of weak basicity of pyridine.
The pyridine system buffers at about pH 4. A stronger base, imidazole, has been
used to replace pyridine since it gives a faster response and has the advantages of
lower toxicity and decreased odor. The optimal pH range for the SO2 imidazole
buffer is at pH 6. It is important that the pH of the Karl Fisher reaction be
maintained within the range 5 to 7. Outside this recommended pH range, the
endpoint may not be reached.
There are two types of Karl Fisher titrations: volumetric and coulometric.
Volumetric titration is used to determine relatively large amounts of water (1
to 100 µg) and can be performed using the single- or two-component system.
Most commercially available titrators make use of the one-component titrant,
which can be purchased in two strengths; 2 mg of water per milliliter of titrant
and the 5 mg of water per milliliter of titrant. The choice of concentration is
dependent on the amount of water in the sample and any sample size limita-
tions. In both cases, the sample is typically dissolved in a methanol solution. The
iodine/SO2 /pyridine (imidazole) required for the reaction is titrated into the sam-
ple solution either manually or automatically. The reaction endpoint is generally
detected bivoltametrically.
Coulometric titration is used to determine relatively low concentrations of
water (10 µg to 10 mg) and requires two reagents: a catholyte and an anolyte
(the generating solution). The iodine required for the reaction is generated in situ
by the anodic oxidation of iodide.
2I− → I2 + 2e− (14.3)
The iodine then reacts with the water that is present. The amount of water titrated
is proportional to the total current (according to Faraday’s law) used in generating
the iodine necessary to react with the water. One mole of iodine reacts quantita-
tively with 1 mol of water. As a result, 1 mg of water is equivalent to 10.71 C.
Based on this principle, the water content of the sample can be determined by
the quantity of current that flows during the electrolysis. For this reason, the
coulometric method is considered an absolute technique, and no standardization
of the reagents is required.

14.2 SCOPE OF CHAPTER

The Karl Fisher instrumentation and its performance verification are discussed in
this chapter. The instrumentation, calibration practices, and common difficulties
that are encountered are presented. Neither method validation nor method specific
problems are discussed.

14.3 INSTRUMENTATION

Karl Fisher apparatus has to be designed to exclude moisture, deliver titrant, and
to detect the endpoint. The air in the system is kept dry with a suitable desiccant,
 INSTRUMENTATION 223

and the titration vessel may be purged by means of a stream of dry nitrogen or
air. For endpoint detection, most commercially available units use a bivoltametric
method to indicate that the endpoint has been reached. For this method a constant
current of about 20 µA is applied across a pair of platinum electrodes that are
about 2.5 mm apart. As the titration proceeds, water reacts with iodine and is
consumed. When the endpoint is reached and all the water is consumed, there
is a buildup of free iodine in solution. The free iodine causes ionic conduction
in the solution. As a result, the voltage must be reduced to keep the polarization
current constant [1,2]. When the voltage drops below a defined value, the titration
is stopped. Figure 14.1 shows a schematic diagram of a typical KF titrator.
In some cases (see below) a KF drying oven is required to get the water from
a sample into the titration vessel. For these special cases, a solid sample (usually)
is placed into a specially designed KF oven where the sample is heated, and the
water goes into the vapor phase. A stream of dry carrier gas (usually, N2 or
air) sweeps the liberated moisture into the reaction vessel, where it is titrated
by either the coulometric or the volumetric method. It is critical that the carrier
gas is dry and that there are no leaks along the pathway to the reaction vessel.
Passing the carrier gas over activated molecular sieve prior to the sample will
ensure that the gas is dry.
The KF reaction depends on free water available for titration. Instruments may
be designed to homogenize the sample to release water prior to the titration. In

I = 20 mA
V = v ariable

T o pumping system

T ubing to deliv er titrant

Methanol solution

Double Pt electrode

Magnetic Stirrer

Fig u r e 14.1. Schematic diagram of a typical Karl Fischer titrator.

224 KARL FISHER APPARATUS AND ITS PERFORMANCE VERIFICATION

this case, a high-speed blender may be used directly in the titration vessel. This
is a particularly useful accessory for determination of water in tablets or certain
food products that are difficult to prepare for analysis.

14.3.1 Perfo rm a n c e Verifi c a tio n

The performance verification of Karl Fisher apparatus should include checks
for the accuracy and precision of the instrument. The linearity of the instru-
ment should be determined at installation. The first step is to standardize the
instrument (see Section 14.3.2); pure water is sufficient for this purpose. Sodium
tartrate dihydrate standard (water content 15.66 ± 0.05%) can be used to assess
the accuracy, precision, and linearity of the instrument. Typically, one would
measure the water content of at least five samples, over the intended instru-
ment user range. For example, the water content of sodium tartrate dihydrate
samples that were 65 mg (ca. 10 mg H2 O), 195 mg (ca. 30 mg H2 O), 325 mg
(ca. 50 mg H2 O), 455 mg (ca. 70 mg H2 O), and 650 mg (100 mg H2 O) could be
determined. Calculate the percent water to assess the instrument’s accuracy. The
results should be within 98 to 102% of 15.66% water. Determine the % RSD of
the percent water found to assess the precision of the instrument. The % RSD
should be less than or equal to 1%. Finally, plot the expected water content ver-
sus the percent water content to assess the linearity of the instrument’s response.
A correlation coefficient (r) value of 0.999 or greater is acceptable.

14.3.2 Sta n d a rd iz a tio n

Standardization should be performed daily, since the titrant will absorb moisture
over time. The standardization is typically performed using one of three standards:
(1) disodium tartrate dihydrate (15.66% water, w/w), (2) commercially available
water standards with a certified concentration of water (typically, 10 mg of water
per gram of standard), or (3) pure water. In all of these cases, a suitable balance
should be used, preferably one that gives at least ±0. l mg of resolution.
When disodium tartrate dihydrate is used, samples ranging from 50 to 120 mg
are dissolved in methanol, and the concentration of the KF reagent is determined.
Based on volume of titrant used, the weight of the sample and the percent water
in the disodium tartrate dihydrate (15.66% w/w), the standardization factor can be
calculated. One pitfall with this method is the solubility of the disodium tartrate
dihydrate in methanol. It is recommended that the disodium tartrate dihydrate be
finely divided and that a suitable extraction time be given for the solids to dissolve.
If a water standard is used, samples of the water standard ranging from 1.0 to
1.5 g are injected into the methanol via syringe. This method is best performed
by opening the ampoule that contains the water standard, rinsing out a 10-mL
syringe with about 1 mL of the standard, and then filling the syringe with the
remaining contents of the ampoule. Aliquots of approximately 1 mL are then
injected into the vessel, and the true weights are determined by difference.
Standardization of the KF titrant using purified water is widely accepted and
probably the most commonly used in analytical laboratories. Using a suitable
 COMMON PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS 225

glass syringe, a known volume of purified water can be added in the titration
vessel, and the KF value for the titrant can be determined. This method is highly
operator dependent and is not recommended for measurements where the accu-
racy of the determination is critical. The preferred method would be to add a
known quantity of water by weight.
In the coulometric method, standardization is not necessary, since the current
consumed can be measured absolutely. However, a standard with known water
content should be checked periodically to ensure that the system is functioning
properly. In this case, a certified water standard is generally used, and the amount
of water is determined and compared with the amount that is certified to be
present. Some coulometric titrators are equipped with an oven for liberating the
moisture from samples that are either insoluble in methanol or that react with I2 ,
methanol, or one of the other reagents. Solid standards (e.g., potassium citrate
monohydrate) are available for checking the oven, and this check is performed
after the coulometer function has been verified.

14.3.3 Meas urement of Samp les

The handling of the sample, its storage, and the amount of sample used are very
important to consider when making a KF measurement. When taking a sample
from the bulk material, great care must be taken to exclude atmospheric moisture,
which is one of the most common sources of error. If the sample absorbs or
desorbs water during its handling, the true moisture content can no longer be
determined. The sample must also contain the average amount of water that is
contained in the material as a whole. This is a particular problem when dealing
with nonpolar liquids such as fats or oils where the water is floating on the top or
settled to the bottom of the container. In this situation the liquids must be mixed
thoroughly just prior to sampling to disperse the water evenly.
Once a sample is taken, it is best to determine the water as quickly as possible.
If a sample must be stored, it is best to keep it in a small, tightly sealed glass
bottle with a screw cap. Glass is better than plastic since plastic is not water
vapor– tight. The size of the bottle should be as small as possible to minimize
the gas space that is above the sample. A smaller gas space will mean less
moisture vapor.
The size of the sample to be used depends on the expected water content and
the degree of accuracy that is desired. If a high level of accuracy is required, a
large sample size should be used to minimize the effect of atmospheric moisture.
For titrimetric KF, the United States Pharmacopoeia recommends using a sample
that will contain between 10 and 250 mg of water. The minimum amount of water
is generally agreed to be 10 mg.

14.4 COMMON PROB LEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Atmospheric moisture is a major cause of error in Karl Fischer titrations. Moisture

can enter the sample, titrant, and titration vessel. The apparatus and titrant must
226 KARL FISHER APPARATUS AND ITS PERFORMANCE VERIFICATION

be sealed against atmospheric moisture and situated away from high-humidity

areas of the laboratory. Desiccants and dry purge gases can be used to reduce
moisture ingress. Proper conditioning of the apparatus is required to remove
moisture present in the apparatus before the titration. Moisture will, however,
enter the apparatus during introduction of the sample in a normal lab environment.
With high-speed blending, this introduction of moisture can cause bias due to
homogenizing air containing water into the sample. To reduce bias when high-
speed blending is used, it is necessary to apply background correction or purge
the sample compartment to exclude moisture.
The titrant delivery system can also be a source of error. The delivery system
needs to be precise in the number of steps required to titrate a fixed amount of
water. The delivery of titrant is typically controlled by either a peristaltic pump
or an automatic buret. Both are acceptable methods for the delivery of titrant;
however, the peristaltic pump relies on the contact between the pump rollers
and the tygon tubing, which is pressed into position by a platen. Therefore, the
quality of the tubing that is used is critical to the accuracy of the instrument, so
this tubing should be examined frequently to make sure that it is in good working
order (free of blockages and not pinched to the point that flow is restricted).
The pump rollers should also be examined to make sure that they are operating
well, and the platen should be examined to make sure that it holds the tubing
tightly against the rollers. The automatic buret is actually a syringe driven by
a metered servomotor. For this type of delivery system the key concerns are
that the servomotor is operating properly (i.e., delivering the correct amount of
liquid) and that there are no leaks, blockages, or air bubbles in the lines or in the
syringe itself.
Depending on the samples being titrated, electrode contamination may be
an issue. The electrodes may become coated when substances such as oils and
sugars are titrated. This results in delayed endpoint detection and an overtitration.
A dark brown color on the electrodes indicates that they should be cleaned. The
coatings can usually be removed by polar organic solvents or by cleaning the
platinum physically.
Side reactions can cause major problems in the determination water [3]. Some
chemical species react with methanol to produce water that will lead to higher
water results, some react with water (low results), and some react with iodine
(high result). Aldehydes and ketones react with methanol to produce acetals
and ketals. Water is a by-product of this reaction, and its production leads to
erroneously high water contents:

Acetal formation: CH3 CHO + 2CH3 OH → CH3 CH(OCH3 )2 + H2 O (14.4)

Ketal formation : (CH3 )2 CO + 2CH3 OH → (CH3 )2 C(OCH3 )2 + H2 O (14.5)

This can be remedied by using commercially available one-component reagents

that contain 2-methoxyethanol and 2-chloroethanol rather than methanol. In the
presence of SO2 and base, aldehydes, undergo what is called the bisulfite addition.
 REFERENCES 227

This reaction consumes water.

Bisulfite addition: CH3 CHO + H2 O + SO2 + NR → HC(OH)SO3 (HNR)

(14.6)
The kinetics of this type of reaction are slow, so this can be avoided by starting
the reaction immediately after sample addition.
Many samples have redox potentials such that they can be oxidized by iodine.
Therefore, the iodine in the titrant may be consumed by readily oxidizable sam-
ples that will give a false high value for the water content. Some common
substances that can be oxidized by iodine are ascorbic acid, arsenite (AsO2 − ),
arsenate (AsO4 3− ), boric acid, tetraborate (B4 O7 2− ), carbonate (CO3 2− ), disul-
fite (S2 O5 2− ), iron(II) salts, hydrazine derivatives, hydroxides (OH− ), bicarbon-
ates (HCO3 − ), copper(I) salts, mercaptans (RSH), nitrite (NO2 − ), some metal
oxides, peroxides, selenite (SeO3 2− ), silanols (R3 SiOH), sulfite (SO3 2− ), tellu-
rite (TeO3 2− ), thiosulfate (S2 O3 2− ), and tin(II) salts. For situations such as these
where the material under analysis reacts with iodine, an oven can be used to
liberate the moisture from the sample, which is then carried into the reaction
vessel and titrated without interference.

REFERENCES

1. United States Pharmacopoeia, USP 25, Chapter 921, Water Determination.

2. F undamentals of the Volumetric Karl F ischer T itration, Mettler Toledo Application
Brochure 26.
3. R iedel-deH aen H ydranal Manual.