Electric

Vehicle
s – An
overvie
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2011

There is a growing interest in electric and hybrid electric Past,

vehicles due to environmental concerns. Recent efforts are
directed toward developing an improved propulsion system for
present
electric and hybrid -electric vehicles applications. In response to and future
concerns about energy cost, energy dependence, and
environmental damage, a rekindling of interest in electric developme
vehicles (EV’s) has been obvious.
nt trends
Table of Contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................................2
Types of electric vehicles................................................................................................4
Why electric vehicles?.........................................................................................................5
Past, present, and future of EV’s.........................................................................................5
Past Years Development..................................................................................................5
Present Development.......................................................................................................6
Future development.........................................................................................................8
Trends..........................................................................................................................8
The state of the science........................................................................................................9
EV Concept......................................................................................................................9
Global energy consumption...........................................................................................10
Economical consideration..................................................................................................12
Emissions...........................................................................................................................13
Conclusions........................................................................................................................14
Bibliography......................................................................................................................15
Bibliography

Figure 1. Fuel Economy Comparisons for the Mid-Size Car..............................................3

Figure 2. Development trends of EVs and HEVs (courtesy of EVAA).............................8
Figure 3. Global Energy consumption in 1990 (EIA, Cnn environment).........................10
Figure 4. Global Energy consumption in 2007 (EIA, Cnn environment).........................11
Figure 5. NOx Plus HC (Smog) in CV vs EV...................................................................12
Figure 6. Fuel Costs Per Mile for the Mid-Size Car when Charging Nightly...................12

Table 1. Characteristics of BEV, HEV, and FCE................................................................4

Table 2. Comparison of latest EV batteries.........................................................................6
Table 3. Comparison of comercial electrical vehicles and its specifications......................7
Table 4. Average Real World Lifetime Tailpipe Emission Factors..................................13
Table 4. Average Real World Lifetime Tailpipe Emission Factors

Introduction

In the early 1900’s, three types of automobiles—electric, steam, and gasoline

—were competing with each other. Yet, within little more than a decade,
technology innovation and the public’s thirst for speed and power on the road
sealed transportation’s future behind the wheels of gasoline-powered
automobiles for nearly the next hundred years.

The 1990’s appear to be the decade in which what goes around comes
around. The societal reasons for the revival of electric vehicles (EV’s) are the
monetary cost of energy and its cost in national dependence, coupled with
the more recent focus on the environmental damage inflicted by internal
combustion engines. Gasoline-powered vehicles have been targeted as a
major source of the emissions that create urban air pollution, accounting for
43% of non-methane organic gases (NMOG) emissions, 57% of nitrogen
oxides (NOx) emissions, and 82% of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions.
Emissions associated with EV’s come from generating the electricity to
charge EV batteries, rather than from operating the vehicles().

However, even in a worst-case scenario—a generation mix that emphasizes

the use of coal these emissions are generally much lower than those
associated with operating gasoline powered vehicles. Assuming U.S. 1995
emission standards for conventional vehicles and the 1995 generation mix for
a typical urban area, replacing a conventional vehicle with an EV can greatly
reduce emissions—NMOG by 98%, NOx by 92%, and CO by 99%. Moreover, as
the majority of electricity generation plants are located outside urban areas,
the people living and working in cities are not exposed to plant-related
emissions. In October 1990, the California Air Resources Board established
rules that mandate 2% of all vehicles sold in California in 1998 must be zero
emission vehicles (ZEV’s) and by 2003, the ZEV sales quota will be 10%.
Moreover, Europe, Asia, and much of the rest of the world are no less
motivated. Roughly, the EV market size all over the world in 2001 can be
estimated to be 1.5 million. Power conversion and control functions form the
basis of what has come to be known as the field of power electronics. In
recent years, power electronics technology has been spurred by needs for
efficient control of motors in industrial drives and the development of more
reliable lightweight switching power supplies for sophisticated computer and
communication. In response to technological needs for EV’s, the development
of power electronics technology will take an accelerated pace in future years.

Moving backwards, the concept of the electric vehicle (EV) was conceived in
the middle of the previous century. After the introduction of the internal
combustion engine (ICE), EV’s remained in existence side by side with the ICE
for several years. The energy density of gasoline is far more than what the
electrochemical battery could offer. Despite this fact, the EV continued to
exist, especially in urban areas due to its self-starting capability. However,
soon after the introduction of the electric starter for ICE’s early this century,
despite being energy-efficient and non-polluting, the EV lost the battle
completely to the ICE due to its limited range and inferior performance. Since
then, the ICE has evolved, improved in design, and received widespread
acceptance and respect. However, EV interest never perished completely and
whenever there has been any crisis regarding the operation of ICE
automobiles; we have seen a renewed interest in the EV. The early air quality
concerns in the 1960’s and the energy crisis in the 1970’s have brought EV’s
back to the street again. However, the most recent environmental awareness
and energy concerns have imposed, for the first time since its introduction, a
serious threat to the use of ICE automobiles().

HEVs are seen by researchers as promising near-term technology for

improving fuel economy and reducing emissions. Proponents argue that HEVs
can provide improved performance for the customer and, in contrast to other
advanced-technology vehicles, require no extensive new infrastructure. With
many of the advantages but without the range limitation of electric vehicles,
HEVs could have broad customer appeal(). HEVs may or may not have plug-in
capability, that is, the ability to charge the batteries from a source of electric
power such as the power grid.

The study for Electric Vehicles will compare four vehicle designs:

• A conventional vehicle (CV) with an internal-combustion engine (ICE)

that served as baseline for the comparisons of vehicle attributes
• A parallel hybrid with a small battery for power assist and regenerative
braking but no plugin capability and no all-electric range (HEV 0)
• A parallel hybrid that can operate like an HEV 0 but also has plug-in
capability and a battery of sufficient capacity to provide about 20 miles
of all-electric range (HEV 20)
• A parallel hybrid that can operate like an HEV 0 but also has plug-in
capability and a battery of sufficient capacity to provide about 60 miles
of all-electric range (HEV 60)
 Figure 1. Fuel Economy Comparisons for the Mid-Size Car

The ICE automobile at the present is a major source of urban pollution.

According to figures released by the U.S Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), conventional ICE vehicles currently contribute 40%–50% of ozone,
80%–90% of carbon monoxide, and 50%–60% of air toxins found in urban
areas. Besides air pollution, the other main objection regarding ICE
automobiles is their extremely low efficiency use of fossil fuel. Hence, the
problem associated with ICE automobiles is threefold: environmental,
economical, as well as political. These concerns have forced governments all
over the world to consider alternative vehicle concepts. The California Air
Resource Board (CARB) is among the few that acted first through the
declaration of the Clear Air Act of September 1990. This act requires that
52% of all vehicles sold in that state is low emission vehicles (LEV’s)—48%,
ultralow-emission vehicles (ULEV’s)—2%, or zero-emission vehicles (ZEV’s)—
2%, by 1998. Similar measures are being considered in other states and
nations as well.

By definition, electric vehicle (EV) is a road vehicle which involves with

electric propulsion. With this broad definition in mind, EVs may include
battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and fuel-cell
electric vehicles (FCEVs). EV is a multidisciplinary subject which covers broad
and complex aspects. However, it has core technologies, namely, chassis and
body technology, propulsion technology, and energy source technology ().
Although this document is written based on BEV, it also addresses the major
issues of emerging HEV and FCEV. The paper begins with status of BEV and
HEV, then focusing on the engineering philosophy of EV development.
Subsequent discusses in detail the past, present and future developments,
with the state of science under its technology. Finally, the energy, economical
and emissions aspects are discussed. The conclusion summarizes the
challenges of BEV, HEV, and FCEV.
Today, BEV, HEV, and FCEV are in different stages of development, facing
different challenges and requiring different strategies. In order to assist the
appreciation of the features and issues of these vehicles before reading the
whole text, the major characteristics of these three types of vehicles are
given in Table 1. It can be seen that the critical issue of BEV is the battery.
Therefore, BEV is mainly suitable for small EV for short-range low-speed
community transportation, which requires only smaller battery size. HEV can
meet consumers’ meet, but cost is the major issue. FCEV has long-term
potential for future mainstream vehicles. However, the technology is still in
the early development stage because its cost and refuelling system are the
major concerns ().

Types of electric vehicles

Table 1. Characteristics of BEV, HEV, and FCE

Why electric vehicles?

Let us begin with the investigation of the growth of population and vehicles.
In the next 50 years, the global population will increase from 6 billion to 10
billion and the number of vehicles will increase from 700 million to 2.5
billion(). If all these vehicles are propelled by internal combustion engines
(ICEs), where will the oil come from? Where the emissions should be
disseminated? Would the sky be permanently grey? The gloomy answers to
these questions compel people to strive for sustainable road transportation
for the 21st century().

In a world where environmental protection and energy conservation are

growing concerns, the development of EV technology has taken on an
accelerated pace to fulfil these needs. Concerning the environment, EVs can
provide emission-free urban transportation. Even taking into account the
emissions from the power plants needed to fuel the vehicles, the use of EVs
can still significantly reduce global air pollution. From the energy aspect, EVs
can offer a secure comprehensive and balanced energy option that is
efficient and environmental friendliness, such as the utilization of various
kinds of the renewable energies. Therefore, EVs will have the potential to
have a great impact on energy, environment and transportation as well as hi-
tech promotion, new industry creation, and economic development.()

Past, present, and future of EV’s

Past Years Development

EV concept was invented in 1834. During the last decade of the 19th century,
a number of companies produced EVs in America, Britain, and France. Due to
the limitations associated with the batteries and the rapid advancement of
internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), EVs have almost vanished from
the scene since 1930. In the early 1970s, some countries, compelled by the
energy crisis, started the rekindling of interests in EVs. In 1976, the USA
launched the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research.

At that time, the main question to be answered was “Can EVs do the job in
our modern society?” although EVs did work well in the late 1800s and early
1900s. The development of EVs over the years has answered the above
question—yes. For example, an experimental EV in 1968 racing from the
California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) suffered from failures in virtually every critical component,
whereas a commercially built EV in 1998 running from Los Angeles to Detroit
exhibited a success with no component failures. Within the 1970s, EVs were
still in research and development stage and most of them were conversion of
ICEVs. Today, major automobile manufacturers are offering EVs for sale or
lease. Most of them are the purpose-built EV, not conversion EV().
Present Development

At present, the major driving force for EVs is the environment issue, such as
mandate by California rule, rather than the previous energy issue. Thus, the
main question to be answered becomes “Can EVs be made affordable?” The
major factors that make EV affordable are the range and cost. To tackle the
range, the development of advanced batteries such as nickel-metal hydride
(Ni-MH), zinc/air (Zn/Air), and lithium-ion (Li-Ion) are in progress. However,
since both specific energy and energy density of batteries are much lower
than that of gasoline, the development of fuel cells (FCs) for EVs has taken on
an accelerated pace in recent years. Meanwhile, the development of
commercial HEVs is also going on rapidly. HEVs essentially improve the range
and performance of EVs at higher complexity and cost because of the
additional energy source, engine, and other accessories. To tackle the cost,
efforts are being made to improve various EV subsystems, such as electric
motors, power converters, electronic controllers, energy management units,
battery chargers, batteries, and other EV auxiliaries, as well as EV system-
level integration and optimization. Here is listed a comparative table of the
main batteries used in EV and the characteristics that imply the use of each
model in the overall performance.

Table 2. Comparison of latest EV batteries

After many years of development, EV technologies are becoming mature.

Many advanced technologies are employed to extend the driving range and
reduce the cost. For example, the use of advanced IM drives and PM
brushless motor drives to improve the electric propulsion system, the
employment of advanced valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery, Ni-MH
battery, Li-Ion battery, FCs, and ultra-capacitors to improve the EV energy
source, application of light body technology with light, but rigid material, low-
drag coefficient body to reduce the aerodynamic resistance and low rolling
resistance tires to reducing running resistance at low and medium driving
speed, as well as the adoption of advanced charging, power steering, or
variable temperature seats to enhance the EV auxiliaries(). In the following
paragraphs, some of the recently developed EV, HEV, and FCEV are
commented with the intention to show the achievable technology, despite
particular vehicle model.

Texas A&M University Hybrid Vehicle General Motors EV IMPACT

The specifications of the ELPH prototype The specifications of the ELPH

are prototype are
Performance: Performance:
1) 0–26.82 m/s (0–60 mi/h) in 15 s; 1) 0–26.82 m/s (0–60 mi/h)
2) top speed of 35.76 m/s (80 mi/h). acceleration in 8.5 s;
2) top speed of 35.76 m/s (80 mi/h).
Dimensions: Dimensions:
1) frontal area 2.13 m ; 1) frontal area 2.2578 m ;
2) drag coefficient of 0.29; 2) drag coefficient 0.19;
3) curb weight 1700 kg. 3) Curb weight 1347.17 kg.

ICE Specifications: Design Features:

1) 500 cc Honda CX500 four-stroke engine;
2) peak power of 37 hp;
3) maximum speed of 9500 r/m.
1) 102.16-kW three-phase induction
motor;
2) IGBT power inverter module—102
kW;
3) High speed rated 205/50 R15 tires.

Electric Motor Specifications:

1) DC series motor manufactured by
Advanced DC Motor Inc.
2) rated power of 40 hp;
3) maximum speed of 6000 r/m;
4) maximum converter current limit of 400
A.
Other Specifications:
1) battery pack of 10 compact 12 V Electro
source Horizon batteries connected in
series;
2) rolling resistance coefficient of the tire
0.013;
3) a specially-designed gear box, built at
Texas A&M, to connect the ICE and the
electric motor in parallel.
Table 3. Comparison of comercial electrical vehicles and its
specifications
Summarizing, a standard EV now could offer an axle torque of 1640 Nm from
zero to 7000 rpm and propulsion power of 102 kW from 7000 to 14 000 rpm,
leading to achieve a top speed of 128 km/h and an acceleration from zero to
96 km/h in less than 9 s. For city driving, it could provide a range of 112 km
per charge, whereas on highway operation, it offered 144 km per charge.
Power come from the cobalt based Li-Ion batteries, which had a specific
energy of 90 Wh/kg, a specific power of 300 W/kg, and a long cycle life of
about 1200 recharges. This battery pack could be charged up by an on-board
inductive charging system within five hours. It could achieve a top speed of
120 km/h and a range of 192 km for city driving. The Altra adopted the
manganese-based Li-Ion batteries to further increase both specific energy
and specific power to 91 Wh/kg and 350 W/kg, respectively().

Future development

Figure 2. Development trends of EVs and HEVs (courtesy of EVAA)

Trends
In order to see the development trends of various EV aspects, looking
backwards with respect to the number of papers published on various topics
in leading EV related international conferences in last twenty years, we
panoramas. With regard to propulsion system, it was observed that the
research papers on induction motor (IM) drives and permanent magnet (PM)
motor drives are highly dominant, whereas those on direct current (DC)
motor drives are dropping while those on switched reluctance (SR) motor
drives are still in a crawling stage. With regard to the development trend of
various energy sources, including lead-acid (LA) batteries, nickel-based (NB)
batteries, lithium-based (LB) batteries, FCs, and capacitors/flywheels (CFs).
With regard to the configurations of EVs, it was observed that the conversion
EV is becoming less attractive than the purpose-built EV, while the HEV is of
growing interest for the coming EV markets. It was also observed that EVs are
on the verge of commercialization as well as standardization and marketing
of EVs ().

In the next few decades, it is anticipated that both EVs and HEVs will be
commercialized and they will have their market shares. EVs will be well
accepted by some niche markets, namely, the users for community
transportation, the places where electricity is cheap, and ease of access and
the places with zero-emission mandate. On the other hand, HEVs will have a
niche market for those users desiring long driving ranges. The ultimate
penetration of EVs and HEVs will mainly depend on their respective costs.
The commercialization of FCEVs will be accelerated in later decades, since
they have the greatest potential to deliver the same range and performance
as our ICEVs, but now it is still in the development stage().

In summary, electric propulsion and energy sources will still be the key
technologies to be addressed and EVs and HEVs will still be coexistent, while
energy, environment, and economy will still be the key issues for EV
commercialization. It should be noted that some core technologies can be
shared among ICEVs, EVs, and HEVs. Our ultimate goal is the use of clean,
efficient, and intelligent energy to achieve sustainable transportation system
for the 21st century.

The state of the science

EV Concept
Although the EV was around before the turn of the 20th century, the modern
EV is a completely new machine that is totally different from the classical EV.
It is not only a transportation vehicle, but also a new type of electric
equipment. The modern EV concept according to Chau is summarized as
follows ().

1) The EV is a road vehicle based on modern electric propulsion that consists

of the electric motor, power converter, and energy source and it has its own
distinct characteristics.
2) The EV is not just a car, but a new system for our society, realizing clean
and efficient road transportation.
3) EV users’ expectations must be studied and, hence, appropriate education
must be conducted.

The design approach of modern EVs should include state-of-the-art

technologies from automobile engineering, electrical and electronic
engineering, and chemical engineering, adopt unique designs particularly
suitable for EVs, and develop special manufacturing techniques particularly
suitable for EVs. Every effort should be made to optimize the energy
utilization of EVs. The following points are those typical considerations for EV
design(). To completely fulfil this requirement, the process shall:

➢ Identify the niche market and environment.

➢ Determine the technical specifications including the driving cycle.
➢ Determine the infrastructure required including the recycling of
batteries.
➢ Determine the overall system configuration—BEV, HEV, or FCEV
configurations.
➢ Determine the chassis and body.
➢ Determine the energy source—generation or storage, single or hybrid.
➢ Determine the propulsion system—motor, converter, and transmission
types, single or multiple motors, gearless or geared, mounting
methods, and ICE systems in case of an HEV.
➢ Determine the specifications of electric propulsion (power, torque,
speed) and energy source (capacity, voltage, current) according to
various driving cycles.
➢ Adopt intelligent EMS.
➢ Analyse the interaction of EV subsystems by using the quality function
matrix understanding the degree of interaction that affects the cost,
performance, and safety.
➢ Optimize the efficiency of the motor drive according to the selected
driving pattern and operating conditions.
➢ Optimize the overall system using computer simulation.

Global energy consumption

As previously commented, one of the key players in the importance of EV is

the reduction of pollutants and the direct impact to the environment
produced by transports. Visualizing the net sources of power in the world and
the uses how the world emits it we find the following relation. A close trend
can be shown in the next 2 graphics where the colored circles show each
region's population and their electricity consumption and net carbon
emissions. The graphic give us an understanding about the need of
improvement in the efficiency of energy consumption and the highest
emissions and locations where them are produced according to data from the
American agency of Energy Information Administration ().
Figure 3. Global Energy consumption in 1990 ()

Figure 4. Global Energy consumption in 2007 ()

From these images, we do obtain the real contribution that ICE’s produce in
the environment. Being the second biggest contributor to pollution issues
give us a great area of opportunity in the improvement of the efficiency.
Calculating the real damage that a vehicle currently has, the reduction that
can be reached with more efficient technologies is considerable. The next
figure shows totals of fuel-cycle, evaporative, and tailpipe emissions of urban
smog precursors for mid-size CV and HEVs in milligrams per mile (mg/mi). It
is evident that these emissions decrease with increasing degree of
hybridization. The fuel economy data assumed for this analysis are for “real
world” driving as defined by the U.S.EPA, simulated by decreasing city and
highway fuel economies calculated from this study’s model by 10% and 22%,
respectively. CVs and all HEVs produce evaporative emissions from their fuel
tanks and fuel systems. Meeting a zero emission standard such as that
required for partial ZEV (PZEV) credits is challenging for all vehicles, but
probably more so for plug-in HEVs that are operated on electric power for
longer periods since the engine must be operating to ingest fuel vapor and
thus purge the carbon canisters used to control evaporative emissions.
Methods to reduce evaporative emissions of hybrids clearly need more study.
Generally, however, smog precursor emissions are lower for all HEVs due to
their improved fuel economy. Plug-in hybrids provide additional benefits
because, on a gram per vehicle mile basis, emissions from electric power
plants are much lower than that from the same vehicle running on gasoline.

Figure 5. NOx Plus HC (Smog) in CV vs EV

Economical consideration

Average fuel costs per mile for the mid-size CV and HEVs are shown in the
Figure. The plug-in HEV numbers assume that vehicles are fully charged
every night. The figure shows that fuel costs for hybrid vehicles, particularly
plug-in HEVs, are significantly lower than for the conventional vehicle. For
example, if one applies the assumptions and estimates developed in this
analysis, an HEV 60 driver can save over $500 in fuel costs per year over a
comparable CV if the vehicle is plugged in and charged fully on a daily basis.
On the same basis, an HEV 0 would save approximately $240 per year
compared to a comparable CV. However, a portion of the fuel cost savings
results from the decision to assume unequal taxation for gasoline and
electricity. Collecting road tax on electricity would reduce the assumed fuel
cost advantage for HEVs.

The vehicle maintenance costs considered in this analysis are also predicted
to be lower for HEVs. Based upon the assumptions and analysis used in this
study, compared to an equivalent conventional vehicle, an HEV 60 could save
its user around $140 per year in scheduled maintenance costs if the vehicle
is plugged in and charged fully every night to maximize electric only
operation. All the calculations were made according to United States prices
and tax reductions, however, the prices can be easily interpolated to any
other country. Commonly the mean of international prices and USA’s prices
are close enough to be considered as a good reference point.

Figure 6. Fuel Costs Per Mile for the Mid-Size Car when Charging Nightly

Emissions

Vehicle evaporative emissions are expected to be similar for HEVs and CVs
because both vehicles contain fuel tanks and fuel systems. While both will
most likely be able to meet conventional evaporative emission tests, real
world use of plug-in HEVs might pose complications if the engine is never or
only infrequently started. Evaporative emissions systems use canisters to
contain gasoline vapors during diurnal (when the fuel tank is subjected to
rising and falling temperatures during a day) and fueling events. The canister
is purged by drawing vapors into the engine intake manifold when the engine
is running. If the engine is infrequently used, vapors can saturate the canister
and leak to the atmosphere, causing significantly higher emissions. However,
control strategies that require the engine to be run occasionally for a few
seconds could be used to solve this potential problem. A more careful study
of this issue and possible solutions is indicated.

To meet PZEV requirements, evaporative emissions must be reduced to near

zero levels. While only limited prototype vehicles have met this standard
today, it is assumed that a portion of vehicles will meet the standard by
2013. The evaporative emission factors used in this study do not include non-
fuel evaporative emissions because these are assumed to be the same for
both CVs and HEVs.

Table 4. Average Real World Lifetime Tailpipe Emission Factors

Fuel-cycle emissions include evaporative emissions and electricity production

emissions and vehicle tailpipe emissions from such items as extraction of fuel
feed stocks, fuel production, fuel storage, and transportation to local
distribution stations, as well as distribution to vehicles at a local distribution
station. Local emissions of hydrocarbons, NOx, CO, SO2, and particulates
occur in urban areas as well as throughout the fuel production chain.
Greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, and N2O) are of concern in conjunction
with global climate change. Because of their stability and long residence
times in the atmosphere, total worldwide emissions are of concern regardless
of where they are produced().

Conceptually, fuel-cycle emissions are inversely proportional to vehicle fuel

efficiency. The fuel-cycle emissions analysis in this study was based on the
fuel efficiency estimates. However, consistent with the procedure adopted by
the U.S. EPA() for its vehicle fuel economy guide and vehicle labeling, city
fuel consumption was increased by 10 percent and highway fuel consumption
by 22 percent over the levels determined through modeling to estimate “real
world” fuel consumption rates.

Conclusions
Environment protection and energy conservation have urged the
development of EVs. However, the commercialization of EVs was not
successful. The main reason was because they could not satisfy the
consumers’ need due to high cost and short range. Consequently, HEV and
FCEV are recently rapidly emerging. Looking ahead in the next few decades,
with the aid of new technologies, battery and advanced propulsion will
continue to develop and BEV will be designed mainly for small vehicles in
market, such as community transportation. HEV can meet consumers’ need
and will grow in faster rate. The key issue of HEV is how to optimize the
multiple energy sources to obtain best performance at lower cost. FCEV will
have long term potential to be the mainstream vehicle in the future because
it is almost zero emission and comparable driving range to ICEV. However,
because it is still in the early development state today, the major challenge of
FCEV is how to develop low-cost FC, efficient fuel processor, and refuelling
system. A proper engineering philosophy is essential for the guidance of
strategic development of EVs.

A design methodology for EV and HEV propulsion systems is presented based

on the vehicle dynamics. This methodology is aimed at finding the optimal
torque-speed profile for the electric power train. The design is to meet the
operational constraints with minimum power requirement. The study reveals
that the extended constant power operation is important for both the initial
acceleration and cruising intervals of operation. The more the motor can
operate in constant power, the less the acceleration power requirement will
be. Several types of motors are studied in this context. It is concluded that
the induction motor has clear advantages for the EV and HEV at the present.
A brushless dc motor must be capable of high speeds to be competitive with
the induction motor. The switched reluctance motor may be superior to both
of these motors for vehicle application both in size and cost.

However, more design and evaluation data is needed to verify this possibility.
The design methodology of this paper was applied to an actual EV and HEV to
demonstrate its benefits. Clearly, the detailed design of a vehicle propulsion
system is more complicated than in our examples. In addition, this
methodology can serve as the foundation of the detailed design. The
consideration of other transportation methods and the improvement of public
transportation strategies, also contributes in a higher degree to the reduction
of contaminants and efficiency of the global energy consumption, certainly,
one of the main issues to face in close future.

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