1.

Sustainability of Social Housing in Asia: A Holistic Multi-

Perspective Development Process for Bamboo-Based

Construction in the Philippines

2. Examining the role of public administration in promoting

sustainable entrepreneurship development in Nigeria 1999–

2018

3. Governance paradigm in public administration and the dilemma

of national question in Nigeria

4. Why Joint Development Agreements Fail: Implications for the

South China Sea Dispute

5. Corruption and development: a comparative approach to

socioeconomic and political dimensions worldwide

Title:
Sustainability of Social Housing in Asia: A Holistic Multi-Perspective
Development Process for Bamboo-Based Construction in the Philippines

Journal:
Sustainability; Basel Vol. 8, Iss. 2, (2016): 151. DOI:10.3390/su8020151

Authors:
Corinna Salzer, Holger Wallbaum , Luis Felipe Lopez, and Jean Luc Kouyoumji

Author’s Information:
1. Chair of Sustainable Building, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Chalmers University of Technology, SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden;
holger.wallbaum@chalmers.se
2.Base Bahay, Chino Roces Avenue, 1200 Makati City, Metro Manila, Philippines;
Luis.Lopez@base-bahay.com
3. Bambou Science et Innovation; 14 rue André Messager, 33 520 Bruges, France;
jlk@bambouscience.fr
* Correspondence: salzer@chalmers.se; Tel.: +65-88-696-542
Abstract:
This paper highlights the need for a more inclusive and sustainable development of social
housing in rapidly developing countries of Asia, Latin America, and Africa. At the example of
the Philippines, a multi-perspective development process for a bamboo-based building system is
developed. Sustainability Assessment Criteria are defined through literature review, field
observations and interviews with three stakeholder clusters: (1) Builders and users of traditional
bamboo houses in the Philippines; (2) Stakeholders involved in using forest products for housing
in other countries around the world; and (3) Stakeholders in the field of social housing in the
Philippines.

Purpose of the Study:

This framework paper is a contribution to how sustainable building practices can become more
inclusive, incorporating the building stock of low-income dwellers. It bridges the gap between
theoretical approach and practical applications of sustainability and underlines the strength of
combining multi-dimensional development with communities’ participation.

3 Key Ideas:
1. Involvement of the Stakeholders is Vital

The researchers believe that a systematic approach for stakeholder engagement in

the construction sector is a requirement for achieving overall sustainability.
In the Philippines, stakeholder involvement has been confirmed as a significant method
for disaster risk reduction. The research takes the grassroots approach in selecting its
participants.

2. Construction Practices of Builders Around the World

The study looked at the practices of different countries in building houses and also the raw
materials they utilize in housing construction. It made analogies on the techniques and the
criteria of different countries on the materials and techniques for construction.

3. Roadmap for Using Bamboo as A Sustainable Raw Material

The paper presented a roadmap describing a multi-perspective development process

showing the implementation path for the theoretic potential. The information gathered by
the researches of this study was compiled and then evaluated to devise this roadmap starting
with sourcing it, to treating, and then distributing it. The paper will provide future guidance
for decision-makers whether or not to change current systems from a consumer-, policy-
maker, or construction-professional viewpoints.
General Conclusion:
This framework paper is a contribution to how sustainable building practices can become more
inclusive, incorporating the building stock of low-income dwellers. It bridges the gap between
theoretical approach and practical applications of sustainability and underlines the strength of
combining multi-dimensional development with communities’ participation.

Recommendation and Message to the Author:

There are many people especially in Metro Manila that has been living in the streets or in the
slums. Many families do not have a decent shelter where they can feel secure and comfortable. It
is also not just a problem of the family, but also of the government. According to an NGO,
“many people live in appalling conditions, on platforms just feet above Manila water courses. In
effect, human waste is going straight into the rivers, causing high levels of water pollution and
loss of ecological diversity. “That is why, slums are becoming a public health issue. This study
will provide guidelines on how to effectively use bamboo for shelter. Housing is really a problem
because out of a population of more than 100 million, an estimated 4.5 million Filipinos are
homeless, with around 3 million homeless in Manila, the nation’s capital. If left unaddressed, the
housing shortage could affect as many as 12 million people by 2030.(Cabalar,2019)

Bamboos are abundant and common in the Philippines most importantly cost efficient. Bamboo
is fast-growing, shooting up to three feet per day. According to Forbales, founder of Cubo
bamboo modular houses, bamboo compression strength is higher than concrete, its tensile
strength rivals steel, and it’s lighter than both materials. Truly, Bamboo can address the housing
crisis in the Philippines. This study about sustainable housing will encourage the government to
use materials indigenous in the country. I hope that the government will realize how rich the
Philippines is and it is a matter of initiative and leadership from the government. The
government should not turn blind eyes, because this problem will cause more problems. I agree
with the authors that it is best to discover the effectivity and potential of locally available raw
since it is cost effective compared to conventional ways of building houses like building using
concrete. What I like most about this study is that they also considered the insights of the
community. Community involvement in the study inspired belongingness and pride. This study
is for the community and by the community. When policy makers look at this study, they will
have firsthand knowledge of how the community process the bamboo for construction. They can
 build upon this knowledge and they don’t have to reinvent the wheel. I look forward to the
authors of this study or even other researchers to conduct research on the bamboos’ resiliency
against natural calamities like typhoon and earthquakes. In addition, I wished that the authors
added the species of bamboo that is most appropriate for building. For me, the roadmap is too
broad and the ideas are cluttered. Never the less the study showed that its highly probable that
bamboo houses is a solution in curbing the housing crisis in the Philippines. It just saddened me
that Swiss has started engineering bamboo for construction building, when in fact bamboos are at
the Filipinos’ fingertips and should pioneer this project. We, the Filipinos should be able harness
its potential as our forefathers has been using it since. I fervently hope that the government will
support this advocacy and soon Filipinos can manufacture its own reinforced and engineered
bamboo to make it more resistant and strong enough to withstand natural calamities. Although,
the information is very well organized, the article made me curious on the possible sustainable
projects the Philippine government can attempt explore.

Title:
Examining the role of public administration in promoting sustainable entrepreneurship
development in Nigeria 1999–2018

Journal:
Africa's Public Service Delivery and Performance Review; Cape Town Vol. 7, Iss. 1, (2019).

Author:
Igbokwe-Ibeto, Chinyeaka J.

Author’s Information:
School of Public Management, Governance and Public Policy, University of
Johannesburg, Johannesburg,South Africa

Abstract:
Nigeria has been described as among the leading economies in Africa, yet it has experienced
cycles of economic boom and recession. Commercial capitalism has left the industrial sectors
relatively underdeveloped. As is the practice elsewhere, sustainable entrepreneurship
development is the foundation of industrial development. However, in Nigeria, this imperative
need is faced with numerous challenges. Within the framework of development theory, this
article examines the role of public administration in promoting sustainable entrepreneurship
development in Nigeria, as well as challenges confronting public administrator’s role in this
regard. This study was carried out using the qualitative desktop method in deriving data for
answering the question. About 45 literature sources were consulted and analyzed in order to
explore the interface between public administration and sustainable entrepreneurship
development in Nigeria.

Purpose of the Study:

This article examines the role of public administration in promoting sustainable entrepreneurship
development in Nigeria, as well as challenges confronting public administrator’s role in this
regard.

3 Key Ideas:
1. Significance of Entrepreneurship in Nigeria

The authors of this study believed that factors of production in themselves cannot bring
any change to their existence except when combined by an entrepreneur to create
economic value. Innovation helps to expand existing business ventures and to create new
ones with the laid-down structure of the organization. Thus, the study points out
country’s need for expansion on economic opportunities globally.

2. Connection Between the Administration of Nigeria to Public Administration

This study promotes Local Entrepreurship to stimulate the development of the economy
and the social well-being of the people. The authors believes that boosting the morale that
 once trampled by the Western colonizers is important for local entrepreneurship. Aside
from boosting the morale of its labor force, they also pointed out the need to formulate
better policies and to increase funding in this sector.
3. Public Administration Challenges of the Nigerian Government

The authors specified and explained the challenges faced by the Nigerian Government. It
encapsulated the reasons of how these challenges significantly affect the economy of
Nigeria. These challenges are the corruption, division among its, citizens, poor policies,
funding, and creating sustainable projects that would allow them to be less dependent to
other countries.

General conclusion:

It concludes that public administration in Nigeria should ensure policy consistency in terms of
continuity and stability, the development of an indigenous sustainable development paradigm,
the prevention and punishment of corruption, improved funding of entrepreneurship
development programs and the provision of reliable electricity.

Recommendation and Message to the Author:

Oxford dictionary defines entrepreneurship as the activity of setting up a business or businesses,

taking on financial risks in the hope of profit. Entrepreneurs create new businesses, and new
businesses in turn create jobs, intensify competition, and may even increase productivity through
technological change.(Zoltan, 2006) I come to an agreement with the authors of this study, that
countries should have entrepreneurship policy. It can benefit both the government and its people.
Moreover, it can foster solidarity, cooperation, good relationship between countries and maybe
acceptance of culture. According to Investopedia.com, new and improved products, services or
technology from entrepreneurs enable new markets to be developed and new wealth to be created
increased employment and higher earnings contribute to better national income in the form of
higher tax revenue and higher government spending. This revenue can be used by the
government to invest in other, struggling sectors and human capital. I commend the researcher
for his work in studying the government of Nigeria’s role in promoting sustainable
entrepreneurship for two decades. The researcher would like to find the reason why Nigeria is
still being an under developed and less advance country. It found out that it can be attributed to
poor entrepreneurship development that could have served as the basis for rapid industrialization
in the country and the attendant effect of making the country one of the developed countries of
the world. Although Nigeria has a rich and abundant natural resources its GDP is low.
Investopdia.com defined Gross domestic product (GDP) as the total monetary or market value of
all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period.
As a broad measure of overall domestic production, it functions as a comprehensive scorecard of
a given country’s economic health. However, the country also needs to strengthen its policy with
regards to corruption. However, I suppose exploiting natural resources to strengthen the
economy of a country is not the only solution for a country to be called rich. As an ordinary/
common person, I would not feel the significant impact of GDP. Most industrialized country that
I know harness the raw materials for their goods from underdeveloped countries. Mahalanobis,
P. C.( 1960) claimed that the rich countries in the West have already exploited the resources of
the underdeveloped countries. For example, with the inauguration of full-blown commercial
economy in British colonial territories in West Africa, Nigeria became a source of raw materials
for British companies in Europe and a market for finished goods from the same area. (Igbokwe-
Ibeto, Chinyeaka J.2018). If these natural rich country will create sustainable solutions by using
their own resources to their advantage I anticipate they will be able to supply their own needs
without relying to other countries. It just a matter of unity within them. According to BBC”
Nigeria should be Africa's powerhouse - it is the continent's biggest oil producer and most
populous country. But after decades of poor governance, most of its 160 million people are still
mired in poverty.” According to this study, Nigerians are also divided along many lines - ethnic,
religious, economic and political - and sometimes these tensions boil over into violence. I guess
it not about the policy but, they need a leader to unify the people and that the people will be open
to one another that they may trust each other. Zoltan (2016) has analyzed data gathered by the
researchers in 11 countries, have found that effects on economic growth and development of
necessity and opportunity entrepreneurship vary greatly. They found that necessity
entrepreneurship has no effect on economic development while opportunity entrepreneurship has
a positive and significant effects. However, entrepreneurship alone will not change a country
from impoverished to a self – reliant and self – sufficient country. There must be more ways and
 means other than focusing on exploiting and drastically exhausting the natural resources. But,
this study is admirable. It is comprehensive and amazingly observed the progress of Nigeria’s
Public Administration in the span of 19 years.

Title:
Governance paradigm in public administration and the dilemma of national question in Nigeria

Journal:

Cogent Social Sciences; Abingdon Vol. 3, Iss. 1, (Dec 2017).

DOI:10.1080/23311886.2017.1316916

Author:
Ikeanyibe, Okey Marcellus; Eze Ori, Ogbonnaya; Okoye, Arinze Emmanuel.

Author’s Information:
Okey Marcellus Ikeanyibe PhD, is a Senior Lecturer
in the Department of Public Administration and
Local Government, University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
and a Visiting Research Fellow of the School of
Public Policy, Central European University Budapest
Hungary.
Ogbonnaya Eze Ori is a PhD student being
supervised by the corresponding author.
Arinze Emmanuel Okoye is an MSc student also
being supervised by the author.

Abstract:
This paper reviews the developmental oscillations in the field of public
administration or what scholars usually describe as paradigm shifts up to the one of the current
emphasis described as the governance model, which subscribes to the use of stakeholders,
networks, collaboration, and partnerships in policy and government processes. This paper
examines how this core principle or tenet of the model relates to the broad issues of governance
in Nigeria, a multi stakeholder, ethnically constituted polity. It is argued that the idea of quota,
federal character and other means of power sharing for inclusive government that have been tied
to administrative law and practice from the Nigerianization policy of late 1950s till present have
not properly doused the aspirations of some major stake holders (ethnic groups) of the country.
Hence, the recurrent calls for political and economic restructuring of the country. As a result of
this, far-reaching governance and public service reform measures in the country have remained
ineffective. The paper suggests that the sticky point in a country like Nigeria about governance
challenges is how to build a consensus around some enduring socio-political and economic
organization and interrelationship of various groups or stakeholders.

Purpose of the Study:

The purpose of the study is to examine the paradigm shifts of the governance mode of Nigeria
and how this core principle or tenet of the model relates to the broad issues of its governance.

3 Key Ideas:
1. Snapshots on the Key Paradigm Shifts in Public Administration

The researchers provided a background for the emergence of the governance paradigm.
Moreover, they presented the milestones of paradigms that the state will go through.
Each of these paradigm or stage of development entails an emphasis of what should
constitute the focus and the locus for the study of public administration.

2. Models of the Governance Paradigm

The authors described the different models of governance. It describes the many ways
how government be represented in a state. Each model of governance proposes a slightly
 different emphasis, which makes the models more or less appropriate depending on the
local context.

3. Governance paradigm in relation to Nigeria’s National Question

The study also tackled the failed expectations in developmental strides despite of
Nigerian government. It also enumerated the numerous factors that account for this
governance failure.

General Conclusion:

The paradigmatic shifts in public administration depicts various efforts of governments to adopt
and adapt to new and better ways to satisfy the yearnings of their public and the scholarly
attempts to rationalize those approaches. The new governance paradigm does not say less. As
Kauzya and Balogun (2005, p. 9) further remarks, “the sticky point, as far as governance reform
is concerned, is how to build a consensus around some enduring socio-political values and
traditions.” Building this consensus as we have shown in the case of Nigeria in this essay
requires open discussion about the basis of nationhood. While sovereignty of a nation remains
sacrosanct, freedom of an individual or any group of people seems to be a higher value.

Recommendation and Message to the Author:

The critical role of public administration as defined by John Rohr is governing the society.
Public administration provides numerous services to the public and serves their interests in many
ways. According to Felix A Negro, administration is the basic service which is performed for the
public. It is the administration which ensures the security and protection of life and property of
the members of the society by maintaining proper law and order. Public administration is not
only for the fulfillment of the goals and objects of the governing bodies but it provide services to
its people and thus the entire state or country will together grow. This is a change in the political
philosophy from minimalist state intervention (or laissez-fare) and individualism to social
welfare. Prof. Olanrewaju Olu-Adeyemi explained that Nigeria never existed before colonial
contact. Moreover, he said the various peoples and ethnic groups that made up Nigeria today
were politically independent of each other. This is the challenge Nigeria is facing. Public
administration is difficult because the nation is divided. On a positive note, paradigm shifts in
Public administration in Nigeria has shown progress. Scholars studying governance and
collaboration see the importance and merit of using networks in studying a new governance
paradigm where public administrators work across the sectors and judicial boundaries (Hwang &
Moon, 2009). However, according to the author of this study, Nigerians don’t see their identity
as one whole nation or state working together is a dilemma. I think the government should
initiate programs that would encourage people and ethnic tribes to build trust and partnership. I
believe that having expos that will entail exhibits of each tribe’s culture would help. However, I
can’t say anything more, because it is always easier said than done. It is difficult for public
administration to fulfill its role especially when people in the state does recognize themselves to
be a part of the state. The authors of this study is not one sided, as their research has identified
the growth of Public Administration of Nigeria and also pointed out the weaknesses it has and as
a result further researches can seek solutions to address these weaknesses. I would like to
encourage the authors of this study to conduct the same research in Nigeria as to see the growth
and changes it has after a decade and to further analyze whether the government of Nigeria
considers changing the form of government. Overall, the presentation of information and data
was clear and easy to understand. The details are well organized and the readers will effortlessly
grasp the idea the authors wanted to convey. It was indulging to read.

Journal:
Contemporary Southeast Asia; Singapore Vol. 41, Iss. 3, (Dec 2019): 418-446.

Author:
Xue, Song.

Author’s Information:
Song Xue is an Assistant Professor in the Institute of International
Studies, Fudan University, Shanghai. Postal address: 220 Handan
Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, PRC, 200433; email: xue_song@
fudan.edu.cn.

Abstract:

Although nearly twenty joint development agreements have been signed since the 1950s, only a
few have been implemented and even fewer have achieved successful commercialization. This
article discusses the conditions leading to the implementation failures of joint development
agreements. Applying the Crisp-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis method to nineteen joint
development agreements between 1958 and 2008, this article argues that the only causally-
related condition associated with the failed implementation of joint development agreements is
the deterioration of bilateral relations, often arising from the maritime boundary dispute that the
joint development agreement was supposed to resolve. Other possible hypotheses, such as lack
of economic incentives, energy independence, domestic opposition, third-party intervention and
disagreements over the details of the project, do not show any correlated pattern with the failure
to implement such agreements. The finding provides policy implications for the current
boundary disputes in the South China Sea: improved bilateral relations is the prerequisite for the
effective implementation of joint development ventures, and not the other way around. Littoral
states should also not pursue joint development agreements as a false pretext to secretly
consolidate their maritime boundary claims, or to confirm the status of a "dispute". Furthermore,
successful negotiations for a Code of Conduct for the South China Sea may help to create a
conducive atmosphere for claimant states to agree on the joint development of offshore
hydrocarbon resources.

Purpose of the Study:

The purpose of the study is to examine six causal variables that are often cited toexplain the
failure of joint development agreements. They are: (i) low oil prices; (ii) energy independence;
(iii) domestic opposition; (iv) deterioration of bilateral relations; (v) third-party intervention; and
(vi) bilateral disagreements over the details of the joint development agreement.
3 key Ideas:

1. The Reasons of Joint Development

The author explained the importance of Joint Development of the countries. It also
explores the pros and cons of this agreement. He also cited countries that were successful
in adhering to the pact they agreed upon.

2. The Factors that can Caused the Failure of South China Sea Joint Development

There was an attempt to peacefully conclude the dispute between countries several
countries over the South China Sea. However, it was not successful. The reason why it
did push through was cited and expounded in thus study.

3. Solutions to Decrease Possibility for Termination of Joint Development

This article has addressed the factors which lead to the failed implementation of joint
development agreements. To manage the dispute the author proposed and emphasized
that the two options to resolve boundary disputes is that delimitation and joint
development to be mutually exclusive.

General Conclusion:

The article’s findings are important to the management of the disputes in the South China Sea. It
is emphasized that the two options to resolve boundary disputes, i.e. delimitation and joint
development, are mutually exclusive. If a claimant country decides to prioritize the economic
objective and conduct joint development, it is highly imperative to make peace with other
claimant states. Many measures can be taken to achieve that goal, but the most important are
respecting the other country’s boundary claims, accepting the “disputed” status of the South
China Sea, and also making a set of binding rules to regulate the actions of all the claimants.To
avoid the controversies arising from the definition of joint development, it is suggested to use
terms such as “collaborative development” or “cooperation in oil and gas development” to
reinforce the non-prejudicial nature of the joint development. Furthermore, successful
negotiations for a Code of Conduct for the South China Sea may help to create a peaceful
 atmosphere for claimant states to agree on the joint development of offshore hydrocarbon
resources. “

Recommendation and Message to the Author:

This study is timely and relevant. Territorial dispute is not only active in the Philippines but, it is
happening around the world. And China is involved in many of these disputes. Puyana &
Constanino (2015) wrote in their research that China is one of the principal countries acquiring
land in Latin America, and Argentina and Colombia are the main countries in which its
investment is concentrated. The explicit objective of Chinese investment in land there is, in
addition to the pursuit of profits in both food production and land value, acquiring a guaranteed
Title: supply of cheap food to sustain its low industrial wages and of Chinese manufactures to maintain
its competitiveness
Corruption and Development: A at Comparative
the international level. Guardian.com
Approach reported
to Socioeconomic thatPolitical
and there was heightened
Dimensions Worldwide
tensions escalating since early May of 2020 when China moved thousands of troops and artillery
to disputed areas, including the strategic Galwan Valley in India. Prime minster Modi claimed
that Chinese incursions into Galwan and other disputed areas, such Pangong Tso, are just a
continuation of the norm.Yunan Xu (2018), stated in his research that China tends to be a
dominant figure in the literature on global land grabbing. Borras et al., defined Contemporary
land grabbing as the capturing of control of relatively vast tracts of land and other natural
resources through a variety of mechanisms and forms that involve large scale capital that often
shifts resource use orientation into extractive character. Aside from land grabbing accusations
china is also facing territorial disputes in the South China Sea or the West Philippines Sea among
many countries like Malaysia, Japan, and Indonesia. According to Xue (the author) Joint
development represents an effective mechanism for contesting states to benefit from the
exploitation of hydrocarbon resources in disputed areas without risking the escalation of
diplomatic and military tensions. However, the joint agreement failed and the tension between
countries especially against the aggressive China still exist and persist. The reason for the failure
is that because of the words itself. On the other hand, Limos (2019) reported that in 2016, the
Permanent Court of Arbitration handed out a landmark victory for the Philippines and declared
China’s nine-dash lines and historical claims on the entire South China Sea illegal. It also
declared key features in the West Philippine Sea as falling within the Philippines’ maritime zone.
Clearly, China should respect the decision. To conclude, this research is not only timely, but also
important in promoting peace between countries. The suggestions may appear to be easy but, I
think it will still pose a challenge for countries to come to an agreement. Nevertheless, it is better
to try it. The study is easy to read because the ideas are presented logically and consistent.

Title:
Corruption and development: a comparative approach to socioeconomic and political dimensions
worldwide

Journal:
Corvinus Journal of Sociology and Social Policy; Budapest Vol. 9, Iss. 2, (2018).

Author:
Luca Salvati, Kostas Rontos, Ioannis Vavouras

Author’s Information:
Luca Salvati, PhD is staff researcher at the Italian Council for Agricultural Research and
Economics (CREA), Viale S. Margherita 80, I-52100 Arezzo, Italy, e-mail:
luca.salvati@uniroma1.it; Kostas Rontos, PhD., is professor of Social Demography and Statistics
at the University of the Aegean, Department of Sociology, Militini, Greece, e-mail:
k.rontos@soc.aegean.gr; Ioannis Vavouras isprofessor of Economic Policy at Panteion
University of Social and Political Sciences, Department of Public Administration, Athens,
Greece, e-mail: vavouras@panteion.gr.

Abstract:
The present study investigates relevant economic, social and political dimensions of
development worldwide, focusing on (apparent and latent) links between perceived corruption,
economic and human development, government effectiveness and the quality of the political
system taken as representative variables of countries’ social systems. These variables were
selected as the basic determinants of the level of overall development in a country, since
combinations of these factors determine clusters of countries with different development
patterns. The results of this study indicate that effective development policies require integrated
strategies that incorporate efforts to reduce corruption and increase human development and
government effectiveness. These strategies are sustainable in the long run when associated with
institutional transformations. More specifically, if democracy is not consolidated and the
political system is not grounded on the basis of freedom, socioeconomic development cannot be
achieved and maintained in the long term, even with a high level of per-capita income.

Purpose of the Study:

The objective of the present study is to investigate a broad range of factors (income per capita,
human development, government effectiveness, political freedom in the forms of political rights
and civil liberties, and corruption), intended as relevant indicators of the level of a country’s
development.

3 Key Ideas:

1. Different from Other Studies of Development

The research empirically investigated the extent of corruption in various countries by

analyzing differences in the values of the corruption perception index, the variables used
in the present study are gross national income per head in purchasing power parities, the
non-income human development index, the political rights index, and the civil liberties
index. This is due to the fact that the author believes that most studies about development
has been variables that are difficult to be measured.

2. Corruption is correlated to level of economic development, the perception of the

level of corruption, the degree of human development, the extent of government
effectiveness and the quality of the existing political system.
 The research pointed out that Corruption is low in countries demonstrating high level of
economic development, degree of government effectiveness, quality of human
development and political democracy.

3. The Government Play a Crucial Role in the Development of A Country.

This study highlights the role of the state in the creation of a “fair” society, for example
improving the quality of public services, increasing the independence of state
bureaucracy from political pressures, improving the effectiveness of processes of policy
formulation and the credibility of the government’s commitment to such policies reduces
the motives of voters, state officials and politicians to resort to corruption.

General Conclusion:

The aim of this paper was to propose a classification of world countries according to relevant
political, economic and social factors. The research in this paper tested the hypothesis that
developing countries have unbalanced socioeconomic contexts due to rapid economic growth
with impact on corruption levels. Although affluent and socially developed countries are
relatively well distinguished from both emerging and economically-disadvantaged countries,
these categories do not reflect the marked heterogeneity observed within countries. The lack of
homogeneity within the groups should be attributed to institutional, territorial, political and
cultural factors rather than to crude differences in the level of economic growth quantified by
way of per capita income. This suggests that policies against corruption should target a complex,
although balanced set of causes that are not only limited to the strictly economic performance of
the country but range from the social sphere to political, cultural, institutional and environmental
attributes. Further studies that employ a hierarchical clustering of world countries according to
the multivariate, diachronic attributes of socioeconomic development are thus necessary for
understanding the gains and losses in economic performance and competitiveness across
countries, and for clarifying the more subtle differences in the social and political systems of
specific country clusters characterized by similar levels of income and economic productivity

Recommendation and Message to the Author:

The World Bank defines corruption as the abuse of the public power for the benefit of private
sector. Corruption erodes the trust we have in the public sector to act in our best interests. It also
wastes the taxes or rates that have been earmarked for important community projects. Meaning
the people to put up with poor quality services or infrastructure, or we miss out altogether.
(https://www.ibac.vic.gov.au/) According to Tanzi (1998) the rapid growth of business around
the world and the economic changes that is taking around the world contributed to widespread
corruption. International trade resulted to the creation of bribes to smoothen transaction, to make
it more acceptable we often hear the word commission. Economic changes led to privatization
which is linked to corruption. Whenever there is a state there is always corruption according to
Nobel Prize awardee. But, a society will not prosper without a state. On the bright side,
corruption can be reduced if the government is willing to reform and carryout serious strategy.
Since corruption is inevitable in a state the study of Salvati et. al compared the corruption level
of countries in the world. Its investigation led to identifying countries that can be a role model to
other countries with rampant corruption. Corruption can impede the growth of a nation and thus
it’s valuable that they can model other countries best practices – with that we can be hopeful a
country is able to prosper with the reduced corruption in its country. The wealthy (mostly
European) countries that have medium-high economic performance accompanied by the highest
scores in political and social development as expressed by the very low corruption, the highest
political rights, civil liberties, human development and government effectiveness. In achieving
this combination we can say that Europe is the region with the highest overall development in the
world, with a balanced form of development with strong concern for society and the political
system. Leaders and governments can look up to these European countries as standards. Overall,
this research is comprehensive. It is also very educating. I appreciate the authors’ keen attention
to the multitude of variables they used to the study. Although, the discussion and analysis of the
data is vague, I still grasp the idea it wants to present. Further research including what strategies
and policies enable these countries to shrink corruption will provide clear guidelines and basis
for other countries who has rampant corruption. Maybe, in the future the researchers can look
into specific areas of social system affecting the political system of a certain country, and also
looking into the effectiveness of strategies and policies the government created to fight
corruption. Although, this study is very broad, the valuable insights can raise optimism. As long
as a government is steadfast and is able to lead its people with service in mind I believe
corruption can be decreased.