Etimologia cuvântului “Fotogrammetrie”

Termenul de “fotogrammetrie” a fost creat de către geograful german

Otto Kersten împreună cu inginerul constructor german Albrecht Meydenbauer
şi a fost utilizat pentru prima oară în anul 1867, ca titlu al unui articol semnat şi
publicat de către cel de al doilea în “Jurnalul Societăţii de Arhitectură din
Berlin” (Wochenblatt des Architektenvereins zu Berlin).
În româneşte termenul a fost preluat din franceză (photogrammétrie) şi îşi
are originea în compunerea cuvintelor din limba greacă: phos – lumină, gramma
– scriere şi metron – măsură.

Definiţii ale fotogrammetriei

Prin definiţia dată de Societatea Americană pentru Fotogrammetrie şi

Teledetecţie (ASPRS - American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing), în anul 1987: “Fotogrammetria este arta, ştinţa şi tehnologia de a
obţine informaţii fiabile despre obiecte fizice şi mediul înconjurător prin
intermediul proceselor de înregistrare, de măsurare şi de interpretare a
imaginilor şi modelelor fotografice, a energiei electromagnetice radiante şi a
altor fenomene”.
În Manualul de fotogrammetrie, ediţia a-IV-a, publicat de ASPRS în anul
1980, termenul de “artă” atribuit fotogrammetriei este explicat ca referindu-se le
faptul că informaţiile obţinute prin metode fotogrammetrice se datorează
experinţei specialiştilor din domeniu care execută lucrările respective, ştiut fiind
că procedeul cel mai des utilizat este cel al fotointerpretării.
Fotogrammetria poate fi considerată, de asemenea, ca ansamblu al
metodelor geometrice, matematice şi fizice care utilizează imaginea 3D a unui
obiect fizic sau a mediului înconjurător pentru al transpune în spaţiul 2D (sub
formă de plan sau hartă pe suport hârtie) sau 3D (în cazul exploatării analitice
sau digitale) prin reconstituirea fidelă şi fiabilă a obiectului sau spaţiului iniţiale.
În contextul definţiei de mai sus şi a dezvoltării actuale a fotogrammetriei
este lesne de înţeles că un aport deosebit îl au informatica şi electronica, prin
utilizarea înregistrării şi prelucrării inregistrărilor video şi de alt tip pentru a
reproduce imaginile precise 2D sau 3D a obiectelor sau spaţiilor studiate.
Conform unei alte definiţii [Wikipedia] “Fotogrammetria este tehnica de măsurare
pentru care coordonatele tridimensionale ale punctelor unui obiect sunt
determinate prin măsurători efectuate pe două sau mai multe imagini fotografice
precise, ce conţin obiectul respectiv, dar care au fost preluate din poziţii
diferite”. În acest caz, punctele comune sunt identificate pe fiecare imagine.
Fotogrammetria [Manual de fotogrammetrie – Karl Kraus, Peter Waldhäusl - 1998]
permite definirea formelor şi a poziţiei obiectelor plecând de la fotografii sau
alte inregistrări similare cu acestea.
Rezultatele măsurătorilor fotogrammetrice se concretizează în:

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  Fişiere de coordonate (culegerea informaţiilor numerice despre puncte
într-un sistem de coordonate tridimensional);
 Reprezentări grafice (analogice şi/sau digitale), altfel spus hărţi şi
planuri conţinând între altele, detalii planimetrice curbe de nivel şi/sau
grid de puncte cotate;
 Imagini (filme fotografice sau imagini numerice), în principal
fotografii redresate (ortofotograme) şi hărţi care pot fi derivate,
precum şi fotoasamblaje şi imagini care reprezintă spaţiul.
Uneori, semnificaţia conţinutului imaginii este similară cu reconstituirea
geometrică a obiectelor. Clasificarea obiectelor se face pe baza diferitelor
caracteristici ale acestora şi cu ajutorul fotointerpretării.
Fotogrammetria facilitează reconstituirea obiectelor şi determinarea unora
dintre caracteristicile lor fără a le atinge, fără a veni în contact direct cu ele.
Fotogrammetria este în special utilizată pentru a produce hărţi topografice (în
format vectorial) sau ortofotoplanuri (în mod raster).
Fotogrammetria mai poate fi definită şi ca „ştiinţa şi tehnologia de obţinere a
unor informaţii referitoare la obiectele fizice şi despre mediului înconjurător, de
la distanţă, fără a fi în contact fizic direct cu acestea, prin înregistrarea,
măsurarea şi interpretarea unor imagini fotografice sau a altor înregistrări
similare acestora”.
Aspectul calitativ al obiectelor fizice şi al mediului înconjurător este obiectul
de studiu al fotointerpretării, la care s-a adăugat în ultimele decenii teledetecţia,
împreună cu fotointerpretarea şi teledeteeţia, fotogrametria face parte din grupul
geoştiinţelor.
Progresul fotogrametriei a urmărit îndeaproape progresele tehnice
înregistrate în domenii ce au strânsă legătura cu preluarea, prelucrarea,
interpretarea şi modul de prezentare al informaţiilor obţinute. Dintre aceste, fac
parte şi următoarele:
- Industria de mecanică fină - asigură camerele fotogrametrice necesare
preluării fotogramelor şi aparatura necesară exploatării acestora;
- Industria aeronautică şi spaţială - oferă platforme aeriene şi spaţiale,
amenajate special, pe care sunt montate camere fotografice metrice, folosite
la preluarea fotogramelor. Astfel de platforme pot fi avioanele, elicopterele,
aeromodelele, sateliţii artificiali, etc;
- Fizica - în special optică, asigură realizarea unor dispozitive
optice performante, cu distorsiuni minime ale imaginilor înregistrate;
- Chimia - asigură fabricarea materialelor fotosensibile şi a substanţelor
chimice necesare prelucrării fotografice a acestora;
- Electronica şi tehnica de calcul - asigură realizarea unor dispozitive pentru
controlul navigaţiei platformelor şi a modului de funcţionare a camerelor
fotografice, pentru determinarea unor elemente de orientare exterioară a
fotogramelor (GPS). Mai ales în ultimul deceniu, calculatorul electronic a
devenit principala componentă a sistemelor fotogrammetrice de preluare şi
exploatare a datelor;

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 - Matematica - oferă modelele de prelucrare şi exploatare a datelor (modelele
matematice folosite în aerotriangulaţie, în restituţia analitică şi digitală, la
realizarea modelului digital al terenului, etc...);
- Geodezia şi topografia - asigură determinarea coordonatelor punctelor de
reper, la teren, necesare exploatării fotogramelor;
- Cartografia - asigură suportul matematic pentru redactarea hărţilor şi
planurilor.
Fotogrammetria modernă, digitală, furnizează o cantitate forte mare de date şi
informaţii forte precise, georeferenţiate, sub formă de vectori şi date referitoare
la textura obiectelor şi fenomenelor studiate, rezultate din culegerea lor din
imagini stereoscopice, prin intermediul fotointerpretării. Totodată,
fotogrammetria digitală permite şi obţinerea de informaţii de tipul metadatelor,
iar toate acestea constituie avantajul acesteia prin comparaţie cu alte tehnici şi
proceduri utilizate în trecut sau în prezent.

Istoricul fotogrammetriei

Pentru a înţelege cât mai bine evoluţia fotogrammetriei şi a metodelor aplicate

de aceasta este necesară o incursiune în istoria ei destul de îndelungată.

În jurul anului 300 î.c., în Grecia antică, filozoful Aristotel are preocupări
cu privirele la natura luminii, definind lumina ca fiind o calitate nu o substanţă
reală, aşa cum a fost ea considerată mult mai târziu. Aristotel a observat că
unele obiecte au o rată de transparenţă dar care se manifestă doar în prezenţa
luminii. Astfel, el a definit lumina ca fiind un fenomen, un proces sau energia
unui corp transparent sau a altor corpuri având proprietăţi similare cu acesta.
În secolul X (aproximativ în anul 1038), Al Hazan of Basra, un
matematician arab, enunţă şi explică principiul camerei obscure. El construieşte
o cameră obscură pe care o utilizează la observarea eclipselor de soare.

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 Principiul şi schema camerei obscure realizată de
matematicianul Al Harez în anul 1038

Plecând de la principiile enunţate în 1038, camerele obscure au fost

îmbunătăţite continuu şi au fost utilizate o perioadă îndelungată de timp.

O cameră obscură clasică, de la începutul

secolului al IXX-lea, era mult mai mare decât
replica sa din imaginea alăturată şi încorpora o
oglindă (1), care direcţiona imaginea transmisă de
la lentile către un suport de hârtie translucidă (c)
poziţionată pe o suprafaţă plană de sticlă.
Cele două cutii culisante ce alcătuiesc sistemul
permit realizarea focusării.

În anul 1490, Leonardo da Vinci descrie în detaliu principiile care stau la

baza camerei obscure (cunoscută în literatură sub denumirea de dark room –
camera întunecoasă).

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 Cu toate că fotogrammetria implică existenţa fotografiei sau a altor
înregistrări de tipul acesteia, Leonardo da Vinci, în anul 1480, scria următoarele:
“Perspectiva nu este nimic altceva decât observarea unor obiecte aflate în
spatele unei plăci de sticlă netedă şi transparentă, pe o suprafaţă pe care pot fi
reprezentate toate obiectele care sunt în spatele acestei sticle. Toate obiectele
transmit imaginile lor către ochiul uman sub forma unor piramide alcătuite din
linii, iar aceste piramide sunt tăiate de respectiva sticlă. Cu cât acestea se
intersectează mai aproape de ochi, cu atât imaginea creată este mai mică”
[Doyle, 1964].

Schiţa Lanternei
Magice realizată de
Leonardo da Vinci

În anul 1492 Leonardo da Vinci a început să pună bazele proiecţiilor

perspective şi centrale utilizând pentru aceasta invenţia sa care se numea
“Lanterna Magică” [Gruner, 1977]. Principiile geometriei perspective şi cele ale
geometriei proiective enunţate de către Leonardo da Vinci stau la baza
dezvoltării teoriei fotogrammetrice.
Mulţi dintre artiştii contemporani lui Leonaro da Vinci au contribuit la
înţelegerea geometriei proiective prin prisma graficii realizată în perspectivă.

Mai târziu, alţi oameni de ştiinţă i-au continuat munca în a dezvolta partea
matematică a geometriei perspective. Astfel, în anul 1525, Albrecht Düerer,
utilizând legile perspectivei a creat un instrument ce a putut fi utilizat pentru a
crea un desen cu adevărat realizat în perspectivă [Gruner, 1977].

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 În anul 1550, Cirolama Cardano a montat pentru prima oară un sistem
optic pe o cameră obscură cu scopul de a crea o imagine de o calitate superioară.
Apoi, în 1614 Angelo Sala descoperă că sărurile de argint se înnegresc
atunci când sunt expuse la lumina solară.

Sir Isaac Newton, în anul 1666, făcând experimente cu prisme

transparente, descoperă că lumina albă poate fi dispersată în culorile spectrului :
roşu, oranj, galben, verde, albastru, indigo şi violet, atunci când străbate o
prismă transparentă. Cu ajutorul unei a doua prisme transparente, aceste culori
pot fi recombinate în lumină albă. Dispozitivul construit de Newton pentru
descompunerea luminii albe solare, trece lumina printr-o fantă, evidenţiind
succesiunea culorilor.

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 În anul 1676 - Johann Christopher Sturm, realizează principiul
obiectivului alcătuit din mai multe lentile în care utilizează şi o oglindă montată
la un unghi de 45o şi care are scop proiectarea imaginii. Această descoperire stă
la baza camerelor fotografice moderne de tip lentile reflex.
Johan Heinrich Lambert, în 1759, în Tratatul “Perspectiva Liber”
(Perspectiva liberă), a dezvoltat principiile matematice ale imaginii perspective
utilizând rezecţia spaţiului pentru a găsi un punct în spaţiu din care se poate face
poza. J. H. Lambert a fost primul care a emis o teorie cu privire la
fotogrammetrie, chiar înainte de apariţia fotografiei în anul 1827.
Raportul dintre geometrie şi fotogrammetria proiectivă a fost stabilit însă
mai târziu, şi anume de către R. Sturms şi Guido Hauck în anul 1883, în
Germania [Doyle, 1964].

Perspectiva fotogrammetrică aşa cum a fost demonstrată de Hauck

În anul 1777 Carl Wilhelm Scheele descoperă că argintul expus la razele

solare se înnegreşte şi că prin tratarea cu soluţii de amoniac, cristalele de argint
neînnegrite formează imagini “fixate”, această descoperire stă, de fapt, la
originea filmului fotografic modern.
Sir William Herschel, în anul 1880, reuşeşte să măsoare temperaturile
culorilor spectrului vizibil, rezultate din difracţia luminii albe printr-o prismă
transparentă. Astfel este descoperită radiaţia electromagnetică infraroşu termal.

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 Prima fotografie a fost realizată de Joseph Nicephone Niépce în anul
1827, reprezintă o imagine a peisajului văzut de la fereastra unei case dintr-un
sat francez. A fost realizată cu o cameră obscură şi prelucrată cu emulsie de
bitum de Judea, o substanţă răşinoasă şi ulei de lavandă. Imaginea realizată de
Niepce a necesitat o expunere la lumina solară de aproximativ 8 ore.

Anul 1830 este considerat ca fiind anul în care au fost create primul
stereoscope. La început, aceste aparate erau utilizate pentru amuzament.

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 În 1837, Jacques Mandé Daguerre, utilizând procedeul numit
"Daguerreotype” obţine prima fotografie, în adevăratul semn al cuvântului.
Procedeul implica utilizarea unei plăci din argint lustruită, vapori de mercur şi
tiosulfit de sodiu ("hipo”), acestea din urmă aveau ca scop fixarea imaginii şi
asigurarea permanenţei sale.

Doi ani mai târziu, în 1839, William Henry Fox Talbot a inventat sistemul
de formare a imaginii pe nitratul de argint pe hârtie cu cromat de argint şi
utilizând ca fixator soluţie de clorhid de sodiu.

În jurul anului 1840, geodezul francez Dominique François Jean Arago a

intuit utilitatea "fotogrammetriei" prin folosirea Daguerreotype-ului, procedeu pe
care l-a prezentat în faţa Academiei de Artă şi Ştiinţă a Franţei.

Fondatorul fotogrammetriei este considerat ca fiind colonelul francez

Aimé Laussedat. Acesta a expus în faţa unei comisii a Academiei de Ştiinţe
reunită în 1859, la Paris, o metodă de determinare a coordonatelor punctelor
unui obiect prin intersecţia de vize spaţiale plecând de la un cuplu de fotografii
ale acelui obiect. Primul experiment în domeniul fotografiei metrice a fost
realizat de către Laussedat în anul 1861, în zona Munţilor Valonin din Canada.
James Clerk Maxwell enunţă în anul 1855 teoria culorilor complementare
în care descrie cum sunt percepute culorile de către ochiul uman şi cum sunt
create aceste culori. 

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 În anul
1858, Gasper
Felix
Tournachon “Nadar" reuşeşte să realizeze prima fotografie aeriană preluată
dintr-un balon staţionar, la altitudinea de 365.76 m (1,200 feet) deasupra
Parisului.

Observaţii şi posibile fotografii aeriene s-au efectuat şi în America, în

perioada războiului civil (anul 1860). Cea mai veche fotografie aeriană realizată
în Statele Unite al Americii a fost făcută la Boston, de James Wallace Black în
1860. Iar prima fotografie aeriană din Marea Britanie a fost realizată în 1863 de
Henry Negretti şi a fost făcută la Londra.

În aceeaşi epocă, în Germania, Albrecht

Meydenbauer a pus bazele fotogrammetriei
aplicate în relevee de construcţii. Primul
aparat fotografic construit de Meydenbauer în
anul 1867 este considerat ca fiind şi prima
cameră pentru preluarea imaginilor ce a fost
special destinată aplicaţiilor fotogrammetrice.
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 Este vorba despre o cameră fotografică având dimensiunile de 30 x 30 cm şi
care era dotată cu un obiectiv ce avea distanţa focală de 25cm.
În afară de acestea, camera fotografică mai avea încă patru caracteristici
se se regăsesc şi astăzi la camerele fotogrammetrice terestre actuale :

- un sistem ce asigura stabilitatea şi o bună definire a planul imagine ;

- un sistem de coordonate imagine definite de un grid ce se aplica pe
imagine în timpul expunerii ;
- o carcasă compactă ce asigura o distanţă focală fixă (pentru a defini
distanţa principală) ;

- utilizarea trepiedului ce oferea posibilitatea de a asigura cu precizie

orientarea exterioară (axa de vizare orizontală, planul imagine vertical, axa OX
orizontală.
Meydenbauer a utilizat mai apoi şi camere fotografice cu distanţe focale
de 35cm şi 53cm şi a adăugat la acestea, în anul 1879, posibilitatea decalării
verticale a poziţiei lentilelor (excentricitatea punctului principal).

Din anul 1887, în Germania încep să se facă experimente cu fotografii

aeriene precum şi să se utilizeze tehnici fotogrammetrice în scopul determinării
caracteristicilor zonelor împădurite.

De la stereoscopie la stereofotogrammetrie

Stereoscopul cu refracţie

Aşa cum am mai spus, principiul stereoscopiei fusese deja enunţat de

Leonardo da Vinci (la începutul secolului al XV-lea), când acesta studia

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principiul vederii umane în scopul de aş perfecţiona pictura. În 1832, englezul
Wheastone crează impresia de relief plecând de la cuple de desene, iar în 1844,
în cadrul Expoziţiei Internaţionale de la Londra sunt prezentate primele cuple de
fotografii stereoscopice, realizate de scoţianul Brewster (cel care a inventat în
1849 stereoscopul cu refracţie).
Mai târziu, în anul 1896, canadianul Edouard Deville inventează primul
restitutor stereoscopic pe care-l denumeşte "Stereo-Planigraph". Este vorba
despre un instrument complex care nu permitea însă o utilizare rapidă şi facilă.

În 1898, Austria devine o ţară importantă în dezvoltarea noilor metode de

exploatare fotogrammetrică prin stereorestituţie. Astfel, Eduard Doležal devine
un adevat campion al exploatării clişeelor metrice prin stereorestituţie. Încă din
1896 scrisese lucrarea "Aplicaţiile fotografiei în lucrări practice de măsurare". În
5 mai 1907 Eduard Doležal fondează Societatea Fotogrammetrică Austriacă, iar
4 iulie 1910 Societatea Internaţională de Fotogrammetrie a cărui preşedinte va fi
până în 1926.
În 1901, dr. Karl Pulfrich inventează primul stereocomparator. Acesta
permitea măsurarea precisă a unui cuplu de fotografii realizate în condiţii
normale de stereofotogrammetrie. Acest aparat este primul construit de firma
Zeiss.

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 Pulfrich est depuis ce jour considéré comme le père de la
stéréophotogrammétrie.
În acelaşi timp, în Africa de Sud dr. Henry George Fourcade construia un
stereocomparator analogic.

Stadiile de dezvoltare ale fotogrammetriei

DEVELOPMENT CYCLES
The developments in photogrammetry, from around 1850, have followed four
development cycles [Konecny, 1985]. Each of these periods extended about fifty
years. These cycles include:
a) Plane table photogrammetry, from about 1850 to 1900,
b) Analog photogrammetry, from about 1900 to 1960,
c) Analytical photogrammetry, from about 1960 to present, and
d) Digital photogrammetry, which is just beginning to be a presence in the
photogrammetric
industry.
Konency's [1985] development cycles are based upon the economic theory of
Kondratjew. Before each cycle, a basic invention is present. The first practical
instrumentation follows in 10-15 years. Anywhere from 20-25 years after the
invention the new technology begins to
be used in normal practice. This technology is then utilized for 25 years after
which it shares the market with the new developments from the next cycle for an
additional 25 years or so.
Collier [2002] uses a different approach, dividing data collection developments
in topographic mapping into 4 phases. The first phase was prior to World War I.
This segment is best described by individualized experimentation into new
techniques but with little change in the map making process. He also
characterized this period as one of “considerable cross-national cooperation”.
The second phase comprises the period of World War I. Experimentation gave
way to development of simple map making techniques geared towards mapping
needs of the military. The 1920s comprise phase three. We see the introduction
of the airplane as well as

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considerable technological advances in instrumentation. Mapping focus changes
from military uses to civilian needs. As Collier points out, this period is also
characterized as nationalistic
with little international cooperation. Finally, phase four saw the beginnings of
large-scale civil mapping. Photogrammetry matured from an experimental map
making technology into a proven technique for accurate maps. While much has
changed in the technology since the 1930s, Collier would probably argue that
these are further maturation of what developed
in the 1930s. He argues that the introduction of the slotted template and
multiplex plotter changed the face of topographic mapping. As Collier [2002]
maintains, the status of topographic mapping was poor prior to 1900. The
Ordnance Survey in Great Britain did have complete topographic map coverage
of their country at a scale of 1:10,000. Belgium was similarly mapped that the
same scale. Other countries had mixtures of scales and incomplete coverages. In
the United States, only about 26% of the country had topographic coverage. For
towns and special projects the map scales were either 1:31,680 or 1:24,000
while settled rural areas had coverage at a scale of 1:62,500. The remaining
portions of the U.S. with topographic map coverage had maps at a scale of
1:125,000 or 1:250,000. In Canada the situation was even worse. Maps are
critical elements for national development. When the East India Company
obtained control of India, one of the first orders of business was to survey the
country [Collier, 2002]. Much of this need was driven by fiscal needs, although
these topographic maps were used for other purposes. As the English Empire
expanded into Africa, the necessity of maps became quickly apparent. A report
of the Colonial Survey Committee identified the importance of maps [from
Collier, 2002]: The purposes for which maps are required in the administration
of a country (especially an undeveloped country such as a protectorate in
Tropical Africa) are many and varied. Maps are necessary to define the exact
limits of national territory, to show the areas and villages under the rule of
native chiefs, they are essential for land registration and settlement, for the
allotment of mining and forest concessions, and for the organization of internal
communications. Of their necessity in was the experiences of the army in South
Africa afford an eloquent testimony; and even the conduct of a “small war” or a
police expedition is much simplified by the existence of reliable maps of the
scene of operation. While there are some noted exceptions as we will see later,
the almost universal method of creating topographic maps in 1900 was by
ground survey. Indeed, as Collier [2002] identifies, mapping techniques in 1900
were almost the same as they were in 1800. Instruments were refined and more
accurately manufactured, but the techniques were the same for all intents and
purposes.
PLANE TABLE PHOTOGRAMMETRY

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Figure 9. Aimé Laussedat medal.
In 1849, Aimé Laussedat (April 19, 1819 - March 18, 1907) was the first person
to use terrestrial photographs for topographic map compilation. He is referred to
as the "Father of Photogrammetry". The process Laussedat used was called
iconometry [icon (Greek) meaning image, -metry (Greek) which is the art,
process, or science of measuring]. In 1858, he experimented with aerial
photography supported by a string of kites but abandoned it a couple of years
later. In 1862, Laussedat's use of photography for mapping was officially
accepted by the Science Academy in Madrid. He also tried balloon photography
and is the first person to have captured an image from balloons, but deserted it
because of the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient number of photographs to
cover all of the area from one air station [Birdseye, 1940]. At the Paris
Exposition in 1867, Laussedat exhibited the first known phototheodolite and his
plan of Paris derived from his photographic surveys. These maps were
comparable to earlier maps compiled from conventional field surveys which
showed that this new technology could be used for mapping. Plane table
photogrammetry is an extension of the conventional plane table surveying
[Konecny, 1985]. Each exposure station was determined by resection and
plotted on the plane table. The exposed photos were oriented on the plane table
and the directions to the different objects were transferred onto the map sheets.

15
Figure 10. Nadar obtaining photography from a balloon.
With the advent of photography and the ability to make exposures from the air,
it was soon found that there were military applications to this technology. In
1855, Nadar (Gaspard FelixTournachon) used a balloon at 80- meters to obtain
the first aerial photograph. In 1859 the Emperor Napoleon ordered Nadir to
obtain reconnaissance photography in preparation of the Battle of Solferino. In
the Franco-Prussian War during the 1870s, the Prussian army installed a photo
field detachment to obtain stereophotos, most notably of the fortification of
Strasbourg [Gruner, 1977]. Paulo Ignazio Pietro Porro (November 25, 1801 –
October 8, 1875) was an Italian geodesist and optical engineer. As a geodesist,
he invented the first tacheometer (his instrument was called a tachymeter) in
1839. In 1847 he was able to improve image quality of a lens system all the way
to the edges by using three asymmetrical lens elements. He also developed an
erecting lens imaging system in 1854. Porro developed a panoramic camera in
1858 that was equipped with a sighting telescope, compass, and level. The
image was recorded on sensitized paper mounted on a cylinder [Birdseye, 1940].
In 1865 he designed the photogoniometer. This development is significant in
photogrammetry because of its application in removing lens distortion. His
approach was to look at the image with a telescope through the camera lens.
This concept was also independently considered by Carl Koppe (1884-1910).
Therefore, this concept is called the Porro-Koppe Principle.

16
 Figure 11. Ignazio Porro

In 1858, the Frenchman Chevallier developed a "photographic plane table"

(Planchette Photographique). This camera exposed the photo plate in a
horizontal position. The light rays were deflected at right angles by using a
prism attached to the sighting device that could be rotated [Birdseye, 1940].

Figure 12. Chevallier's photograph ic plane table.

Birdseye [1940] indicated that while pioneers were refining panoramic
photography, there was no evidence that Porro, Chevallier, and others actually
used these cameras for topographic surveys. Moessard, in 1884, not only
developed a “cylindrographe” but also used it for mapping purposes. According
to Birdseye, the “instrument was equipped with a sighting device which rotated
the lens in a horizontal plane and exposed a strip of film wound on a cylinder”.
In 1885, George Eastman used nitrocellulose as a film base and later (1890)
replaced the photographic dry plate for roll film [Gruner, 1977]. F. Stolze
discovered the principle of the floating mark, which is used for stereoscopic
measurements.

17
 Figure 13. George Eastman.
In the U.S., James Fairman was issued a patent for an “Apparatus for aerial
photography3” on August 2, 1887. This device used a camera supported by
either a balloon or a kite with the shutter being operated with a clock
mechanism. This was the first aerial photography captured from a balloon in the
U.S. On December 12, 1893, Cornele B. Adams was given a patent for his
“Method of Photogrammetry4”. His approach was to obtain two aerial photos of
the same area with a camera from two positions of a captured balloon [Birdseye,
1940]. Adams also invented radial line triangulation in an effort to graphically
solve the principles in plane table photogrammetry to his balloon imagery.

Figure 14. Albrecht Meydenbauer

In 1893, Dr. Albrecht Meydenbauer (April 30, 1834 - November 15, 1921) was
the first person to use the term "photogrammetry". He founded the Royal
Prussian Photogrammetric Institute and served as its director until 1909.
Meydenbauer is known for his architectural surveys using photogrammetry.
Believing that current cameras were not suitable for photogrammetry, he designed
his first
camera in 1867. This was the first
wide-angle lens used for mapping –
105o Pantoshop lens. It was used for
the topographic map of Freyburg,

18
Germany, and the structural drawing
of St. Mary’s Church. The camera has
the following characteristics that are
found in metric cameras [Meyer, 1987,
p.184]:
• “sturdy body,
• permanently mounted lens,
• spirit levels for leveling up the
camera,
• device for aligning the camera
axis, and
• definition of the image plane by
a frame with fiducial marks for
the coordinate axes.”
Meydenbauer’s method of map
compilation utilized the approach at
that time. The photograph was used to
map the terrain by intersection.
Directions from ground control points
were graphically plotted from the
imagery. Conventional surveying was
used to locate the position of the
cameras and a few control points in the
scene being photographed. According
to Meyer [1987], a good draftsperson
could obtain the photographic
coordinates using dividers to an
accuracy of about 0.1 mm. The
resulting map would have an accuracy
of about 0.2 mm. High accuracy was
achieved in Meydenbauer’s methods
because he used a large format size (40
cm x 40 cm) and his selection of the
ratio between the photo scale and mapscale, which seldom exceeded a factor of
2. In addition, he utilized mirror glass
for the emulsion substrate to maintain the required film flatness during the
exposure.

19
 Figure 15. Meydenbauer’s principles of photogrammetry [from Meyer, 1987].
Meydenbaur continued to work on
different camera designs. For example,
in 1872 he developed two new cameras
using a smaller 20 cm x 20 cm format.
One had a focal length of 12 cm and the
other 21 cm. The significance of this
camera was that the plates were
changed after each exposure. This was
done using a light-tight container. To
change the film, the camera was
removed from the tripod and placed in
the container [Meyer, 1987].

20
 Figure 16. Meydenbauer’s camera
developed in 1872 [from Meyer, 1987].

După introducerea stereofotogrammetriei de către C. Pulfrich în 1910, E. von Orel a

inventat stereoautograful în 1909. Acest instrument a dat pentru prima oară posibilitatea de a
se face restituirea planimetriei şi a curbelor de nivel plecând de la fotografii terestre.
W. Bauersfeld (1923), reluând cercetările lui T. Scheimplug, M. Gasser, U. Nistri, R.
Hugershoff, a stabilit principiile stereoautografiei în restituţia fotografiilor aeriene.
Instrumentul care a rezultat a fost cunoscut sub denumirea de stereoplanigraf.
În decursul deceniilor următoare, societăţi ce aveau preocupări în optică şi mecanică
au îmbunătăţit camerele pentru preluare imaginilor şi aparatele de restituţie.
În paralel, cercetarea teoretică a dus la progrese notabile ceea ce a permis definirea de
către S. Finsterwalder şi O. von Gruber a principiilor necesare pentru punerea în practică
raţională şi universală a restitutoarelor optico-mecanice.
Primul produs de tip ortofotografie a avut ca bază de plecare fotografii aeriene şi a fost
realizat de către americanul R. K. Bean în 1955, chiar dacă T. Scheimpflug (1897), L. Vietoris

21
(1924), şi O. Lacmann (1929) prezentaseră deja studii interesante cu privire la această metodă
de transformare a fotografiilor (fotograme).
De la apariţia sa şi până în prezent fotogrammetria a avut trei mari etape de dezvoltare:
 fotogrammetria analogică, între anii 1900 - 1960;
• Fotogrammetria analogică este fotogrammetria în care soluţiile sunt
obţinute prin intermediul aparaturii analogice care redau elementele cantitative
numerice exprimate prin variabile fizice, de exemplu prin rotaţii, translaţii,
etc…, prin intermediul unui sistem mecanic şi optic.
 fotogrammetria analitică, între anii 1960 - 1990;
• Fotogrammetria analitică este fotogrammetria în care soluţiile sunt
obţinute prin metode matematice.
 fotogrammetria digitală, între anii 1990 - prezent.
• Fotogrammetria digitală (SOFTCOPY PHOTOGRAMMETRY): este
fotogrammetria în care se utilizează pixeli şi tehnici de procesare aplicate
imaginilor pentru a obţine informaţii geometrice.

1830s - Invention of the stereoscope by the Germans. The device was used during the
Victorian era for amusement.

1855 - Scottish physicist James Clark Maxwell, postulates the color additive theory for the
production of color photographs.

1858 - First known aerial photograph is taken from a captive balloon from an altitude of 1,200
feet over Paris by Gaspar Felix Tournachon Nadar.

1861 - With the help of photographer Thomas Sutton, Maxwell demonstrates his techniques
using a bow of multicolored ribbon. (Red filter - sulfo-cyanice of iron, blue filter -
ammoniacal sulfate of copper, green filter - copper chloride, a fourth filter of lemon-colored
glass was also used.)

1860s - Use of aerial observations from captive balloons in American War. Balloons used to
map forest in 1862 not aerial photo though.

1870s - Pictures taken from greater heights, 33,000-34,000 feet, from free balloons.

1873 - Herman Vogel found that by soaking silver halide emulsions (which are naturally
sensitive to only blue light) in various dyes, he could extend their sensitivity to longer and
longer wavelengths, paving the way for photography in the near infrared.

1879 - S.P. Langley begins work to find a superior radiation detector.

1887 - Germans began experiments with photography for forestry.

1899 - George Eastman produced a nitrocellulose-based film which retained the clarity of the
glass plates which had been used to that time.

1903 - Julius Neubronne patents breast mounted camera for pigeons.

22
1906 - Albert Maul takes first aerial photograph using a rocket propelled by compressed air
which rose to a height of 2,600 feet and took pictures and then parachuted the camera back to
earth.

1906 - G.R. Lawrence who had been experimenting with cameras for some time (some of
which weighed more than 1,000 lbs.) which were hoisted into the air with the aid of balloon-
kites and associated controls, takes pictures of San Francisco earthquake and f ire damage
from an altitude of some 600 meters. Many people have thought that these photos were taken
from airplanes. Lawrence's camera alone weighed more than the Wright Brothers plane and
its pilot combined.

1909 - Wilbur Wright takes first aerial photograph from an airplane of Centrocelli, Italy.
WWI produced a boost in the use of aerial photography, but after the war, enthusiasm wanted.

1914 - Lt. Lawes, British Flying Service, first takes airplane over enemy territory.

1915 - Cameras especially built for aerial use are being produced. Lt. Col. J.T.C. More
Brabazon designed and produced the first practical aerial camera in collaboration with
Thornton Pickard Ltd.

1918 - By this time in WWI, French aerial units were developing and printing as many as
10,000 photographs each night, during periods of intense activity. During the Meuse-Argonne
offensive, 56,000 prints of aerial photograpy were made and delivered to A merican
Expeditionary Forces in four days.

1914-1919 - WWI produces boost in the use of aerial photography, but after war interest
wanes.

1919 - Canadian Forestry Mapping Program begins.

1919 - Hoffman first to sense from an aircraft in thermal IR. First books: Lee 1922; Joerg
1923 (urban); Platt & Johnson 1927 (archaeology).

1924 - Mannes and Godousky patent the first of their work on multi-layer film which led to
the marketing of Kodachrome in 1935.

1931 - Stevens development of an IR sensitive film (B&W).

1934 - American Society of Photogrammetry founded. Photogrammetric Engineering is first

published. This journal of the American Society of Photogrammetry was later renamed
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing. The Society is now named the Ame rican
Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.

1936 - Captain Albert W. Stevens takes the first photograph of the actual curvature of the
earth - taken from a free balloon at an altitude of 72,000 feet.

1920s-1930s - Interest in the peaceful uses of aerial photography increases (ISDA, USAF,
TVA). WWII brought about more sophisticated techniques in API.

1941-1945 - WWII brings about the development of more sophisticated techniques in aerial
photographic interpretation (API). American, British and Germans all produce promising TIR
devices.

23
1942 - Kodak patents first false color IR sensitive film.

1946 - First space photographs from V-2 rockets.

1950s - Advances in sensor technology move into multi-spectral range.

1954 - Westinghouse develops first side-looking airborne radar system.

The Development of Photogrammetry

in Switzerland
Authors: David Hughes, Peter Fricker, Alain Chapuis, E. Traversari, P. Schreiber, F. Schapira

Introduction
In order to follow the first steps of photogrammetry in Switzerland, the book on the history of
Photogrammetry in Switzerland “ Photogrammetrie in der Schweiz – Geschichte – Entwicklung " [1] is
the best starting point. The history of the relatively young SGPBF (founded on the 22 nd of Sept. 1928)
and the two manufacturing companies Kern Aarau and Wild Heerbrugg, (both now consolidated into
Leica Geosystems AG) are inseparably connected with each other. The following report sets out to
explain how technological development, market requirements and infrastructure worked together to
favour a small country such as Switzerland establish such a dominant influence on this technology.

Summary
This report discusses the three important stages of analogue, analytical and digital photogrammetry
development in relation to terrestrial and airborne applications. The products of the companies Kern
Aarau and Wild Heerbrugg are listed in order of their date of market introduction together with
important system characteristics [ 2 ]. As of 1990 both companies were integrated into the Leica
company. Lack of space in this report forces the authors to limit the product illustrations and
descriptions to those highlights of major importance and technological breakthrough.

The analogue period

This period is characterized by the extraordinary longevity of the instruments. The development went
from 1922 to 1990, when the last analogue instrument AG1 left the factory. Many of these instruments
were upgraded with a digital output and software for PCs so hundreds are still in use to this day.

Product Phase-in Phase-out Unit Sales Characteristics

A1 1922   3 Prototypes  
A2 1926 1941 28 For C2 and P3 photo plates
A4 1933 1963 33 Terrestrial photogrammetry with C12
Ordovás- 1930   1 Prototype  
Kern
A5 1937 1953 90 1st universal instrument of Wild, workhorse
instrument during WWII years
A6 1940 1953 115 less features than the A5
PG0 1946   1 Prototype advanced but too expensive
A7 1952 1972 412 2nd universal instrument of Wild
A8 1952 1980 1035 “the” workhorse over nearly three decades

24
PUG3 1959 1973 310 point marking and transfer device for aero
triangulation
PG1 1960   3 Prototypes  
PG2, 1960 1985 >700 most important instrument of Kern in the
PG21 accuracy class of the A8
A9 1959 1974 71 3rd universal instrument of Wild with half
format image carriers
B8 1961 1972 721 together with the B8S, the most-built
instrument of 2nd order
A40 1964 1982 89 Terrestrial photogrammetry with C120 and
C40
PUG4 1968 1985 449 improved PUG3 with zoom optics
A10 1969 1984 308 4th universal instrument
B9 1969 1971 31 complementary to the A9 with half format
image carriers
B8S 1971 1982 808 most important 2nd order instrument of Wild
PG3 1971 1981 30 universal instrument of Kern
PMG2 1977 1994 >60 point marking and transfer device with
comparator characteristics
AM/AMH 1977 1983 173 Family of universal instruments of Wild
based on air cushions and in the accuracy
class of the A8
AMU 1979 1981 21 5th universal instrument of Wild – fully
electronic
AG1 1981 1990 230 simplified, economical universal instrument
in the A8 accuracy class
PUG5 1984 1990 44 Ultrasonic point marking and transfer device
with the accuracy of an analytical
comparator

Legend:

A = Autograph of first order (Wild)                                                 PUG = Point marking & transfer device
(Wild)

B = Autograph of second order (Wild)                                         PMG = Point marking device (Kern)

PG = Photogrametric Instrument (Kern)

25
       

Highlights in the development of the analogue photogrammetric

instruments
It would have been inconceivable to think of photogrammetry instrument production in Switzerland
without recognition of the following related factors:

 The development of photography in France and Germany in the 19 th century

 The development of the basic theory of photogrammetry in Germany in the 19 th and 20th
century
 The need for military maps in a topographically difficult country such as Switzerland, as was
required during the period between WWI and WWII
 Industries such as Zeiss in Jena and Kern and their supply of a basic stock of well trained
precision mechanics and technical designers into the market
 Business and capital commitment of a few Industrialists.

Without doubt, the need for military maps for reconnaissance was the driving force which guaranteed
the market absorption of photogrammetry instruments in Switzerland and provided a base for the
further development of instruments for civilian applications.

Today, the military customers of photogrammetric systems contribute a substantial part to the
company turnover and are a driver for sophisticated development however the civilian users, after
almost a century of instrument availability, have become the principal customers of photogrammetric
systems.

The analytical period

Product Phase-in Phase-in Unit Sales Characteristics

B8 1964   1 prototype automated correlation developed with
Stereomat Raytheon of USA
A2000 1968   1 prototype fully automatic orthophoto instrument
OR1 1975 1991 88 computer controlled slit ortho-projector
AC1 1980 1987 45 Instrument based on Abbé principle

26
DSR1 1980 1984 30 compact system, controlled by several
microprocessors
BC1 1982 1984 82 Simplified version of the AC1 (without
Abbé)
DSR11 1984 1989 100 Simplified version of the DSR1
BC2 1984 1989 184 PC computer platform
S9-AP 1987 1990 30 analytical plotter for System 9 for online
recording into a database,
as of 1989 from Prime Wild GIS AG
DSR12 PDP computer platform
DSR14 1988 1991 130 PC computer platform
DSR15 VAX computer platform
BC3 1989 1990 65 Unix PC computer platform
SD2000 1991   >400 PC computer platform and image injection
SD3000 1992   >100 PC computer platform and image injection
as well as optical base change

Legend:

AC = Analytical Instrument of highest accuracy (Wild)                       OR = Ortho-Rectifier (Wild)

BC = Analytical  Instruments simplified (Wild)                                       SD = Analytical Instruments

(Leica)

DSR = Analytical Instruments (Kern)

                        
     RC30  1993                                                                            ADS40   2001

Highlights in the development of the analytical photogrammetry

instruments
Apart from the prototypes B8 Stereomat and the A2000 the companies Wild Heerbrugg and Kern
Aarau added analytical systems to their production relatively late. In the 1960’s U.Helava invented the
analytical plotter by replacing space rods and linear scales with colinear equations and computers and
proved this theory by designing and having manufactured, the US-1. The pinnacle of accuracy with
analytical systems was achieved, without doubt by the AC1 but the high cost of this system forced it
off the market. The SD2000 from Leica built on the collective experience of Wild and Kern, has been
the culmination in the development of analytical photogrammetry technology. The economic
manufacturing methods and reliability of this system has led to its continuous series production to this
day and ousted competitive systems from the market.  

27
The period of interactive graphic systems

Product Phase-in Phase-out Unit Sales Characteristics

GeoMap 1981 1984 117 CAD for processing geodetic data and
measurements
Informap 1979 1983 >20 product of Synercom, USA
Wildmap 1980 1983 >20 photogrammetry addition to Informap
System 9 1987 1990 >40 GIS workstation, from 1989 Prime Wild
-E/D GIS AG
Infocam 1985 2000 >70 LIS for cadastre applications

Highlights in the development of interactive graphic systems

Interactive graphic systems were required from the beginning of the 1980s as complementary systems
to the analytical photogrammetry plotters and the electronic tachymeter used in field surveying. The
entrance into this new market was made through a distribution agreement with the American company
Synercom in 1979. Parallel to this partnership, GeoMap was developed for the geodesy market.
Supported by experience gained during the mid 1980s, System 9 based on a comprehensive system
architecture of SUN computers was then developed in Heerbrugg and Toronto. The low sales figures
of this system as seen from today’s stand point, were due to a too early market entry and the reason
why this system was sold in 1989 to the company Prime Wild GIS AG, and later all 100% to Prime
Computer. A large part of the development team at that time is responsible today for the development
of the GIS system MapInfo. In Aarau, Infocam was developed parallel to the Heerbrugg developments
and positioned between GeoMap and System 9. Unfortunately none of these systems created a
genuine break-through into the market.

The digital period

Product Phase-in Phase-out Unit sales Characteristics

DSP1 1988   1 prototype First digital workstation from Kern
DSW100 1989 1994 30 Precision Film Scanner film HAI-100
DPW 1992 2003 >1000 Leica was exclusive distributor for the
„Digital Photogrammetric Workstation“ by
Helava
DSW200 1994 1997 60 First Film Scanner from LH Systems
DSW300 1997 1999 60 First Film Scanner with automatic roll film
device
DSW500 1999 2002 70 High-speed Film scanner from Leica
Orthobase 1999   >2200 part of ERDAS Imagine and, since 2001,
belonging to Leica Geosystems
DSW600 2002   >50 Improved high speed scanner from Leica
LPS Sept. 2003   40 β-versions Leica Photogrammetric Suite

Legend:

DSP  = Digital Stereo Plotter (Kern)

DSW = Digital Scanner Workstation (Helava, LH Systems and Leica Geosystems)

DPW = Digital Photogrammetric Workstation (Helava, Leica Geosytems, BAE Systems) 

28
      
DSP1  1988                                                                                                           DSW600  2002

Highlights in the development of the digital photogrammetric work

stations
The development of digital photogrammetry was marked in 1992 by the signing of an exclusive
marketing agreement with Helava Associates, Inc. The establishment of the joint venture company LH
Systems in 1997 crowned the relations with this San Diego Company. The continual improvements on
SOCET SET™ led to this software package establishing itself as the most efficient and productive in
the high accuracy market. The ownership rights to SOCET SET™ however remained with BAE
Systems when Leica Geosystems acquired ERDAS Inc. in 2001. Because the rights to the most
widely sold remote sensing software, ERDAS Imagine changed to Leica Geosystems the competitive
situation with SOCET SET™ led to the decision by Leica Geosystems to develop its own equivalent
digital photogrammetry package.

The terrestrial cameras

Product Phase-in Phase-out Unit sales Charactereistics

P3 1926 1946 unknown 1st photo theodolite, 10 x 15cm
C12 1933 1963 150 terrestrial stereo camera
P30 1946 1970 >280 further development of the P3
C40 1968 1983 35 stereometric camera
C120 1968 1984 142 successor of the C12
P32 1972 1987 312 complementary camera for a theodolite
P31 1974 1987 122 universal terrestrial camera

Legende:

C = Stereocamera

P = Single terrestrial camera

Highlights in the development of terrestrial photographic cameras

Without doubt the first terrestrial cameras made stereo-photogrammetry possible in mountainous
terrain before the airplane offered itself as a useful camera platform. The application of accident
photogrammetry with a photo theodolite was derived from the use of the fixed-base stereo camera
C12 and C120. Although the production of the P31 used with a theodolite and the P32 ceased in 1987,

29
the stereo camera is still manufactured by Pentax under license and this robust and durable device
continues to be used in all weather situations as a “police stereometer” in Japan and Switzerland.

                                            C2    1927

The aerial cameras

Product Phase-in Phase-out Unit sales Characteristics

C1 1925     f =165mm, interchangeable magazines
C2 1927 1944 50 f = 165mm, 10 x 15cm, 13 x 13cm glass
plates, hand-held single camera or with a
suspension for 2 convergent cameras
C3 1929   1 prototype f =165mm
RC3 1937 1941 unknown f =210mm, f/4.5, 18 x 18 cm
RC5/RC5a 1944 1956 130 f =120/210cm, 18 x 18 cm
RC7/RC7a 1949 1972 15 f = 170mm, 14 x 14cm, automatic glass
plate camera
RC6 1951 1955 unknown f =165mm, 12.8 x 12.8mm
RC8 1956 1972 382 f = 115/152/210mm, 18 x 18cm (glass
plates) and 23 x 23cm (film)
RC9 1958 1972 100 f = 88mm, f/5.6, half format
RC10 1969 1984 380 f = 88/153/210/303mm
RC10a 1982 1988 64 same as the RC10 but controlled by
microprocessor
RC20 1987 1993 138 same as the RC10A, but with FMC
RC30 1992   >400 same as the RC20 but with
gyro-stabilized suspension
ADS40 2001   >15 1st commercial airborne digital sensor with
10 channels, f = 62.7 mm

 Legend:

C = Photogrammetric Camera, manual change of photo-plates

RC = Automatic Camera, automatic change of photo-plates or film advancement

ADS = Airborne Digital Sensor

30
                                         
   RC30  1993                                                                                           ADS40   2001

Highlights in the development of the aerial cameras and airborne

digital sensors
The development of the aerial camera of Wild and later Leica, has a remarkable history. Because of
the small home market in Switzerland, Wild and Leica were continually adapting their systems to the
needs and developments overseas, especially America and Japan, in order to survive. The large steps
came after WWII with the move from 18cm glass plate to stable based film and shortly thereafter, to
the 23cm wide film. The development of the super wide angle objectives and, somewhat later, the
compensation of forward motion and the development of the gyro-stabilized suspension, crowned 80
years of development of the analogue film cameras. The future signs of the digital era were
recognized in time and so Leica were able, in 2001, to manufacture and deliver the first commercial
digital airborne sensor.

Conclusion
This compilation of the achievements in Switzerland alone, of the conception, design and manufacture
of photogrammetric instruments and systems, makes one ponder and acknowledge the creativity and
market preparations which were necessary, in order to supply the world market for over 80 years with
these products. Within the context of this article it is hopefully possible to set the foundation and
recognition of the basic accomplishments necessary for the continuation of the history of
photogrammetry, which so far has been recorded by the first book dealing with the period up to 1980.

31
 Evoluţia fotogrammetriei în România
În ţara noastră, primele încercări de folosire a fotografiilor terestre pentru întocmirea
unor schiţe topografice au fost efectuate în timpul Războiului de Independenţă (1877-1778).
Progresele înregistrate în domeniul mijloacelor de zbor au permis obţinerea primelor
fotografii realizate din balon, care au fost făcute de către P. Văitoianu în 1889 şi mai apoi au
fost obţinute fotografii aeriene în anul 1911, zborul făcându-se cu avionul construit de Aurel
Vlaicu. Prima menţionare a unei activităţi fotogrammetrice în România datează din anul 1924,
când a fost infinţat un serviciu de cadastru pe lângă Direcţia Aviaţiei Civile. În anul 1929 a
luat fiinţă serviciul fotogrammetric în Direcţia Cadastrului Minier şi un altul în cadrul
Serviciului Geografic al Armatei.
În perioada 1933 – 1941 serviciile fotogrammetrice au fost unificate în Oficiul
Hidrografic şi Aerofotogrammetric care a fost dotat cu avioane special amenajate şi aparate
de exploatare analogică a fotogramelor.
În anul 1946 aparatura fotogrammetrică existentă la Oficiul Hidrografic şi
Aerofotogrammetric, devenit din 1942 Institutul Aerofotogrammetric, a fost transferată la
Institutul Geografic al Armatei, care s-a transformat ulterior în Direcţia Topografică Militară
şi în cadrul căreia a luat fiinţă Unitatea Aerofotogrammetrică.
În anul 1952 a luat fiinţă Comitetul Geologic ca prim sector fotogrammetric civil după
cel de al doilea Război Mondial.
Un eveniment ce a marcat dezvoltarea fotogrammetriei în România l-a constituit
înfiinţarea Centrului de Fotogrammetrie, în februarie 1958, actualul Centru Naţional de
Geodezie, Fotogrammetrie, Cartografie şi Teledetecţie.
Cei care au contribuit în mod deosebit la apariţia şi dezvoltarea ulterioară a acestei
instituţii au fost: prof. dr. ing. Nicolae Oprescu, dr. ing. Nicolae Zegheru, dr. ing. Gheorghe
Corcodel precum şi col.(r) dr. Marton Gherasim.
După 1958 folosirea fotogrammetriei s-a extins şi în România şi în alte instituţii care
folosesc planuri topografice în activitatea de proiectare (Institutul de Cercetări şi Amenajări
Silvice, Institutul de Îmbunătăţiri Funciare, Institutul de Proiectări Transporturi Auto, Navale
şi Aeriene, Institutul de Studii şi Proiectări Căi Ferate, etc…).
Apariţia tehnicii de calcul electronic a dus la transformarea substaţială a
fotogrammetriei şi în ţara noastră, începând cu anii ‘90. Calculatoarele au înlocuit aparatura
optică şi mecanică în sistemele de prelucrare fotogrammetrică a datelor. Astfel numeroasele
operaţiuni de procesare sunt astăzi realizate pe platforme puternice şi cu aplicaţii informatice
performante. Cursa continuuă în perfecţionarea software-urilor şi a hardware-urilor a favorizat
dezvoltarea fotogrammetriei analitice şi a celei digitale, ceea ce a dus la perfecţionarea
tehnicilor de executare a aerotriangulaţiei şi reducerea considerabilă a punctelor de sprijin
teren.
În prezent, dezvoltarea fotogrammetriei este marcată de introducerea tehnicilor de
tratare şi prelucrare a imaginilor cu ajutorul aplicaţiilor software şi prin procedee de restituţie.
Astfel, în România s-a dezvoltat şi domeniul privat care utilizează fotogrammetria
digitala pentru obţinerea de produse cartografice necesare în cât mai multe domenii datorită
cantităţilor şi calităţii datelor astfel obţinute.

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 In evoluţia sa, fotogrametria a parcurs mai multe etape, marcate fiecare de descoperiri
importante în domeniile enumerate mai sus:
• Fotogrametria planimetrică (1850 - 1900) - începe odată cu descoperirea fotografiei în
Franţa şi cu primele ridicări fotogrametrice terestre realizate de colonelul Aime Laussedat,
începând cu 1850; este marcată de apariţia avionului şi a primelor camere
aerofotogrametrice. Primele fotograme aeriene în scopuri cartografice sunt realizate în
1913.
• Fotogrametria analogică (1901 - 1960) - începe cu introducerea stereoscopiei ca principiu
de bază în efectuarea măsurătorilor (Cari Pulfrich -Germania) şi este impulsionată de
perfecţionarea avionului cu motor (Fraţii Wright - SUA). Cel de al doilea război mondial
conduce la perfecţionarea echipamentelor de preluare şi exploatare a fotogramelor atât în
domeniul pancromatic, cât şi în infraroşu, datorită cerinţelor sporite de hărţi şi planuri şi
necesităţii zborurilor de recunoaştere.
• Fotogrametria analitică (1961 - 1980) - această etapă este marcată de perfecţonarea
calculatorului electronic (apărut încă din 1941 în Germania -Zuse - şi 1943 în SUA), prin
punerea la punct a circuitelor integrate şi a cipurilor miniaturizate. La început s-a utilizat
aparatură simplă. După 1975 sunt construite aparate de stereorestituţie analitică
perfecţionate, cuplate cu calculatoare electronice, oferind precizii de măsurare de ordinul
micronilor şi posibilitatea redactării digitale a hărţilor şi planurilor.
• Fotogrametria digitală (1980 - prezent) - apariţia şi dezvoltarea ei au ca
suport apariţia şi perfecţionarea primelor sisteme opto-eiectronice de preluare
a imaginilor digitale şi dezvoltarea fără precedent a tehnicii de calcul şi a
softului de specialitate necesar prelucrării acestora. Sunt construite şi
perfecţionate staţiile fotogrametrice digitale .
Nu se poate face o separare netă între cele patru perioade ale evoluţiei fotogrametriei.
Intre acestea există perioade de tranziţie, în care noua tehnologie coexistă cu cea veche,
abandonarea acesteia din urmă fiind impusă de indicatorii de eficienţă şi preţ de cost.
In funcţie de anumite criterii putem distinge următoarele diviziuni ale fotogrametriei:
a) din punctul de vedere al tipului de aplicaţii realizate:
• Fotogrametria topografică - având drept scop principal realizarea de hărţi şi planuri;
• Fotogrametria netopografică - cuprinde o sferă largă de aplicaţii în cercetare,
construcţii de maşini, studiul comportării construcţiilor şi utilajelor în exploatare,
medicină, fizică, artă, arheologie, etc.
b) din punctul de vedere al modului de preluare al fotogramelor:
• Fotogrametria terestră -axa de fotografiere este orizontală, iar camerele
fotogrametrice sunt amplasate pe sol;
• Fotogrametria aeriană - axa de fotografiere este verticală sau înclinată, iar
camerele fotogrametrice sunt amplasate la bordul unor platforme aeriene.
c) din punctul de vedere al modului de exploatare a fotogramelor:
• Fotogrametria planimetrică - determină dimensiunile şi poziţia planimetricălj
a obiectelor, prin exploatarea individuală a fotogramelor. Produse de bază ■
fotoplanul şi fotoschema.

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 • Fotogrametria stereoscopică (Stereofotogrametria) - permite măsurarea şi"
poziţionarea tridimensională a obiectelor, prin exploatarea unui model
stereoscopic virtual, realizat în procesul de exploatare a unei stereograme (un
cuplu de fotograme succesive cu acoperire longitudinală de aproximativ 66%).
Principalele produse sunt: planul restituit, ortofotoplanul, modelul digital al
terenului sau al obiectului studiat, etc.
d) din punctul de vedere al modului de prezentare al fotogramelor şi al tehnologiilor aplicate
pentru exploatarea acestora:
• Fotogrametria analogică - exploatează şi prelucrează imagini înregistrate sub formă
analogică, pe un suport material (sticlă, hârtie, film) utilizând! aparatură şi tehnici
de exploatare analogice.
• Fotogrametria digitală - exploatează imagini digitale, înregistrate direct pe suport
electro-magnetic cu sisteme opto-electronice sau obţinute prin scanarea unor
fotograme analogice. Prelucrarea şi exploatarea fotogramelor se realizează digital,
cu ajutorul staţiilor fotogrametrice digitale.

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Reflecting on the past will be of
more meaning to those who
have lived closer to it than the
younger generation of today who have
to stand their ground and look ahead in
a highly competitive professional market
where keeping up with technological
progress is the name of the game. But
in this context, we should not forget our
historical ranking in the international
photogrammetric community, which can
be traced back to Dr. H G Fourcarde who,
with his intensive research into stereo
photogrammetry, left his mark in the
history of the profession.
His historical camera and stereo
comparator can still be viewed at the
University of Cape Town. Moreover, in
later years, the participation of many
overseas VIPs at our numerous CONSAS
(Conference of South African Surveyors)
conferences in Durban, Cape Town,
Johannesburg and Salisbury (Harare)
also bears testimony to our high
international ranking.
Photogrammetry in the sense of the
word refers to extracting measurable
information from photographs, be it
for topographic or terrestrial surveys,
cartography or in architecture and

astronomy. Photography as such was

invented in 1839 but it took until 1858

for the first aerial photograph on record
to be taken from a balloon.
Already in 1833, it had been realised
that three-dimensional perception was
due to a parallax effect resulting from
comparing the views of an object under
two different angles, hence our own
three-dimensional perception. At first
photo theodolites served topographical
surveys particularly in difficult
mountainous terrain. Then in 1915
Dr. Oskar Messter, the co-founder of
Zeiss Aerotopograph, presented the
first aerial camera designed for taking
series of aerial photographs with a
selectable forward overlap.
The evolution of aerial cameras
Progressively optics were improved with
regard to resolution, aperture ratio and
chromatic correction and distortion. In
the early sixties, a distortion-free aerial
camera lens with less than 4 microns
distortion brought a significant increase

35
in the accuracy of block triangulation
and plotting. Then forward motion
compensation (FMC) was introduced
to eliminate residual image blur. The
introduction of a precision grid plate into
the camera optics to serve as a stringent reference was established, but did not
find general acceptance. Also automatic
exposure control was provided.
The problem of camera orientation
with regard to verticality of the optical
axis at the instant of exposure saw
many attempts to a solution such as a
supplementary Horizon Camera and the
coupling to a gyroscope. Eventually the
answer was found with a gyro-stabilised
camera mount, which soon became
a standard requirement. Then there
was of course the introduction of the
global positioning system (GPS), which
substantially improved aircraft navigation
during flight missions.
The industry eventually settled for a
standard photo format of
23 x 23 cm together with a 15 cm
wide-angle camera lens. The original
format was 18 x 18 cm, but even a
format of 30 x 30 cm had been realised.
At one stage, however, also super
wide-angle optics came into use to
provide for larger cover and to save on
ground control for aerial triangulation.
In this context I might mention a
rather unique local project in which I
was directly involved. It concerned the
combination of three 60 cm long focal

length RMK 60/23 cameras in tandem

Fig. 1: Early stereoplotters.

with one in vertical position and the others pointing obliquely

left and right. This provided for a wide cover combined with
the higher resolution of the long focal length optics. A fourth
standard 15 cm vertical camera provided a matching single
photograph at normal scale for correlation of images. All
cameras were remotely controlled by the pilot in single or serial

36
mode. It had been a most fascinating project.
Zeiss retained their original modular configuration of the RMK
also with later camera versions such as the RMK A, and the
latest RMK Top and even partly with the latest Digital Modular
Camera (DMC), which is fitted with the same stabilised mount.

Fig. 2: An early 1926 handheld camera HMK 13 x 18 cm f 21 cm on

universal mount

Fig. 3: First stereo comparator of 1901.

Fig. 4: The latest PSK of 1968

Incidentally, in 1983 a standard RMK 30/23 was the first
camera in outer space on board the Columbia Space Shuttle
from where it took a first series of some 1000 colour and
infrared colour photographs of the Earth’s surface from an
altitude of 250 km. At the extremely small scale of 1:183 000
a resolution of 20 to 30 m on the ground was established, at
the time a remarkable achievement although not comparable
with today’s high-resolution satellite imagery.
Analogue plotter solutions.
A single photograph is always a two-dimensional presentation
of detail in a central projection. It is affected by focal length,
camera tilt, lens distortion and of course, in aerial photography
a terrain-dependant variation in scale. With rectifier projectors,
tilt and scale can be controlled but not the central projection.
For establishing cartographic control points from large photo
mosaics, a slotted template method was developed as a first
attempt at aerial triangulation from large blocks of aerial
photographs. It was an ingenious way of overcoming, at least
partially, the problem of perspective distortion by meaning the
position of specified control point from four overlapping photos.
When viewing two overlapping photos with an overlap of
usually 60% in a stereoscope, plotter or projector, a threedimensional

37
stereomodel is observed. The orientation of the
photos relative to each other and the subsequent absolute
orientation of the resulting stereomodel to known ground
control points, presented an intricate challenge to many
an instrument designer. An exciting era began with many
ingenious designs of plotters seeking a mechanical solution to
the complex problems.
The most elaborate of these was an opto-mechanical solution
realised in the concept of the Zeiss Stereoplanigraph. In
practice, however, a less costly mechanical space rod solution
found preference and dominated the market. Stereoplotters
were classed in first and second order where first order models
provided for ‘base in - base out’ observation to facilitate
strip-wise aerial triangulation for subsequent block adjustment
with relevant software programmes.
The origin of precision stereo photogrammetry can be traced
back to the introduction of the Stereo Comparator in 1901
by Carl Pulfrich from Carl Zeiss in Jena and simultaneously
by Henry Fourcade at the University of Cape Town as already
mentioned. The concept found wide application not only for
cartography but also in architecture and astronomy. In later
years, the design was perfected by adding grid plates, the
ability to serve as a reference and electronic data capturing
functionality. In this way it became an instrument of highest
precision for aerial triangulation. A first of these, a Zeiss PSK
Precision Comparator was acquired by the then Trig Survey
Office in Cape Town.
The orthophoto era
All along the conversion of the central projection of a
photograph into an orthogonal projection, as required for
mapping, posed an unresolved problem until Zeiss presented
their first GZ 1 Orthoprojector at the ISP in Lisbon in 1964.
The problem was solved by scanning and reproducing an
oriented photograph in narrow 4 mm parallel strips at an
equalised scale that were continuously varied to match the
relevant height above ground.
This was achieved by synchronising the travel of the floating
mark in a stereoplotter with the exposure slit of the projector
in a meandering path allowing the operator to continuously
vary the scale of projection by keeping the floating mark
in the coupled stereoplotter to the ground. In this way, a
uniform projection scale was achieved, thus voiding the effect
of perspective obliquity. The resulting orthophoto resembled
a map in true scale while at the same
time also showing all photographically
resolved detail.
For the operator it was a strenuous task
to continuously keep the floating mark
on the ground. This technology opened
a complete new era in photogrammetry.
A first test run was conducted by Dr.
Brucklacher from Zeiss and covered
the steep slopes of Devils Peak in
Cape Town. It was a formidable task
successfully mastered. I might add
that I was subsequently instrumental
in providing the local industry with
four GZ1 projector systems in different
configurations in the years that followed.
The analytical era
It might seem odd but photogrammetry
originally sought mechanical solutions
to bypass tedious survey calculations.
This changed drastically when computer
technology and electronic hardware
advanced to a stage where an analytical
concept, as had already been visualised
by Helava in 1957, could be realised.
In this concept the plate carriers
were no longer tilted but were moved
horizontally by servo drives into x

38
and y positions relating to the floating
mark and simultaneously considering
orientation and correction parameters.
These parameters were established
with photogrammetric software routines
forming part of a fully computerised
system.
The analytical era started in earnest with
the ISP in Helsinki in 1976 where several
solutions to such a new system were
presented with the Zeiss Planicomp C
100 in the forefront. One of the first of
these on our continent was acquired by
the Orange Free State roads department
in 1980. The analytical approach also
found application in the extremely complex design of the Zeiss Z2 Analytical
Ortho Projector. It was a standalone
instrument with the systematic strip
exposure and all relevant orientation
parameters controlled analytically
and thus not requiring the continuous
assistance of an operator.
The digital era
A first step towards truly digital
photogrammetry was the introduction
of precision scanners to digitise
aerial photos in a high resolution for
subsequent digital processing on relevant
workstations. The processing of vast
amounts of data today seems to have
no restrictions with the ever-increasing
power of computers and so there seems
no end to the development of further
comprehensive processing systems, be it
for geographic information systems (GIS)
or any other practical application.
In the meantime, a substantial number
of digital cameras of various concepts
are in practical use. In addition, digital
satellite images are readily available.
New technologies such as light detecting
and ranging (lidar) laser scanners and
side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) have
found their niche in the market. We
have come a long way from the first
bird’s-eye view photographed from
a balloon in 1858 to today’s satellite
imagery. However, photogrammetry
remains a fundamental cornerstone for
most new technologies, in spite of more
descriptive terminology in use such as
image processing, GIS and geomatics.
Contact Harald Krahmann, HK
Consulting, Tel 011 792-8491,
krahmann@deunet.co.za

1889 - Arthur Batut take the first aerial photograph from using a kite of
Labruguiere France.
1899 - George Eastman produced a nitro-cellulose based film type that
retained the clarity of the glass plates which were in use at the time and
introduced the first Kodak camera.

39
 1900 - Max Planck's revelation of 'quanta' and the mathematical description of
the 'black body' lays the foundation for numerous developments in quantum
mechanics.

1903 - The Bavarian Pigeon Corps uses pigeons to transmit messages and take
aerial photos.

1906 - Albert Maul, using a rocket propelled by compressed air, took an aerial
photograph from a height of 2,600 feet, the camera was ejected and parachuted
back to earth.

1906 - G.R. Lawrence who had been experimenting with cameras which were
hoisted into the air with the aid of balloon kites.

1907 - Auguste and Louis Lumiere, two French brothers develop a simple
color photography system and establish the 35 mm standard.

1914 - WWI provided a boost in the use of aerial photography, but after the war,
enthusiasm waned

40
1934 - Photogrammetric Engineering first published. American Society of
Photogrammetry founded and renamed Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote
Sensing.  The Society was again renamed, and is now The American Society of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
1936 - Albert W. Stevens takes the first photograph of the actual curvature of
the earth - taken from a free balloon at an altitude of 72,000 feet.
1938 - A German General Werner von Fritsch, made a prophetic statement at
this time said: "The nation with the best photo reconnaissance will win the
next war!!"
1940 - World War II brought about more sophisticated techniques in air photo
interpretation
1946 - First space photographs from V-2 rockets.
1954 - U-2 takes first flight

1957 - Russia launches Sputnik-1, this was unexpected and encouraged our
government to make space exploration a priority.

41
 1960 - TIROS-1 launched as first meteorological satellite.
1960 - U-2 is "shot down" over Sverdlovsk, USSR.
1960's - US begins collection of intelligence photography from Earth orbiting
satellites, CORONA.
1962 - Zaitor and Tsuprun construct prototype nine lens multispektral camera

1963 - D. Gregg, creates "videodisk“

1964- Nimbus Weather Satellite Program begins with the Launch of

Nimbus1.

Late 1960's - Gemini and Apollo Space photography

42
1972 - Launch of ERTS-1 (the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite
,later renamed Landsat 1).
1972 - Photography from Skylab, America's first space station, was used to
produce land use maps.
1975 - Landsat 2, GOES
1977 - Meteosat-1 the first in a long series of European weather satellites
1978 - Landsat 3
1978 - Seasat, the first civil Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellite.
1978 - Launch of Nimbus-7 with Total Ozone Mapping Sensor (TOMS) and
the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS),GOES-3.
1981 - Space-Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-A), Meteosat-2
1982 - Landsat-4
1984 - SIR-B
1984 - Landsat-5
1986 - SPOT-1 1986 - Launch of SPOT-1
1988 - IRS-1A, Meteosat 3, Ofeq-1
1989 - Meteosat-4, Ofeq-2
1990 - SPOT-2
1991 - ERS (European Radar Satellite), IRS-1B, Meteosat-5.
1992 - JERS-1,Topex/Poseidon.
1993 - SPOT-3, Landsat-6 fails to achieve orbit, Meteosat-6
1994 - SIR-C/X-SAR flys on the space shuttle.
1986 - Launch of SPOT-1
1988 - IRS-1A, Meteosat 3, Ofeq-1
1989 - Meteosat-4, Ofeq-2
1990 - SPOT-2
1991 - ERS (European Radar Satellite), IRS-1B, Meteosat-5.
1992 - JERS-1,Topex/Poseidon.
1993 - SPOT-3, Landsat-6 fails to achieve orbit, Meteosat-6
1994 - SIR-C/X-SAR flys on the space shuttle
1995 - Launch of OrbView-1, ERS-2, Radarsat-1, IRS-1C, Ofeq-3 fails.

1995 - KH-12 spy satellite

1996 - Launch of IRS-P3, SPOT-3 fails

43
 1997 - Orbview-2 with SeaWiFS, GOES-10, DMSP-5D, Adeos-1 satellite
fails after 8 months of operation,IRS-1D, Meteorsat-7, Lewis fails 3 days after
launch, Earlybird fails 4 days after launch.

1998 - Launch of SPOT-4, SPIN-2, JERS-1

1999 - Launch of Landsat 7,IKONOS ,IRS-P4, QuickSCAT, CBERS-1,Terra,
MODIS, ASTER, CERES, MISR,MOPITT, Kompsat 1.

2000 - SRTM (China), Tsinghau-1 , EROS A1 (Israel) , Jason-1

2001- Quickbird

2002 - Aqua, SPOT-5, ENVISAT, METSAT, Alsat-1, Meteosat Second

Generation, ADEOS-II, Ofeq-5
2003 - Launch of ICESat, Orbview-3
2003 – Launch of ALOS (Advanced Land Observation Satellite) Japan
2003 – Launch Radarsat-2 (CANADA),
CBERS-2 (China).
DMC BilSat (TURKEY)
DMC NigeriaSat-1 (Nigeria)
DMC UK (UK)
2004 - China Satellite RocSat2 launched.
2005 - Launch of TopSat, a micro-satellite, with 2.5 m resolution and the
ability to relay imagery to receiving stations within the safe image footprint.
2005 - Google Inc. releases Keyhole, http://earth.google.com, greatly
increasing public awareness of the uses of satellite imagery and other
geospatial information.

Google earth
2007 – Expected launch of RapidEye...
A’dan Z’ye Fotograf - Özer KANBUROĞLU

44
http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~jeff/115a/remotesensinghistory.html

http://www.agrecon.canberra.edu.au/Remote/Remote.htm

http://www.nicephore-niepce.com/

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