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What is differentiation?

Differentiation is a tool of mathematics that is primarily used for calculating rates


of change.

In Mechanics, the rate of change of displacement (with respect to time) is the velocity and
the rate of change of velocity (with respect to time) is the acceleration.

When illustrating a function on a graph the rate of change is represented by the gradient.

This means that the main aim of differentiation is to find the gradient at a specific
point on a graph.

Very often we know the equation for a graph (e.g. y = 3x2). The graph of this equation looks
like this:

As you can see, the gradients at the points a, b and c are quite different...

At GCSE level we estimate the gradient of a curve by drawing a


tangent. Differentiation allows us to find the exact gradient at any of these points.

Differentiation from first principles

Imagine two points on any curve where x is a function of y (written y = f(x)):


If we connect points b and a with a straight line, sometimes called a chord (as shown by the
dotted line) then the gradient of this line is a very rough approximation to the gradient of the
curve.

If the co-ordinates of b are (x1, y1) and the co-ordinates of a are (x2, y2) then the gradient of the
line

The closer the points a and b are to each other, the more accurately we can measure the
gradient of the line.

Using the graph above, but making the gap between a and b minimal, we can re-write our
gradient:

You can express the position of a by saying it is the position of b plus an extra δx along the x-
axis and an extra δy along the y-axis,

i.e. a = (x1 + δx , f (x1 + δx))

As a moves closer to b, δx becomes smaller and the chord ab becomes the tangent to the line
at a (and therefore an exact measurement of the gradient of the line at a).
and that the correct value for the gradient occurs as δx → 0, we get the formula:

or,

This idea is differentiation from first principles and is useful to know, though the rules that
result from this are the skills that are normally tested at A level.

An example of differentiation from first principles

Find the gradient of the function y = 3x2 when x = 5.

Therefore:

when x = 5,

So the gradient of the function y = 3x2 is 30 at (5, 75).

Basic differentiation
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Rules of differentiation

The simplest rule of differentiation is as follows:

Example:

Differentiate y = x3.

Working:

(We can see that n = 3 and a = 1 in this example so replace n with 3 and a with 1 to get:)

Note: An alternative way of writing the workings is to say:

This is the mathematical way for saying that the derivative of x3 (when differentiating with
respect to x) is 3x2.

There are a number of rules that are the starting points for all the hardest work. These are
shown in these 2 tables:
(These rules are all listed in the revision summary, which you can print out and keep looking at
to help you remember them.)

Even if you know how to use the rules above, read the examples below as they will
get you warmed up for the next question session...

Using the list of rules above, work out the derivatives of the following function. Write your
answers on a sheet of paper and then click for the answers to check you have done this
correctly.

Some questions for you to try

Find the differentials with respect to x of:

1. y = 3x
2. y = sin x
3. y = cos x
4. y = 4x3

Addition and Subtraction

So far we have learnt to differentiate simple functions, such as y = 5x.

However, we also need to know how to differentiate more complex functions such as y = 5x2 +
2x + 6.

To do this we need to understand how to deal with the addition or subtraction of a


number of terms.

All you have to do is use the rules you have already learnt to differentiate each component of
the equation.

So first we differentiate 5x2 to get 10x.

Then we differentiate 2x to get 2.

Finally, we differentiate 6 to get nil.

Then we can simply add these together to give:

Try these examples to make sure you understand:

Find the differentials with respect to x of:


1. y = 10x2 - 4x
2. y = 4sin x + 5x
3. y = tan x + 8x2

The mathematical way of expressing what we have just done is this:

You differentiate each term separately.

Note: If asked to differentiate a function like, t = 4 sin u we use the same ideas but different
letters to get:

This means that the derivative of t, with respect to the variable u, is 4 cos u.

Uses of differentiation
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Equations of Tangents and Normals

As mentioned before, the main use for differentiation is to find the gradient of a function at
any point on the graph. Having found the gradient at a specific point we can use our
coordinate geometry skills to find the equation of the tangent to the curve.

To do this we:

1. Differentiate the function.

2. Put in the x-value into

to find the gradient of the tangent.

3. Put in the x-value into the function (y = ...) to find the coordinates of the point where the
tangent touches the curve.
4. Put these values into the formula for a straight line:

y - y1 = m (x - x1)

where m = gradient and (x1, y1) is where the tangent meets the curve.

Example:

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x2 - 2x - 3, when x = -1:

so when x = -1,

and y = 1 + 2 - 3 = 0

Therefore the equation of the tangent is y − 0 = -4(x + 1)

So now we know that y = -4x - 4 is the equation of the tangent at (-1, 0).

The normal to a curve is the line at right angles to the curve at a particular point.

This means that the normal is perpendicular to the tangent and therefore the gradient of
the normal is -1 × the gradient of the tangent.

To find the equation of the normal, follow the same procedures as before, (remembering to
multiply the gradient of the tangent by -1 to calculate the gradient of the normal).

Example:
Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x3 + x − 10 when x = 2.

and y = 8 + 2 − 10 = 0

As the gradient of the tangent = 13, the gradient of the normal = -1/13

Therefore the equation of the normal is:

y − 0 = -(x - 2) / 13

Therefore: 13y = 2 − x is the equation of the normal at (2, 0).

Stationary Points

As mentioned before, the main use for differentiation is to find the gradient of a function at any
point on the graph. In particular differentiation is useful to find one of the main features of the
graph - the Stationary Points.

These are points where the gradient = 0.

There are three types of stationary point:

There are three possible ways to determine the nature of a stationary point.

1. From experience - if you know the shape of the graph, then you know if it is a max/min. All
quadratics where the co-efficient of x2 is positive have a minimum (∪ - shaped); all quadratics
where the co-efficient of x2 is negative have a maximum (∩ - shaped).

2. By looking at the gradient either side of the stationary point.


3. By using the second derivative,

which often shown as

For a particular value for x, when

An example using all three methods:

Find the coordinates and nature of the turning points of the curve y = x3 − 12x + 2

Firstly, where are the stationary points?

Find where the gradient = 0.

Therefore:

when x = 2 (and y = -14) or when x = -2 (and y = 18).

Method 1:
We know that a + x3 graph has a maximum followed by a minimum, so (-2, 18) must be a
maximum, and (2, -14) must be a minimum. (Also the value of the y-coordinates confirms that
this must be true.)

Method 2:

For this graph the gradient = 0 when x = -2 and x = 2.

We can use the fact that the gradient is a multiple of (x + 2)(x - 2) to determine the sign of the
gradient either side of these values. This is best illustrated in a table.

At x = -2, the gradient goes from positive to negative. This is a ∩-shape, and means that there
is a maximum at (-2, 18).

At x = 2, the gradient goes from negative to positive. This is a ∪-shape, and means that there
is a minimum at (2, -14).

Method 3:

When x = -2,

Therefore there is a maximum at (-2, 18).


When x = 2,

Therefore there is a minimum at (2, -14).

As a guideline - if you know the graph use method 1. Otherwise use method 3 unless the
second derivative is hard to find.

If you do not know the shape of the graph, or you cannot differentiate twice or

then use the method 2.

The Chain Rule


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Using a substitution to help differentiate

We will often need to differentiate functions that are more complex than the ones that we can
already do. They will simply be variations, where 'x' has been replaced by a function 'f(x)'.

Example:

Differentiate the following:

1. y = (3x − 2)4
2. y = sin 5x
3. y = 2e(2x + 1)
4. y = cos 4x

In each of these cases we can use a substitution to turn the expression into something we
can differentiate.

Answer to 1:

We know how to differentiate x4, so we use the substitution u = (3x − 2) to turn the function
into something that we can differentiate. This gives:
y = (3x − 2)4

Let u = 3x − 2 to give us,

y = u4,

Now differentiate to get:

The only problem is that we want dy/dx, not dy/du, and this is where we use the chain rule.

The chain rule says that

So all we need to do is to multiply dy/du by du/dx.

As u = 3x − 2, du/dx = 3, so

3 = 12(3x − 2)3

Answer to 2:

Differentiate y = sin 5x.

Let u = 5x (therefore, y = sin u)

so using the chain rule


So when using the chain rule:

1. Express the original function as a simpler function of u, where u is a function of x.


2.
Differentiate the two functions you now have.
3.
Multiply the derivatives together, leaving your answer in terms of the original question (i.e. in x's
rather than u's).

For 3 and 4, see if you can do the workings and then check your answers against these:

Answer to 3:

Answer to 4:

Using the chain rule to differentiate by inspection

When familiar with the chain rule, it is possible to produce a correct answer instantly without
having to write down all the substitution working; simply follow through the three steps
together.

Example:

Differentiate ln(x2 + 3x + 3)

The denominator is from dy/du = 1/u, the numerator is du/dx)


In each of these formulae we have used the substitution u = f(x) and so the f ′ (x) corresponds
to

(Have a go at using the chain rule to make the rules yourself.)

The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule


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The Product Rule

The product rule is used when differentiating two functions that are being multiplied together.
In some cases it will be possible to simply multiply them out.

Example:

Differentiate y = x2(x2 + 2x − 3).

Here y = x4 + 2x3 − 3x2 and so:


However functions like y = 2x(x2 + 1)5 and y = xe3x are either more difficult or impossible to
expand and so we need a new technique.

The product rule states that for two functions, u and v. If y = uv, then:

For our example:

y = 2x(x2 − 1)5

u = 2x

v = (x2 − 1)5

Therefore:

After factorising:

Note: After using the product rule you will normally be able to factorise the derivative and
then you can find the stationary points.

For our second example:

y = xe3x, find the turning point and sketch the graph.

u=x

v = e3x
Therefore:

This means there is a stationary point when x = -1/3 (e3x ≠ 0).

Also, when x = -1/3, y = -e-1/3 = -0.123 (3sf).

By using the second derivative, which we find by using the product rule again, we can
determine whether this is a maximum or a minimum.

when x = -1/3

Therefore there is a minimum at (-1/3, -0.123)

To sketch the graph we know that:

1. When x = 0, y = 0
2. There is a minimum at (-1/3, -0.123)
3. As x → ∞, y → ∞
4. As x → −∞, y → 0 (and is negative)

Therefore the graph looks like this:


The Quotient Rule

The quotient rule is actually the product rule in disguise and is used when differentiating a
fraction.

The quotient rule states that for two functions, u and v,

(See if you can use the product rule and the chain rule on y = uv-1 to derive this formula.)

Example:

Differentiate

Solution:

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