Formula 1 2018 Digital Edition

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CONTENTS/COMMENT
F1 races into 2018

and beyond CONTENTS
4 TECH PREVIEW
We appraise the 2018 Formula 1
cars ahead of the new season
F
ormula 1 has once again taken a step We also take a look at the new fuel flow meters
12 GILLES SIMON
forwards, although it is mired in controversy. that are introduced this year, with Sentronics
Andrew Cotton speaks to the
Is the Halo the solution to head protection, taking over the sole supply to the Formula 1 grid,
FIA’s technical director
and will it stay? Or, will development continue and examine the potential future application for
on another system that will have less effect on the such systems. We talk to Gilles Simon, too, the
appearance of the car, and offer more protection to technical director of the FIA, who offers up his view
18 FORMULA 1 2021
drivers? How will teams respond to the reduction in on the future of power unit regulations, his area of What will the new regulations
the number of engines and energy recovery systems? expertise, as the deadline approaches for the next look like when they are finalised?
Will there be another raft of daft penalties coming set of regulations for 2021. That decision is crucial; a
the way of a manufacturer who has it wrong, or major change could encourage a new manufacturer 26 GRAINGER AND WORRELL
The science behind casting
Will Halo stay
will teams be able to such as Porsche into Formula 1, but
exploit the regulations that would require teams to allow a Formula 1 engine blocks
and introduce power significant shift in their technology
units at circuits on
which they can happily
in Formula 1? after just six years of this formula.
Asking them to ditch their power
34 SCREEN SAVER
Could Shield still be an
take the grid penalties, where power can mean more units, and start from the beginning, is a big step, but alternative to the Halo?
than grid position? With Pirelli producing a new set also one that is probably necessary.
of tyres after a season with the new aero regulations, Now that technology such as the MGU-H has 36 SENTRONICS
how will teams optimise their race strategies? been developed, and batteries are advanced in How fuel flow meters work
In this supplement, we talk to cylinder block design, it’s perhaps time to move on. The problem and why they are used
manufacturer Grainger and Worrell about how to is that no one knows what the next stage should
build an F1 engine, and also look at the war going on be. Hybrid fits with the European philosophy, and 42 FUEL AND OIL
with the fuels and lubricants, following a clarification perhaps is the only logical holding pattern, as the In-depth analysis of F1’s petrol
from the FIA which says that lubes must be used industry sorts itself out for the long-term . and lube development war
only for lubricating, and not to be burned in the ANDREW COTTON
combustion chamber to increase efficiency. Editor, Racecar Engineering
FORMULA 1 2018 www.racecar-engineering.com 3

FORMULA 1 2018 – TESTING
The reigning champion, Mercedes, has taken a

conservative approach to Halo, even though the
regulations allow a small degree of freedom here
4 www.racecar-engineering.com FORMULA 1 2018

The Halo effect
Formula 1 testing in Barcelona saw the debut of all-new Pirelli tyre
compounds, new aero solutions and the controversial Halo system
By GEMMA HATTON and SAM COLLINS
F As might be imagined with

ormula 1 has ushered in a host of It is something being worked on right
changes for the 2018 season. The new up and down the pit lane with lots of airflow
head protection system, known as
Halo, is the most obvious from a visual
sensors fitted to cars around the Halo structure
and downstream of it. ‘Aerodynamically such a visually obvious
point of view, and has already attracted a lot of
negative feedback from the teams. It has also
speaking, Halo is certainly not penalty free
and I think there is a challenge there to either addition to the car, the
aerodynamic impact of
had a significant effect on the rest of the car, cope with it in the first instance, let’s call
in terms of weight and design thanks to a late it damage limitation, and thereafter think
introduction of the regulation, leading in some about opportunity and exploitation,’ Peter
cases to an all-new chassis design. With new Prodromou, McLaren’s chief technical officer Halo is noteworthy
tyres from Pirelli, offering teams a new challenge for aerodynamics adds. ‘It does open up some
of working them at different circuits, and longer avenues which are possibly interesting to look there and so you’ve got to make sure you don’t
life power units for this season, teams have had at. I am sure there will be a variety of different have the negative effects there,’ Toro Rosso
anything but an easy preparation for 2018. solutions out there but the scope is quite technical director James Key says. ‘You’ve
The Additional Frontal Protection-Halo (AFP- limited to the allowance around the basic got effects on the engine air intake and effects
Halo, or just Halo) is without doubt the biggest shape, but there is opportunity.’ after that towards the back, so there are a
visual change between the 2018 grand prix cars number of different things you have to think
and those used in 2017. In design terms the Aesthetic gain about. None of them are massive effects but
Halo is governed by its own specific appendix to The rules allow a 20mm area of freedom around they all require some level of attention.’
the FIA technical regulations. Everything from the titanium structure, introduced partly for Fitting the Halo is no easy challenge either;
the shape and dimensions of the device to the aesthetic reasons but predictably these fairings not only does the Halo have to be homologated
material it is made from (titanium alloy Ti6Al4V are being used for aerodynamic gain, as some independently, it also has to pass crash tests as
Grade 5) is defined. However, there is still scope teams have added winglets and in one case part of the chassis homologation procedure.
for different manufacturers to supply their airliner style vortex generators to their Halos. This has proved to be a major issue for teams.
own products into the category, though each ‘It has effects on the cockpit because it is local ‘We always knew it was going to be a
must be homologated independently at the to that opening. You have got the driver in challenge so have invested time and money
Cranfield Impact Centre. At the time of writing
three companies had homologated Halos;
CP Autosport of Germany, SST Technology in
England and a third company, V System, from
which each team must purchase its Halos.
Airflow impact
As can be imagined for such a visually obvious
addition to the car, the aerodynamic impact of
Halo is noteworthy, and the teams are doing
what they can to deal with it, particularly on
the airflow over the whole car.
‘It has a significant downstream effect,
especially round the rear wing area,’ highlights
Andy Green, technical director of the Sahara
Force India F1 Team. ‘It is not designed to be
an aerodynamic device, so it doesn’t do us any
favours in that department and it requires a lot
of work to mitigate the issues that it causes. In
testing we will make sure we understand that
the losses coming off the halo are where we
think they are from our modelling tools. If that
is confirmed we’re confident that the parts we’ll
bring to the car will sort out those losses.’ Toro Rosso is one of several teams to try to increase aero efficiency with its Halo design; others also chose this approach

The 20mm area at the top of the Halo has been exploited
differently by the teams. The Haas team has adopted this
toothy solution while others have mounted a wing
During the chassis homologation tests the

Halo has to withstand various loads without it or
the monocoque failing. The biggest load applied
to the structure is 116kN from above, which has
to be endured for five seconds. Longitudinal
forces of 46kN and 83kN are applied from the
front as well as a lateral load of 93kN from the
side. For comparison, the roll structure on top
of the car has to withstand 50kN laterally, 60kN
longitudinally and 90kN from above.
Weighty issue
To survive these severe loads, the Halo itself has
become quite a substantial structure, weighing
by regulation 7kg (+0.05kg, -0.15kg). In addition,
the monocoque has also had to increase in
strength significantly to cope with these tests.
This has further increased the weight of the
chassis by approximately 12-13kg. The 2018
technical regulations have allowed a minimum
New rubber from Pirelli is designed to help drivers and teams at up front to do a lot of test pieces,’ McLaren weight increase of 5kg to 733kg, forcing teams
particular tracks. Pressure sensors were all the rage in Barcelona chief technical officer Matt Morris admits. to save weight in other areas of the car. At the
as teams completed their aero maps during pre-season testing ‘Obviously, you don’t want to build a complete start of a race a 2018 F1 car will be of similar
chassis but we built a few test pieces with weight to a non-hybrid LMP1 in qualifying trim.
‘It takes the weight of a dummy Halos and parts of Halos to test how
the interfaces would behave and we found
‘From a design perspective, weight is a big
part of it. The weight limit did go up, but not by
London bus and when some issues. It was close, we didn’t breeze
through and there were some heart-stopping
nearly as much as the installation weight of the
halo so it put additional stress on all the other
you see that test going moments with particular static tests coming
in from an oblique angle. It takes the weight
parts of the car,’ Green continues. ‘We had to try
to optimise the weight in those areas to try and
with that amount of

of a London bus and when you see that keep the weight limit below the minimum so
test going on with that amount of load and that we can run ballast because the other area
load, it is a bit scary’

everything that moves around – which it is that we have to bear in mind is we have to hit
designed to do – it is a bit scary.’ a weight distribution target as well.’

Short sidepod concept
I
n 2017 Ferrari introduced a new short sidepod concept,
relocating the upper side impact structure (a single
specification design shared by all teams) and moving
the main cooling aperture rearward. A set of box shape
aerodynamic elements forward of the duct ensure rules
compliance. Ferrari took this approach for aerodynamic
reasons rather than those of cooling. In 2018, half the grid
featured the same solution, but not all teams agree that it
is the right route, with Mercedes, Renault, Force India and
others all opting against adopting the concept.
Conservative approach Sidepod design seems to be led by Ferrari, with impact structure relocation for efficient aerodynamic effect
‘Everything you do in aerodynamics has an opportunity
cost; there is much more opportunity to make the car worse
than better,’ claims Mercedes technical director, James
Allison. ‘If you want to pursue a new and different concept,
you will expect to find a fair amount of loss before you
get back into positive territory. We looked at that concept
and felt it would spend too much time being in negative
territory before it would perhaps offer any gain at all. If you
are a [team] that is a long way down the grid the situation is
different, it is worth taking that gamble, as you have less to
lose and you know that the path you are on is not right.’
It is likely that the relocation of the side impact structure
would require a substantial change to the monocoque
design, while getting adequate airflow into the cooling
system, with such a complex arrangement of aerodynamic
elements around the leading edge of the sidepod duct, is
also likely to be a major challenge. Mercedes has not adopted this same approach, believing that too much time would be lost in development
Although it was originally introduced as

a temporary measure to help Pirelli develop
tyres when it became the sole tyre supplier in
2011, the technical regulations still limit every
car in terms of weight distribution, with just a
7kg window of freedom. This means that while
some teams may be able to build a car under
the minimum weight, they cannot get it fully
within the distribution window.
Window dressing
‘You only have a very small window of weight
distribution so the actual architecture of the
car needs to be correct to start with, otherwise
you’re adding ballast to a car that doesn’t
need ballast just to get the weight distribution
right,’ Green says. ‘We would have loved to
have added a huge safety margin to the whole
design so that we would happily sail through
the crash and load tests without any issues
but that wasn’t possible because the weight The loss of the T-wing is not total; some of the teams are trying to recover some of the effect with lower mounted winglets
limit of the car didn’t go up enough. We
couldn’t afford to increase the base weight
of the car more than a few kilogrammes
has evolved over many seasons) in favour of
a slightly lighter composite transmission. ‘You have a small window
because we knew we only had a few kg that
we could take out of the car. It was, structurally,
While the price of the Halo itself is relatively
modest, the cost of developing a chassis to fit it of weight distribution so
the architecture of the
incredibly challenging.’ is higher than some of the smaller teams would
This weight challenge has seen at least like. This was made worse by the late decision to
car needs to be correct’

one team, Renault, substantially rework the adopt the Halo as the 2018 AFP solution, with
rear end of its car as a result, abandoning its teams only informed of this final decision in
cast titanium gearbox casing (something it September 2017 after a long discussion process.

With only a 7kg weight distribution the teams have struggled to get the weight down and remain in the window; Renault adopted a composite gearbox casing to reduce mass
‘Expense-wise it’s huge because we had to The weight increase as a result of the Halo of over 20 per cent, demanding the tyres to be
do a new chassis. We wouldn’t have anticipated also places an additional demand on the four extremely robust, leading Pirelli to ramp up the
doing a new chassis this year given the number power unit suppliers, and they have had to stiffness of their entire compound range. Pirelli
of changes we made last year. For a team like increase the life of their power units. Teams can also had to develop tyres with little knowledge
us we would look to try and get two years out now only use three combustion engines (ICE), of the potential performance that the teams
of the chassis if possible. So in that respect three MGU-H’s and three turbochargers (TC) could achieve in 2017. Despite 12,000km of
it cost us a huge amount to redevelop and during the season, compared to four last year. testing, the 2014 adapted ‘mule’ cars that Pirelli
redesign the new chassis. It is in the hundreds That’s 2100km of racing mileage not including used to develop the 2017 compounds only
of thousands, if not million dollar mark, to put practice sessions or qualifying. Whereas the achieved a 10 per cent increase in downforce
the Halo on the car for us,’ says Green. energy stores (ES), control electronics (CE) and and therefore the results were unrepresentative
MGU-Ks are all limited to two per season, or and inconclusive. To cope with this, Pirelli went
Screening process 3150km of racing. This demand for increased for a conservative approach last year, and
The Halo has had a largely negative reception reliability will no doubt have forced the having tried and tested their designs for an
from drivers, teams, the media and fans. This suppliers to manufacture more robust units, yet entire season, the 2018 range is a slightly more
has led to work continuing on alternative they have had to minimise weight to help teams aggressive evolution of 2017.
additional frontal protection systems. In comply with the minimum weight regulations
2017 a brief test run was conducted with which have been challenging to achieve with Compounding issues
a clear windscreen fitted to a Ferrari, but the consequences of Halo. It remains to be seen ‘The 2018 compounds are from the same family
while this solution solved the frontal impact how successful they have been. of compounds as 2017,’ explains Mario Isola,
requirements, the driver complained of sporting director of Pirelli. ‘The reason why
visual distortion. However, Indycar is now Tyre dilemma degradation was so low last year was because
experimenting with a similar aeroscreen The other major changes for this year come these compounds have less surface overheating
solution. Teams prefer the windscreen option from the tyres. To encourage overtaking and pit and in general behave in a different way. In
not only for aesthetic reasons but also as stops, Pirelli have added two more colours, and particular we used the 2017 Soft as a baseline
it is much lighter than Halo with lower therefore compounds, to their tyre compound [for 2018] because last year the Soft had a
requirements on the chassis structure. rainbow, the Superhard and the Hypersoft, as wider working range compared to the other
well as making the entire range a step softer, compounds. Last year’s Soft is now the Medium.’
‘We used the 2017 Soft as and introducing new allocation rules. The
Superhard is now the hardest compound,
From there, the 2017 Soft ‘baseline’ was
then developed and used to create this year’s
a baseline because last adopting the conventional orange colour of

the Hard, which has now become the light
softer compounds (Soft, Supersoft, Ultrasoft
and Hypersoft), each decreasing in stiffness in
year the Soft had a wider

blue, and the Hypersoft is the softest compound relatively consecutive steps. Although Pirelli,
and is light pink in colour. However, to gain a along with some drivers, have commented
full understanding of these additional that the softer compounds of the 2018 range,
working range compared compounds we need to reflect on 2017. tested at Abu Dhabi last year, were ‘much closer
The significant aerodynamic changes of the together’ in terms of the performance delta, the
with the other compounds’ 2017 regulations resulted in an increase in loads Hypersoft is much more aggressive.

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SOFT MEDIUM
SOFT
SUPERSOFT
SUPERSOFT
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2017 2018
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Working range temperature
Above: A simplified diagram illustrating the compound changes from 2017 to
2018. This year’s compounds are all a step softer, with the 2017 Soft and its
wider working range becoming the 2018 Medium. The delta between the Soft,
Supersoft and Ultrasoft are much closer, and the Hypersoft is an aggressive step,
based on running at the Abu Dhabi test last year Right: Pirelli’s new tyres on
display in Barcelona – the colours were chosen by the marketing department
‘The Hypersoft is quite a step softer from the Medium to the Hypersoft,’ says Isola. This year’s softer tyres are not only going
compared to the Ultrasoft,’ highlights Isola. ‘We ‘We don’t have this alternating between to make the drivers happier, but hopefully the
don’t have a lot of data but at Abu Dhabi, which low working range and high working range fans as well. Softer compounds lead to higher
is a low severity circuit and not that far from compounds. The harder compounds are high degradation, resulting in larger performance
a street circuit, the Hypersoft was behaving working range and the softer compounds are differences between drivers out on track, so
like a very soft compound. It was about 0.9-1.0 low working range.’ Previously, the high working promoting more overtaking. To encourage this
seconds per lap quicker than the Ultrasoft and range compounds were the Hard and Soft with further, Pirelli has changed its tyre allocation
it was able to run for eight laps on average.’ the low working range compounds the Medium rules. Rather than teams choosing their
However, Valtteri Bottas at this year’s Mercedes and Supersoft. The Ultrasoft was Medium to allocation from three consecutive compounds
launch highlighted how the Hypersoft was only High working range. ‘This is important to make specified by Pirelli, teams can pick a double step
suitable for two to three laps at Abu Dhabi. the compounds more predictable,’ says Isola. in compound. For example, instead of running
Similar to when Pirelli introduced the ‘Teams complained that they would set up the the Medium, Soft and Supersoft, teams can use
Ultrasoft in 2016, the pink Hypersoft has been car for the Soft and it was difficult to manage the Medium, Soft and Ultrasoft, as is the case for
predominantly designed to give drivers that when they put the Supersoft on. Now, with this this year’s Chinese Grand Prix, which takes place
extra level of grip at street circuits. Depending change in working range, it will be much better.’ mid-April. This opens up the options for some
on the results from Monaco, however, teams interesting strategic decisions, which again
might just see the pink tyres at other low Insurance cover could result in more exciting racing.
severity tracks towards the end of the season. With regard to the Superhard; ‘Forget it,’ laughs Although 2018 is an evolutionary year
The aggressive nature of the softer Isola. ‘We’re not going to use it. The Superhard in terms of regulation, once the effects of
compounds has also led Pirelli to modify the compound is an insurance for us in case we Halo have been validated on track, teams will
front tyre construction. Not only do this year’s have underestimated the development of this be bringing plenty of further performance
tyres feature a rounder profile, incorporating year’s cars. It’s much better to homologate an upgrades throughout the season. This, together
new materials, but the distribution of forces over additional compound to keep in our pocket, with the unknown performance of the new
the contact patch have also improved. rather than introduce a new one. From our tyres and the increased pressure on power
‘The other difference for this year is that the simulations we are quite confident that we are units, gives 2018 all the ingredients for yet
working range now decreases consecutively not going to use this compound.’ another exciting season.
Look out for next month’s Racecar Engineering magazine

The next issue of Racecar Engineering (May, V28N5) regulations that are set to come in in 2021. One thing’s Cupra e-Racer is very much of the now. Built for the
is due to hit the news-stands in the UK on April 6 – it for sure, as ever in F1, there’s controversy brewing. new e-TCR series, which TCR plans to have up and
will be hard to miss as it features the new Bentley Far away from Formula 1, yet linked in a very nice running by next season, the new electric racer is a
Continental GT3 on the cover. way, Nelson Hartley – the brother of Toro Rosso driver great example of how electric power – and particularly
The new Bentley is examined in depth within the Brendon – has built an awesome V12 engine from the weight it entails – presents problems that only
magazine in a feature that shows just what it takes scratch at his New Zealand base. The unit produces ingenious racecar design and packaging can solve.
to produce a successful GT3 car – in terms of sales as around 900bhp, but in twin-turbo form it could make Endurance racing has not been forgotten, either,
much as performance – in this modern balance of much more than this. It currently sits in a drift car, and we attended the recent tyre test at Aragon to
performance era. But more than anything, this Bentley but Hartley Engines has some big ambitions for this discover how Dunlop goes about the business of
is simply a great looking racecar. phenomenal powerplant. If you want to know how developing race-winning rubber for the Le Mans 24
Elsewhere in the magazine we have talked to a pukka race engineering company goes about its hours and other long distance races.
the movers and shakers in the Formula 1 paddock to business, then you really need to read this piece. If that’s not enough, there are also features on
discover where the development war will be fought While Hartley’s approach is pretty old school, in metrology technology; aerodynamic pressure sensors;
this year, while also getting their views on the new its outcome at least, the thinking behind the SEAT Formula Student; and much more. Don’t miss it.

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INTERVIEW – GILLES SIMON
Simon says
The technical future of high-end motorsport
has never been as uncertain as it seems
right now. So we went to the very top –
the FIA’s new head of Technical, Gilles
Simon – to get a clearer view
By ANDREW COTTON
Mercedes F1 Power Unit is

now thought to be running at a
staggering 50 per cent thermal
efficiency. The FIA believes such
figures should be celebrated

LMP1 gave Audi an opportunity to both develop and promote cutting-edge technology (2015 engine pictured)
but its very successful programme was axed within a year of the emissions scandal that shook the VW Group
T
here was no fanfare, just a statement yet to commit to the 2018 season. The with the high cost of machinery, has led to
put out in September by the FIA regulations that were announced at Le Mans manufacturers walking away from the WTCC
that Gilles Simon would take on the are now rescinded, and there are no new in favour of the customer-focussed TCR
responsibility of head of Technical manufacturers on the horizon. formula. And it is now Simon’s responsibility
at the organisation. The Frenchman is a long- Meanwhile, the World Touring Car to bring order to all this chaos.
time associate of FIA President Jean Todt, Championship has failed, and its TC1 formula His job is to chart a clear path for top-level
and has previously worked at the FIA as has been replaced by TCR regulations for now, series – as well as the feeder formulae – that
technical and powertrain director, until he while Formula E appears to be an electro- keeps racing road relevant with innovative
moved to stillborn engine manufacturer PURE. magnet for motor manufacturers. technology, while maintaining some level
He was then, until recently, working with At the heart of it all sits the conflict of cost control that allows private teams
Honda in Formula 1 as a consultant. between technical development and to compete. He also has to keep up fan
It’s fair to say that Simon has stepped entertainment. Formula E offers the engagement at a time when the car industry
into the position at a very difficult time. manufacturers what they need in terms of is itself having to adapt to a changing world
Formula 1 is currently looking to finalise showcasing their electric capability, but following the 2015 dieselgate scandal, and
its 2021 engine regulations and there are cannot be described as exciting racing, while the rise of electric mobility.
disputes over how these might finally look. back of the grid Formula 1 teams, and the WEC Hybrid technology was introduced into
The WEC has lost Porsche and Audi, Peugeot manufacturers, are drowning under the cost of Formula 1 as a means to give manufacturers
has decided not to return and Toyota has hybrid development. Poor organisation, along corporate responsibility within their racing a
‘I don’t feel that entertainment and technology are against each other’

While all Formula E cars look the same there are plenty of different manufacturers involved in the championship. The FIA is content with the progress of its all-electric race series
‘We have to explain

it properly so that
anybody sensible
can understand
good performance
from a technical
point of view’
Emissions are an issue everywhere and some cities could ban ICE cars in the future. Little wonder EVs are gaining ground
programmes and the gains made, since 2014, in Arguably, it was this case that has started trying to look a little forward. The FIA has put
engine efficiency have been truly extraordinary. the debate on our future mobility, as trust in the in place regulations of the championship that
Thermal efficiency has risen from an estimated manufacturers has suffered. In the UK, new tax at the beginning people were asking “why?
sub 30 per cent to over 50 per cent in F1 test regulations coupled with the above has seen a What is the scope of the formula?” Today
conditions as development continues. drop in the number of new cars sold, although many manufacturers are interested in this
electric cars are clearly on the rise. They still form championship and it is a good showcase for
School of hard NOx a small part of the market, but the trend is clear; the electric technology that they need to sell.’
However, the costs associated with running the consumers are after electric. Advertisements
these power units has put customer teams in have changed from promoting lifestyle to Show business
particular in a difficult financial position. For air quality, particularly in towns, which is With governments jumping onto the
the manufacturers, life is similarly complicated, where electric mobility is so strong and where bandwagon and targeting an end to the sale
but for other reasons. One of the main issues governments are looking to ban combustion of new ICE cars, the FIA has to write technical
facing the motor industry today is the shifting cars. It seems that Formula E was ahead of the regulations that keep the sport relevant and
sand beneath the feet of the manufacturers curve in predicting this rise in electric. lead the development of technology while
that has left them uncertain of the ground on also driving up fan engagement.
which they are standing. Previous governments Plugging in to E ‘I don’t feel that entertainment and
have targeted CO2 emissions as the Holy Grail ‘Formula E had been thought of well before technology are against each other,’ says Simon.
of engine efficiency, until they noticed that [dieselgate], in 2010 when the FIA was trying ‘As a promoter in any of our championships,
low CO2 producing diesel was in fact emitting to put together what could be an electric they want the championship to be interesting
high NOx levels. With the dieselgate scandal, in racing car, and that led to a championship to the last minute, to be spectacular and provide
which Volkswagen was found to have installed a that is successful today,’ says Simon, speaking a good show. This is the best way to catch fans
‘cheat’ device to pass emissions tests, the world to us in the vast meeting room on the fourth and keep them interested, and is generally the
decided that diesel is effectively poison. floor of the FIA building in Geneva. ‘[We were] case for all sport and all entertainment. What is

Formula E has attracted good crowds at many of its city-centre events but there are some who question whether the level of spectacle is quite on a par with the level of technology
specific to motorsport is that there is a motor, part of the engineering of a racecar, in any project to see if it could work,’ explains Simon.
so you have already technology there. Part of formula. I believe this was already the case when ‘They concluded that it could work in the right
the fan interest is about the cars. It is about the Bugatti was fighting the Bentleys. One had a conditions, and they were keen to work on the
fight, but it is also the beauty of these cars. It is small displacement high efficiency, another raw F1 project because this helped them with the
about having spectacular and fast cars, and also power, and that is the basis of motorsport.’ resources that they needed to develop the idea
anyone of us looking at any kind of race, it is to the point that they can say that they can do it,
about the engineering of these cars. Why is this Road relevance produce it, and they know the limits. They have
one faster, and behaving like this? Part of the The burning question is; who decides what is invested some resource and now they have the
show is due to the technology.’ road relevant? Is it the FIA taking a lead in its technology actually on the shelf. When it will
rule writing, or is it the manufacturers who have be applied I don’t know, but this is part of their
Racing’s essence a vested interest in their own technologies? catalogue on the shelf. They have no fear to
While the sport has always been about the For Simon, it is a negotiation that reaches a push it into production if the need comes and
drivers who can extract the maximum from common agreement, although outlining the this is what I expect from motor racing.
a car, it is the technology and, Simon argues, framework and then distributing it is not always ‘In June, I was at a congress on gasoline
the efficiency of the racecar that leads to the best policy. Releasing its roadmap for the engines, discussing this with other people, and I
championship victories. ‘The fact that someone 2021 F1 engine regulations was met with understood that at least two big OEMs started a
reaches 50 per cent efficiency and someone criticism from teams and manufacturers, but he programme on energy recovery on the exhaust,
else is not at that figure, let’s say 49, one will be would not be drawn into a discussion on the because they knew this was a potential
in front of the other,’ he says. ‘The only way, with public statements that have been made. solution. They never had the ability to get the
the fuel flow control, to have more power is you However, Simon is pleased with the way
have higher efficiency and this has always been
the case. When you are engineering a racecar,
that hybrid technology has been integrated
into Formula 1 and the WEC, and says that it has ‘When you are
you always care about fuel consumption. In
an endurance race you want to have a longer
allowed companies to start the development
of such technology that, if not transferable engineering a racecar
you always care about
stint, and in a shorter race you want to start immediately, will be in the future.
with the least amount of fuel. If you could ‘Turbocharger manufacturers had some
fuel consumption’
start a race with 10kg of fuel less than your experience with energy recovery with a
competitors, you have an advantage. This is turbocharger, but it was limited, and a one-off

Toyota leads Porsche and Audi in the WEC. Manufacturers like the hi-tech, but they can also walk away. Toyota is the last remaining car maker in LMP1-H after Porsche and Audi left
budget to research it. As soon as they said “it’s Ulrich Baretzky, head of powertrain at Audi others can be translated. If you speak about fuel
the system that they use in F1”, they got the Motorsport and a man who is known to be an consumption in a race, in a lap, or per 100km,
budget. This effect of leading has always been advocate of future technologies (and diesel), has it is high because it is very fast, but if you try
so, and I believe that it remains important for said that motor racing could consider publishing to go that fast with any other car, it will be at
our industry and for our sport.’ its consumption figures. Although these would least twice that, and maybe you are as fast. We
be frightening at first, it could be a way forwards have to explain it properly so that anybody
Development costs for the FIA and the ACO to promote efficient sensible can understand good performance
The issue, of course, is the cost of developing motorsport, but Simon was not in favour. The from a technical point of view.’
such experimental systems, particularly for the Frenchman prefers that the communication of
privateer teams. Their criticism is that the power the technology improves, and that the fans have Hi-tech highway
unit supply costs have risen by a factor of four, the engineering explained to them in a way that So, it seems that the FIA is going to stay on
but there has certainly not been four times gets them excited, and more importantly, they its high-technology route, and be a leader
the return on their investment. It has led to understand what racing is trying to achieve. in the development of road relevant
disquiet at the back of the grid, and the FIA is by components. It will, with negotiation, decide
no means ignorant of their plight. Selling technology how the regulations should work in top-level
‘The tricky question for us from a technical ‘The best engine in Formula 1 is at 50 per cent motorsport within a cost framework.
regulations side is to find a balance between the efficiency, say, but what does this mean?’ he ‘There is no antagonism between
cost and the maximum technology that you can asks. ‘If you had this efficiency on your road car, technology and entertainment, there is
fit into [the racecar] for that price,’ says Simon. your consumption would be around two litres just balance for each championship,’ Simon
‘We are facing some difficulties but we have per 100km, or something in this range, and concludes. ‘The costs have to remain in a
to find a compromise. The question is simple; that’s spectacular. But how do you translate window that is acceptable. The issue is probably
we have to find the right balance. It is tricky this to a car that is above 800bhp and 70 per more to have a sustainable model in each
[to do so] and you have different opinions, but cent of the time under full load? If you try to formula of motorsport, so to understand what
we have to discuss it at length to find what do this with your car, the fuel consumption will kind of budget makes sense in Formula 1,
is reasonable and the right direction. So our be up, but the efficiency, the fuel you burn for endurance, GT or touring cars. Once you
approach is to sit down with interested parties the horsepower you need, is very high. I think define this, then you have to identify the
rather than to simply say “this is the regulation’’.’ some figures can be difficult to explain, while technology within this window.’
‘Motor racing is about the fight, but it is also about the engineering
of the racecars; why is one car faster, and behaving like it is?’
www.windform.com info@windform.com
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FORMULA 1 – POWER UNIT REGULATIONS
Engine mapping
The FIA’s recently released ‘roadmap’ outlining the key aspects of the
2021 Formula 1 power unit rules has not been well-received by all in
the F1 paddock – but what exactly does the plan entail and what are
the key objections? Racecar investigates this on-going story
F
rom the first publication of the 2014 engines in some cases. I can’t see anything that of suppliers. Then, following the Mexican Grand
Formula 1 power unit regulations it they have contributed that’s been positive. So Prix in late October, a more detailed plan was
was made clear that a new set of rules the sooner it goes, the better.’ revealed for 2021. This ‘roadmap’ laid out the
would be introduced in 2021. What Although Horner’s sentiments are not core elements of the new power unit formula.
those rules would be was, until very recently, universally held, some of the issues he raises are At a superficial level what was presented
entirely unclear. A large number of different of concern to the sport’s governing body, the is very similar to what is in use today, with a
and often conflicting ideas and opinions were FIA, and also its new promoter, Liberty Media. turbocharged 1.6-litre V6 engine at the core of
being discussed by different parties with So, after seemingly endless discussions, the a hybrid power unit. But within the six bullet
different motivations, everything from a 3.4-litre FIA came up with a set of key goals for the new points that make up the roadmap there is also
V6 twin turbo engine to some kind of large generation of power units to achieve, aiming substantial scope for change.
capacity V12 were suggested at different times. to address the criticism, these are: ‘A desire
But what was clear was that many in the sport to maintain F1 as the pinnacle of motorsport Volume control
felt that the current generation of power units technology, and as a laboratory for developing Perhaps the most criticised element of the
were simply not right for Formula 1. technology that is relevant to road cars. Striving for current 2014-2020 generation of power units
‘For me, these engines have done nothing future power units to be powerful, while becoming is the sound they produce, or rather the lack of
but damage F1. They’ve done nothing to simpler and less costly to develop and produce. it, while what sound there is, is clearly not to
contribute to the sport,’ Red Bull Racing team Improving the sound of the power units. A desire to the taste of many fans. As a result there have
principal Christian Horner says. ‘They have allow drivers to drive harder at all times.’ been various efforts to improve it and increase
taken away the sound, the passion and they Those objectives were issued part way its volume, notably giving the wastegates a
have added too much complexity; they have through the 2017 Formula 1 season, and were separate exit pipe, though this has had only
become far removed from road car technology then used as a basis for debate and discussion a minor impact. A project to add a sound
and they are effectively turning into diesel among the manufacturers, teams and a number generator to the exhaust system was also under

Perhaps the part of the
roadmap that will have
the biggest impact of
all is the plan to no
longer use an MGU-H
development at one point but to date has have an agreement to allow for free race [fuel] are trying to find a good balance between the
not been seen out on the race track. allocation, but someone will have a bigger tank cost, complexity, show and technology and it
A new attempt to improve the sound than others, maybe. But it will be a choice, and is not easy. In this compromise we thought it
is included in the 2021 roadmap, namely fuel efficiency [will still be] important to manage necessary to make a step with the MGU-H, and I
increasing the maximum revs of the V6 the race properly,’ Simon says. think that it is an important point. It gives good
engine. Currently the maximum speed is set at efficiency, but it is a complex system and to
15,000rpm but this will be raised to 18,000rpm The H bomb have it with quite a wide freedom in F1, it leads
in 2021. However, there is some debate about Perhaps the part of the roadmap which will have to serious cost issues, so we had to address that.’
whether this will have any effect. These days the biggest impact of all, though, on not only
the cars almost never hit the peak RPM, as in the sound of the power unit but also the overall Special K
an efficiency based formula it is simply not the layout and design of the engine, is the plan to Removing the MGU-H will obviously have a
optimum way of operating the engine. no longer use an MGU-H. The use of the MGU-H performance implication for the whole power
But FIA engine boss Gilles Simon says this under the current rules means that the V6 unit. So in order to restore any loss in overall
will be addressed: ‘I think that the first natural engines are designed partly to have recoverable car performance that will come as a result, a
idea to discuss in detail is that we will just follow energy in the exhaust, something which means new more potent MGU-K will be employed.
the fuel flow curve 3000rpm higher, so you will that the best power unit is not always the best Its exact performance level is not clear, but it
have higher fuel flow,’ he says, which leads to the combustion engine, but the best compromise will certainly produce more than the current
thought that bigger fuel tanks might then need between ICE and ERS. ‘What counts at the end is maximum of 120kW. Additionally, according to
to be fitted. ‘Not necessarily. What I believe can the overall efficiency of the system. If you take the roadmap, there will be a ‘focus on manual
be agreed is that the race fuel allocation is seen off the MGU-H you reduce the efficiency, so we driver deployment in race together with option
as a limit to race fighting, so while we continue will not be at 50 per cent.’ Simon says. ‘We are to save up energy over several laps to give a
to impose a fuel flow maximum [we could] also discussing that. It is a proposal, but today we driver controlled tactical element to racing’.

a conventional turbocharger at the rear of the

engine block, in the bellhousing area of the car.
Standardising this area of the power unit
helps fulfil another one of the aims of the 2021
road map, namely a ‘high Level of external
prescriptive design to give “plug-and-play”
engine/chassis/transmission swap capability.’ A
number of teams have, since 2014, been forced
to make a short notice switch of power unit and
this has created problems in terms of the design
of the rear face of the monocoque and the front
face of the transmission, two of the longest
lead time items on any new Formula 1 car. For
instance, Sauber was unable to switch to a
supply of Honda power units for 2018 as it could
not secure a suitable gearbox.
Currently all power units have common
mounting points for chassis and transmission
but they have very different installation
requirements. A lot of this is down to the design
of the turbocharger and accommodating the
pipework relating to it. This can see the rear of
the chassis made in fundamentally different
ways to suit each power unit, something which
is costly and time consuming for the teams.
Partly for the same reasons the road map
also seeks to standardise the battery pack
Attempts to improve the sound of the current F1 power units has seen separate wastegate exit solutions tried, but with little (energy store) along with the control electronics,
effect. Upping the maximum revs by 3000rpm to 18,000rpm is the approach being looked at for the 2021 PU regulations as this will also make it easier for teams to
design the chassis. And while it reduces some
This could place more emphasis on drivers to people believe they are now in a phase of fine scope for technical development it also seems
manage the operation of the ERS. From a driving tuning the solution they have in hand and they likely to cut costs. Some manufacturers might
standpoint this could also add to the complexity are frightened by the fact that going to a new be unhappy with this, though, as the power unit
in the cockpit. Then again it may well be as regulation, even if it is simpler. [They think] you companies have invested heavily in staff and
simple as the addition of some kind of ‘e-boost’ have to re-engineer everything or have enough facilities in order to develop both battery packs
button on the steering wheel to allow the money in the project that you could re-engineer and the related electronic systems.
Formula 1 drivers to activate the MGU-K. everything, [and] that is why they are saying
While a twin turbo layout was clearly that this will be expensive. Tuner fishing
considered for 2021, a single turbocharger will ‘I think I designed eight or nine 10-cylinder One standout feature on the road map is that
be employed, according to the roadmap. But engines [as an F1 engine designer], but it was it is specifically directed at making it more
much of the design freedom on the turbo itself not that expensive because it is a yearly exercise feasible for private engine tuners like Cosworth,
will be removed and much stricter dimensional and you take what you know and tune it, and Gibson, Mecachrome and Judd to enter
and weight constraints will be applied. that is where Formula 1 is comfortable,’ Simon Formula 1, meaning the sport is less reliant on
adds. ‘When you change the rules of the game, manufacturers who are felt to be somewhat
KERS and effect this is where the expense may be, because this fickle and capable of quitting the sport with
Turbo lag could also become an issue with the is over-cost that they cannot plan. That is the little notice. The high cylinder pressure levels
loss of the MGU-H, but Simon is not too worried reality, so we have to be careful on that.’ of the current V6 engines are known to deter
about that. ‘If you have a powerful enough KERS some of the small tuners from getting involved
you can compensate,’ he says. ‘Also, I believe Split decision in F1 right now, but the road map promises
that you have to find the right compromise on The removal of the MGU-H and the tightening ‘prescriptive internal design parameters to
the design of the turbine wheel by itself … I up of the rules on turbocharger design will make restrict development costs and discourage
am not so worried about the turbo lag effect. a substantial difference to the overall layout of extreme designs and running conditions’.
There are ways to design the turbine to limit the power unit, and it is almost certainly the Simon says: ‘It is part of the discussion. What
this, that would be a technology challenge, but end for the innovative split turbo concepts used we propose is to set some targets to limit the
that is motor racing. I think that if you have a by both Honda and Mercedes, which see the development costs. If you look to the current
new project where you change fundamentally compressor and turbine placed at different ends regulation, it is already quite detailed. You have a
the input then Formula 1 is spending a lot. If you of the engine block, linked by a common shaft, lot of parameters that are fixed. The dimensions
have a new project where you tune the current with the MGU-H mounted in the V of the engine. are fixed, materials are defined; you have not a
input that you know, then it is much more It now seems certain that the 2021 regulations lot of choice: weight, weight distribution, [but] in
reasonable. My understanding is that some will restrict power unit suppliers to mounting the engine you have many dimensions that are
Everything from a 3.4-litre V6 twin turbo engine to some kind

of large capacity V12 has been suggested at different times
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‘I am not really so worried about the turbo lag effect, there

are ways the teams can design the turbine to limit this’
fixed. You can design [an engine] for an LMP1 engine, including the bore, crankshaft centreline the fuel, and understanding it together with
car with any displacement, with any number position and height – which are all tightly the fuel specialists. This is the best way to
of cylinders. This is not the case in Formula 1. defined – while other components have size progress in understanding combustion, and this
The engine in Formula 1 is quite controlled, but and weight limitations, including the valve stem, is useful for the industry. The fuel specialists in
controlling the dimensions does not have a lot main bearings, crank pin, piston and conrod. The Formula 1, they are involved in other projects,
of cost implication. [But] this is the output that overall centre of gravity of the power unit is also so for them to understand the specifics of
has the cost implication – the balance between defined in the current regulations. combustion is of interest. By this way, you justify
high cost and high efficiency, because the it. It is not just about finance [sponsorship] – that
higher the efficiency, then the higher the cost, Fuel’s paradise is important – but it is also a good technology
and we have to balance this.’ Another barrier for private tuners coming into enhancement. I believe that we have to be
Indeed, there are already quite a few Formula 1 is fuel. All of the current power unit cautious on that, and you have to do something
regulations limiting the internal design of the V6 manufacturers work closely with fuel partners with more accurate definition of what should
who will develop bespoke fuel for each update the fuel be, with less possibility of variability,
to the ICE, something generally beyond the to define better, or have less difference in
reach of private tuners. To address this the road performance due to the fuels.’
map promises an ‘intention to investigate tighter
fuel regulations and limits on the number of Cry Wolff
fuels used’. But could this mean a single fuel Perhaps not surprisingly, on the publication
spec, as is the case in the WEC? of the road map not everyone in Formula 1
‘This has to be discussed,’ Simon says. was delighted with what it contained. ‘This is
‘The fact is that to develop a bespoke fuel for the FIA’s vision and proposal and we haven’t
each engine is not realistic … [but] it is a very accepted it,’ Mercedes team boss Toto Wolff
good tool for the development of technology said following the meeting where it was
because by doing specific fuels, and mixture of presented. ‘The flaw of the concept is that it’s a
chemicals, you can understand exactly the effect completely new engine and new investment.
of combustion. It is very useful. It portrays it in a way of this is how we’re going
‘I have worked with different fuel companies forward and none of the current manufacturers
and they have all the understanding and it was particularly impressed.’
In 2014 and 2015 Mercedes and Honda (pictured) used exhaust is interesting knowledge for their fuel and Renault managing director Cyril Abiteboul
layouts designed to allow the MGU-H to recover maximum energy. combustion experts,’ Simon adds. ‘I have had had similar reservations, claiming that rather
The new regulations should switch focus on to maximising the ICE good experiences developing the engine and than a simple re-work of the current 1.6-litre V6
engines what is being proposed in the road map
constitutes ‘a new engine on which we would
have to make substantial development and
substantial financial commitment without an
understanding of the broader picture of what
Formula 1 would look like past 2020.’
Abiteboul went on to claim that the
roadmap does little for private tuners wanting
to enter the sport. ‘I don’t see how what has
been presented would be offering a model for
an independent engine manufacturer. It lowers
the cost of access for a car maker, but you would
still need a substantial amount of dollars to
spend into research and development to make
any business plan work for the new engine. That
is actually our problem, that we need to spend
again, just like a new entrant would have to
spend. But I don’t think an Ilmor or a Cosworth
will be able to go for it independently without
the [backing] of another car company.’
Horse play
Ferrari, too, was unhappy with the proposals, to
the point where its chairman and CEO Sergio
Marchionne make a thinly veiled threat to quit
Formula 1 if the roadmap was not amended.
‘There are things we don’t necessarily agree
Removing the MGU-H could reduce the complexity of power units and spell the end of the split turbo concepts used on some with in the roadmap. One of which is the fact
designs such as this 2017 Honda. To make up the power deficit from losing the MGU-H a more potent MGU-K will be used that somehow powertrain uniqueness is not

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Engine Systems
A-8600 Bruck/Mur, Kaltschmidstraße 2-6
Phone: +43(0)3862 51 250 0
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e-mail: engine@pankl.com www.pankl.com
The design and

development of
the power unit will
not be possible until
all of the information
Fuel flow meters are set
to still play an important part
is released’
in F1 power units beyond 2021
going to be one of the drivers of distinctiveness changed,’ Guenther Steiner of the Haas F1 funded manufacturers cannot get a head
of the participants line-up,’ Marchionne said. ‘I team says. ‘Now they need to work on the start on smaller concerns. ‘Work will continue
would not countenance this going forward. But detail of the concept to achieve the goals over the next 12 months to define certain
if we change the sandbox to the point where they’ve set themselves with more noise, more elements of the power unit, but the design
it becomes an unrecognisable sandbox, I don’t equality, and lower costs for the customer and development of the complete power unit
want to play any more. I don’t want to play teams. Hopefully, they can achieve it.’ will not be possible until all the information is
NASCAR globally, I just don’t.’ released at the end of 2018. This aims to ensure
False premise that manufacturers continue to work on the
Positive feedback Some, including Williams technical director current specification power unit,’ an official FIA
But not everyone thinks the roadmap is flawed. Paddy Lowe, feel that the route to improving statement read. ‘During the remaining part of
Both Cosworth and Ilmor have stated that Formula 1 has nothing to do with power units 2017 and 2018, the FIA and F1 will also work
they feel that it puts them in a position where anyway. ‘The more you leave things alone the with the teams to establish power unit test
they could consider returning to the sport, and closer the racing becomes. You see that with the and development restrictions as well as other
Aston Martin has said it is willing to consider engines today, as they are a lot closer than they cost containment measures.’
developing its own power unit, while some were three years ago. I think the new regulation But is that time-scale realistic? ‘I think that if
already working in the Formula 1 paddock change has to be done with great care. I find we have a reasonable discussion we should be
certainly see it as a useful starting point. it curious that people place emphasis on new able to have a good understanding of where we
‘I think they’ve thrown out a good concept regulations needed to create convergence are going in the first quarter of next year, and
to start off with. Now the details can be worked when it does the opposite.’ then refining it towards the end of the year, but
out by the technical people. The concept is Crucially, the road map has been left the target of having the regulation set next
out there and I don’t think the concept will be deliberately vague in some areas, so that well year is really possible,’ Simon insists.
Toto Wolff Cyril Abiteboul Guenther Steiner

‘The flaw of the concept is that it’s a completely ‘I don’t see how what has been presented ‘They need to work on the detail of the concept to
new engine and new investment … None of the would be offering a model for an independent achieve the goals they’ve set themselves; with more
current manufacturers was particularly impressed’ engine manufacturer’ noise, more equality, and lower costs’

TECHNOLOGY – GRAINGER AND WORRALL
Cast away
There’s much more to casting high performance engine parts than
simply pouring liquid metal into a mould – as Racecar discovered
on a visit to Formula 1 supplier Grainger and Worrall
By GEMMA HATTON
Two different types of sand are used to manufacture the sand cores and the moulds of the casting. The regular sand has grains of 0.2mm thickness but for the more complex and
intricate shapes a finer, partly synthetic, sand with grains of just 0.1mm is used in a hot curing process, so that the printed layers of sand are more compact and therefore stronger
I
n a Formula 1 engine during the engines that we’ve seen in F1 and, are starting V8 era, which was only three years ago, are
combustion process the instantaneous gas to see in other championships, results in the now no longer strong enough.’
temperature reaches 2600degC, which is engine stresses and temperatures reaching This is one factor that has driven Grainger
half as hot as the sun’s surface, and the gas new levels,’ explains Phil Ward, director of and Worrall to develop new casting processes,
pressure forces are equivalent to four elephants performance products at Grainger and Worrall, new material chemistries and new tooling. ‘An
acting on each of the pistons. Within a blink of which is a world leader in manufacturing additional consequence of these high engine
an eye an F1 engine completes 200 ignitions, structural engine castings. ‘The increase in running temperatures are the demands on
with 43 trillion calculations over a race distance. temperature is more of a challenge than the the cooling circuits,’ Ward adds. ‘In previous
And it only takes one combustion error in 37 increase in stress, because the aluminium alloys engine generations the water jackets, for
million to cause a terminal failure. within the engine experience a dramatic drop example, had relatively simple internal
With these figures in mind we can maybe off in strength once a threshold temperature shapes, now their complexity means it’s
start to appreciate the phenomenal challenge has been exceeded. A material that is perfectly almost impossible to use traditional tooling
facing motorsport engine manufacturers. ‘The strong at 160 to 180degC will behave like toffee methods without compromising the design.
shift towards small capacity turbocharged above 250degC, so the alloys we used in the However, with our sand printing capabilities

‘We use sand printing
because it gives us an
almost infinite capability
to derive shape and size,
with minimal constraints’
concept. However, every stage demands a

detailed engineering and scientific approach to
ensure the final product is of the highest quality
to meet the high demands of motorsport.
Like all processes in modern engineering,
the first step is to generate a 3D CAD model. As
is the case with most components, this tends
to be a battle between the designers who want
their optimised shape and the manufacturers
who want a design they can actually make.
‘This is the first engagement we have with our
customers and in most cases the customers
desires lack manufacturing ability,’ Denholm
says. ‘We then work simultaneously with
them within the virtual world where we have
the maximum opportunity to make changes
with no time or cost implication. We also use
simulations to analyse the casting process and
how the moulds and the cores behave when in
contact with liquid metal. The aim is to arrive
at a product, in the shortest time possible, that
meets their functional requirements and our
manufacturing requirements.’
Once the sand cores have been printed they are assembled into the final mould. Coolers and feeders are Design freedom
made to help control rate of solidification so that the tightest micro-structures are formed for high strength The capabilities of sand printing already offers
advantages at this initial stage because it
we have more freedom to achieve this required don’t need to make steel tools or buy large removes many physical constraints associated
complexity because we can effectively print machines. Both motorsport and automotive with traditional tooling, allowing more design
these shapes as a single piece.’ are adding levels of complexity in terms of the freedom. ‘We can now make the ship in the
Every championship that races bespoke shapes, physical and mechanical performance, bottle, which we couldn’t before,’ Denholm says.
engines, including the likes of F1, LMP1, LMP2, and sand printing does a particularly good job Once the design has been finalised in the
WRC, WRX and Moto GP, utilise Grainger and of allowing us to optimise that.’ virtual world, Grainger and Worrall engineers
Worrall cast parts such as cylinder heads and then have to think inside-out, because to
engine blocks, as well as transmission and Sand printing manufacture a cast part you also have to
gearbox housings. The technology at the heart Essentially, sand printing is where a layer of manufacture the parts that aren’t there, such as
of Grainger and Worrall is sand printing, which sand, 0.25mm thick, is printed onto a ‘jobbox’, the voids. This is why the sand cores are used
is used in over 75 per cent of its motorsport followed by a layer of chemical binder and then and they can be manufactured in two ways. The
products. It allows the manufacture of intricate a further layer of sand. In this way, complex 3D first is similar to building a sandcastle – a pattern
and complex shapes within a part which cannot shapes can be gradually generated, slice by is machined and filled with sand and the desired
be achieved through machining. slice. This type of rapid prototyping technology shape formed – or 3D sand printing is used.
‘We use sand printing because it gives us is used to manufacture ‘cores’ which are ‘We have two printers that produce sand in a
an almost infinite capability to derive shape then secured within the moulds of a casting. similar mechanical way, but have very different
and size, with minimal constraints,’ says Keith Molten metal is poured into the cast and, once chemical systems,’ Denholm says. ‘The first is a
Denholm, engineering and technology director solidified, the sand cores are shaken out; leaving cold curing process, where the binder fixes the
at Grainger and Worrall. ‘It’s also a relatively low the desired and intricate holes and passageways layers of sand at ambient temperature, as they
investment cost process so we can very quickly inside the part. This process of casting with 3D are printed. Therefore, once the part is finished,
go from a drawing to a product because we printed sand cores may seem a relatively simple it is already glazed which makes it robust and

suitable for large moulds. But for the more

intricate cores we need a stiffer, more accurate
sand, so we use a hot curing process. Here, the
infrared lamp in the printer heats the layers of
binder in between the sand to initiate the curing
process and evaporate any moisture, before the
parts are placed in a microwave for a final cure.’
Finer grains
The hot curing process enables the binder to
retain its strength for longer by compacting the
sand, which is essential for parts such as the Main pic and above: sand printing has allowed the manufacture of the intricate shapes needed for modern
cooling jackets which sit between two cylinder race engines while maintaining the strength for the sand cores to survive 700degC of molten aluminium
bores in an engine block. The sand core for a
cooling jacket at its thinnest cross section is says Denholm. ‘This is why we not only have printer and due to its size it is only used four
1.8mm and with a grain of conventional sand several types of sand with different chemistries, times a week for 20-hour cycles, because
at 0.2mm, only nine grains of sand will make but also different curing mechanisms as well. it generates so many parts.
up that cross section. Not only is this inherently With these two printers we can mix and match Unlike other additive manufacturing
weak, but the liquid metal could actually the sands and select what is appropriate in processes, sand printing does not require
penetrate between these grains, resulting in a terms of time, feature and cost.’ any supports to be printed to hold the piece
blockage. Therefore, a partly synthetic sand is together during printing. This is because the
used for the hot curing process, which has grains Multi-tasking sand is so compact within the cured layers, it
at 0.1mm to ensure that more grains are packed Another advantage to sand printing is that actually provides structure for itself. However,
into these thinner cross sections. Essentially, the many parts can be arranged on the same other structural features may be necessary
sand has to be strong enough to withstand the jobbox, as long as they are separated. to ensure the cores are held together and
thermal loads of 700degC liquid metal during Volumetrically, up to 80 per cent of the space is assembled in the correct positions within the
casting, but weak enough to shake out of the utilised, which can equate to six to eight pieces mould. You may wonder why several cores are
mould once the part has been cast. for an eight to 10 hour cycle on the hot curing used, as opposed to a single core. ‘Technically,
‘When in contact with the molten metal, the printer, which hasn’t been switched off for the we can produce a monoblock of sand, which
sand will want to expand by approximately one last three months. The jobbox of the cold cure replaces several cores, but you would never
per cent, which is not dimensionally accurate,’ printer is 16 times larger than the hot cure do that from a manufacturing standpoint,’
‘We can now make the ship in the bottle, which we couldn’t before’
The molten aluminium needs to avoid exposure to air as much as possible and this is why the flow of the metal in the mould is controlled through some very complex gating systems
Denholm says. ‘Firstly, how can you be sure that surface area could be as large as a tennis court,’ a cylinder head where the explosion happens.
everything is right and that all the powdered explains Denholm. ‘Bear in mind that aluminium This is typically an area where fatigue is most
sand is removed? Also, when the metal is loves oxygen, and aluminium oxide is a ceramic likely to occur and so we need to solidify
poured in, the air has to displace out, so we which doesn’t weld together with metal in a that first to initiate a tighter microstructure
don’t want it to be hermetically sealed. There casting, so you end up with different materials with smaller grains. Therefore, we use coolers
are obvious benefits to a single core as the loads distributed within the structure. As they are because the metal will have less time to grow
are more uniformly distributed as opposed to not connected, they cannot transfer thermal before it solidifies. If you stop a snowflake from
gluing an assembly together and it also reduces or mechanical stress, creating cracks which are growing, it will remain small, which is why on
the variability in position. However, we might the basis of fatigue, and fatigue is the biggest cold snowy days the snow is more like frost,
aim to make fewer cores, but never just one failure mode of aluminium parts in an engine. whereas on warmer days you get much bigger
lump of sand as that’s not the end goal.’ That is why we invest in technologies that limit snowflakes.’ This rapid solidification not only
the opportunity for aluminium to grab oxygen increases the inherent strength of the material,
Mass flow rate throughout the entire process.’ but also reduces the gas porosity within the
Once all the moulds and cores are in position, The next step is solidification. The rate and structure because gas simply doesn’t have time
molten metal, usually aluminium alloy, is poured distribution of solidification can be manipulated to escape during solidification.
and the casting is born. However, this pouring to suit the performance requirements of specific As well as initialising solidification in
process has the potential to significantly areas of the casting. Theoretically, molten particular areas, the aim is to also solidify the
reduce the quality of the aluminium. Therefore, metal solidifies by transferring heat to its part in a consistent way. However, the varying
precisely engineered gating systems are used surroundings, which in most cases is the sand.
to manage the mass flow rate of the metal at If the sand was inert and thermally inactive, the
every point as it fills the mould. This avoids any metal would stay liquid forever. Naturally, the
velocities exceeding a critical criteria which
could induce turbulence, reducing quality.
rate at which the heat conducts from the metal
depends on the surrounding media. Therefore,
‘Sometimes we
‘We also ensure that we fill a mould uphill.
If you pour metal in from the top, the metal will
areas of the casting can either be insulated to
keep the metal liquid, or placed next to a heat deliberately manufacture
cascade down from layer to layer and backfill,
similar to a shower. The water coming out of
sink, which has a high heat capacity (usually iron
or steel) and conducts heat away quickly. This is parts not to be straight,
a shower head has a much larger surface area
exposed to air than if you were to fill the bath
how Grainger and Worrall can precisely control
the growth of the crystalline structure as the because during
solidification the part
up through the plughole. The latter will expose metal transitions from liquid to solid.
the water to the area of the bath, roughly a ‘Unfortunately, this process doesn’t happen
square metre. If you drop that amount of water instantaneously, it’s like the growth of a
in through droplets in a shower, the combined snowflake,’ Denholm says. ‘Take the gas face of will straighten itself’
Detailed analysis on every cast product includes CT scanning, X-Ray and optical measurement. This allows G&W to quickly identify any defects within the casting, and their cause
thicknesses of areas of the part disrupts this but is restricted by the moulds and the cores,’ sit on a turntable and a beam of X-rays is passed
uniformity, and so coolers are also used to Denholm says. ‘So it starts to react to that and through the part and a line detector builds
mitigate this. ‘We are always trying to solidify generate residual stress. We work very hard up an image of it in mm slices. This 20GB set
in a predictable way. Invariably, where we to reduce this stress but it’s impossible to of data is then imported into a software
will channel the metal in at the bottom will remove it completely. In fact, sometimes program which reconstructs the images using
remain the hottest point, but we also want we deliberately manufacture parts not to 250 million greyscales to determine the solid
feeders at the top to be liquid. Once the mould be straight because we know that during sections and ultimately generates a 3D model of
is full, coolers and insulators can be used to solidification, the part will straighten itself.’ the actual component. This is then overlaid with
maintain the desired solidification pattern the initial CAD model sent by the customer and
throughout the part,’ says Denholm. Scan analysis any areas of variation are highlighted.
A further consideration is that after the Once the part is set, and the sand cores and ‘Casting is not a heterogenous process, so
metal has solidified it contracts volumetrically moulds have been removed, the casting is the part will always have slight differences in
by approximately seven per cent, changing the taken through a journey of machining and shape and size and the nature of solidification
size of the part significantly. To account for this, heat treatments. This ensures that geometric will cause defects,’ Denholm explains. ‘But we
insulated tubes, or feeders, are placed on top of tolerances for the in-cases of the bearings, for can do dimensional scanning to forensically
the mould and retain the aluminium in a liquid example, are in the order of 10 microns, which verify the quality of our parts and determine
state for as long as possible to continuously simply can’t be achieved in the bulk casting the potential cause of defects.’
fill the voids generated by this contraction. Then the analysis begins. The majority of the Grainger and Worrall also has optical
‘We’ve got this casting that wants to contract, parts go straight into the CT scanner, where they scanning systems which analyse the surface
The majority of the components go straight into the CT scanner

measurements of parts and build up models, times, here it is potentially at its highest in terms
although this cannot ‘see’ the inside of the of quality, but not perfect,’ Denholm says. ‘It’s
component. However, once calibrated, these like any natural process in the world, you have
optical scanners can use a pre-set program this entropy effect where you go from a state
and analyse the quality of production volumes of order to a state of less order. But we know
with no need for an operator. that, so we have to ensure that at each stage we
‘Usually, the first batch of parts are minimise that quality loss as much as possible.’
completely usable, but we may decide to
implement minor adjustments of 0.5mm or Monitoring variations
0.25mm to our tooling,’ Ward says. ‘By using As mentioned previously, the biggest enemy is
our CT and optical scanners we can continue oxygen, and during the melting and pouring,
this iterative process so that by the second or where the metal is exposed to the most amount
third batch, the products have reached the fully of air, it can form an oxide. Once in the mould,
adjusted condition. Ten years ago, to make a the issue then becomes the organic compounds
Phil Ward (left) is director of performance products at G&W while casting, it would take seven weeks to make the within the fixers of the sand cores, which begin
Keith Denholm (right) is its engineering and technology director tool, then there was a long validation process to decompose, generating gas. The metal needs
of the first sample part and only then could to be kept as pure as possible, because any
you start manufacture. Now, we can receive form of impurity, no matter how small, could
a modified design from an F1 customer on a lead to the beginnings of a fatigue failure when
Thursday, use our printed sand processes to subjected to the extreme engine loads.
cast the parts, inspect them using our new CT ‘Every day, things will be slightly different,’
technology within three hours, and supply says Denholm. ‘From the variations in ambient
race grade parts the following Tuesday. It’s an temperature to the amount of fixers in the
extreme example, but it means our motorsport cores, which means one day you can get a
customers can introduce developments almost bad outcome and the next you can get a great
weekly, which is a radical step from the past.’ outcome. With so many variables to control
it is rare to actually increase the quality of the
Quality control metal throughout its journey and therefore the
The secret to achieving a high performance only strategy is to minimise the quality loss at
casting is to use the highest quality metal. each stage. Perfection doesn’t have a bi-lateral
However, this is impossible because every tolerance, you can either be perfect or not.
processing stage throughout the metal’s life If you set a standard of no defects, you can
cycle reduces the quality of it, and introduces only ever go one way. That is why it is so
The finished product. Grainger and Worrall has supplied parts to the potential of impurities. essential to understand what is driving the
many high-end motorsport series and also works in automotive ‘The very presence of an atmosphere causes variations within our processes. However,
all manner of issues for us when working casting with sand printed technology has
with metals. The metal starts life as ingot and stood the test of time, because it works,
although it has already been processed many and works really well for our applications.’
The metal needs to be kept as pure as possible, because any form

of impurity could lead to the beginnings of a fatigue failure
Star cast
G
rainger and Worrall’s try new things, evaluate and improve. to a cylinder head from Moto GP, the ‘Now there are arguably three or four
continuous drive for This has helped us develop an differences are more subtle.’ companies across Europe who have
innovation and development innovation culture,’ explains Denholm. Although high end racing the capability to produce the same
has helped it win nine awards over the ‘The new technologies we are seeing demands obsessive attention to level of product as we can, but in
last five years. It has supplied parts to are often first deployed in motorsport, detail, supplying spec series comes motorsport terms, no one is matching
every F1 constructors’ champion, and which means we can become very with its own challenges, too. Not only our technology on the scale that we
nearly every F1 race winner since the early adopters of technology because do these championships want high are achieving,’ Ward says.
early 2000s, with its involvement in we have a market to place it in. We performing products, but they also ‘It is still open competition,’ says
other series proving equally successful. don’t have to wait for the next product want impressive durability, reliability Denholm. ‘We have no right to be
In the a 12 month period last cycle of a car manufacturer to jump on and they also need equality. a dominant force in the industry,
year, Grainger and Worrall estimates the bandwagon of the newest tech.’ but we’ve had a head start and
it has completed 400 turnkey Ward adds: ‘F1 is at the forefront Print run learnt our lessons. Every team sets
products within the motorsport and of that drive for innovation, because Sand printing technology is unique out their business plan to win the
prototype teams. ‘These departments they are the most stressed engines we to Grainger and Worrall in motorsport championship, and putting their plans
are effectively the heartbeat of our supply. However, what works in F1, and has been the key to its success. at risk with mediocre or late product
business, from which all other areas also works for other high-end series When purchased around four years is not an option. The option is you
can benefit from. The fast-paced of racing. A cylinder head for an F1 ago, the sand printers were one of the supply perfect product on the day,
demands from motorsport forces us to engine doesn’t look much different first in the UK, and most likely Europe. and in the quantity, that they want it.’

NATIONAL
MOTORSPORT
ACADEMY
*All subject to contract. Please ask for details. All prices +VAT
FORMULA 1 – SAFETY
Agents of Shield
An alternative F1 cockpit protection device was aired in
practice at the British GP last year – but a disappointing test,
and lack of time, resulted in the decision to go with the Halo
By SAM COLLINS
B
efore the British Grand Prix 2017, look nearly as sleek as the concept renderings The design of the Shield immediately raised
the latest in a line of experimental circulated when it was announced. However, concerns over its impact on driver visibility
cockpit safety systems was trialled on the design did seem to get a generally positive during a race, with reflections, the build up of
a Ferrari SF70H during free practice. response in terms of its aesthetics. dirt and indeed water during wet conditions
Dubbed the Shield, the device is designed to Made up of an as yet undisclosed polymeric a factor. Understanding some of these issues
protect a driver’s head from flying debris, such material from the polycarbonate family, the was part of the reason for the short test at
as that which killed Henry Surtees in F2 in 2009 prototype weighed in at around 4kg, with Silverstone. But the test was not a success.
and Justin Wilson in IndyCar in 2015. another 2kg for its mounting plate. Four variants Sebastian Vettel, the driver who tried it out on
The new device was developed following of the Shield were developed, two different track, actually cut the run short as he disliked
the mixed response to the steel Halo device shapes with two different thicknesses available it so much. ‘We had more runs planned with it,
trialled in 2016, and also the Aeroscreen tested for each of the two. The version used at its but I didn’t like it so we took it off. I got a bit
by Red Bull. Early in 2017 it was announced that Silverstone test was the thinner of the two, the dizzy and forward vision is not very good.
a cockpit protection system would definitely be thicker version weighs an additional 2kg. I think it’s because of the curvature, you
introduced for 2018 and for a while the Shield get quite a bit of distortion, plus you get
looked to be best solution. But, F1 opted for the Dizzy spell quite a bit of downwash down the straights,
controversial Halo, which saw some interesting One of the reasons for the two different pushing the helmet forwards,’ he said.
variations at pre-season testing, 2018. thicknesses was that the Shield had yet to be
subjected to all of the impact tests, which Wind Shield
Shield revealed have previously involved a complete 20kg wheel The design would clearly have an impact on the
Silverstone was the first chance for most of the and tyre assembly being fired at the cockpit overall aerodynamics of the car, but according
paddock, the media and indeed the public to protection device at 225kph. IndyCar is now to one team engineer the effect ‘is not huge,
see the Shield, which when revealed did not going through this process with its aeroscreen. it does not seem to have a big hit on the rear
Questions were raised about driver egress from the tight cockpit opening created by the sloping sides of the Shield. Two different shaped versions of the device had been produced

‘I got a bit dizzy and forward vision is not
wing, but of the two shapes we found that both
had an impact on the airbox; one shape was a
very good. I think it’s because of the curvature’

bit of a positive impact, the other had a bit of a
negative impact, so we will need to work around
that once we know what shape we will get.
There is a small overall drag reduction too.’ that neither looked exactly like the renderings, though that has some very different mounting
Visual distortion caused by the relatively is that time was too short to change the design point challenges which needed to be carefully
tight curvature seems a hard challenge to of the 2018 monocoques to accommodate it defined in the technical regulations.
overcome, it is less of an issue in Le Mans as originally envisaged. As the teams began
Prototypes, for example, as the screens are not to finalise their monocoque designs around Weighty issues
as curved, while in fighter aircraft (such as the August time last year, it was not possible for The varying weights of the Halo (over 15kg) and
F16) reference points are much further away so them to use the somewhat sleeker concept and Shield (6 to 10kg) would have also have had an
the effect of the distortion is lessened. instead a more upright version was created. impact on the overall layout of the car in terms
Another issue which has been raised is driver ‘It helped a bit that we knew that it will of centre of gravity height and overall weight
extrication, not just in an accident but in normal be a single spec component supplied by the distribution. In Formula 1 there is only a very
circumstances. The design effectively raises the FIA to all of us, so that would have helped us small window allowed for weight distribution
height of the side of the cockpit making it much define things a lot. We wouldn’t have needed to and the introduction of the cockpit protection
harder for a driver to get out. Indeed, former experiment ourselves with shapes and getting system will require other components to be
Formula 1 driver and television pundit Martin it through tests and things,’ explained one moved. While the Halo decision is unpopular,
Brundle, watching the Ferrari driver climbing Formula 1 team’s chassis designer. teams were relieved a decision was taken, and
out of the car, pointed out that should he the discussion continues for the best solution.
stumble at the wrong moment he may well find Time constraint However, not everyone believes that any
himself in quite considerable pain if he were ‘The problem we had was that there was just additional cockpit protection system is required
to land with his legs either side of the narrow no time,’ he added. ‘We needed to know the at all and perhaps the most outspoken critic of
upper edge of the Shield. details before the summer break, otherwise it them all is, ironically enough, one of the drivers
Vettel did not comment on that exact was just too late.’ Further testing of the Shield these devices have been designed to protect:
point, while he down played the extrication had been planned at both the Hungarian Grand Romain Grosjean. ‘I’ve made myself clear since
issue, too: ‘It doesn’t help getting out of the Prix and at the Italian Grand Prix in September. the beginning: we don’t need anything, I’m
car, but that is probably getting used to it However, ultimately, the Formula 1 Strategy against every Halo or Shield or whatever, it’s
more than anything,’ he said. Group decided that the time was too tight to not F1,’ he says. ‘This is as bad as the Halo. I tried
One of the reasons that there were two implement the Shield for 2018, so as a result the the Halo last year, I hated it, it made me sick, so
different shapes of Shield in development, and unloved Halo device has now been employed, we haven’t yet found a good solution.’
Vettel ran with the Shield fitted in FP1 at Silverstone. He was not The Formula 1 Strategy Group ultimately made the decision to introduce the Halo device to F1 in 2018,
impressed, criticising the reduced vision and the aero downwash despite it being unpopular with fans. It also provided big aero and structural challenges to overcome

INSIGHT – FUEL FLOW METERS
In full flow
Leading fuel flow meter producer Sentronics talks us through the
intensive product development programme that has helped it
scoop the Formula 1 supply contract for 2018/19
By GEMMA HATTON
M The challenge was

otorsport engineers are notorious invasive alternative to measure fuel flow is
for going to any length to gain ultrasonic technology. The challenge, however,
to take the concept

performance. For example, the was to take the concept of ultrasonic flow
latest fuel flow meter (FFM) measurement that had traditionally been
of ultrasonic flow
variants can achieve accuracies of better than used in large oil and gas pipelines, and develop
one per cent and yet teams have still invested an accurate meter which could then be
time and money to find a small advantage here. packaged for use on a racecar.
In some cases they’ve purchased several fuel ‘At the time, highly accurate ultrasonic measurement and
flow sensors for testing and established which devices were limited to six-inch pipe diameters
one under-reads the most. By fitting this they
can squeeze an extra few tenths of a per cent of
and greater, and the technology was not suited
or robust enough for motorsport,’ says Meech.
develop an accurate
fuel into the engine, while still complying with
the regulations. It’s quite clear, then, why these
‘Some said that it would never work, especially
as we needed to achieve measurements within
meter that could be
devices need to be as accurate as possible.
Mechanical flow meters traditionally use an
+/- 0.25 per cent error, which was at least four
times better than any similar sized ultrasonic
used on a racecar
impeller located between the inlet and outlet equipment could achieve back then. As
of a pipe. The flow of the fluid spins the impeller engineers we questioned the scientific reason
and the number of revolutions are counted; behind this – was it because no one had ever
measuring the flow rate. However, in a racing tried to develop it before? Because if so, we
engine a mechanical system cannot keep up wanted to pioneer the technology to make it
with the highly dynamic changes in flow rate happen.’ The latest Sentronics Fuel Flow Elite
caused by moving from zero to maximum Sensor, which will be used in Formula 1 next
throttle within a fraction of a second. year, is specified to achieve accuracies of
‘An impeller has mass by its very nature,’ +/- 0.25 per cent of reading across operating
says Neville Meech, director of Sentronics. ‘As conditions, which conforms to the technical
a result of this, when the impeller attempts specification set out by the FIA since 2014.
to rotate at a rate matching fuel consumption Mission accomplished, then. But how?
the inertial effects will cause the device to
overshoot and then undershoot, resulting in Quickened pulse
immediate measurement errors.’ Located at either end of a thin tube are two
piezoelectric transducers. These are effectively
Solid state ceramic discs, suspended in a fuel resistant
‘The other problem with most mechanical housing, which convert electrical energy
devices is they do not respond well with into ultrasound pulses. In principle, a pulse
rapid reverse flows,’ Meech adds. ‘When the is sent from one transducer to the other, in
brakes are applied and the engine revs drop, the direction of flow. This is then followed
typically a water hammer effect is momentarily by another pulse sent back to the original
created within the fuel system due to the fuel transducer in the opposite direction. With the
column coming to an abrupt stop. An impeller distance between transducers known, the time
flow meter cannot stop quickly enough, and of flight of both pulses is measured and then
then reverse its direction, so once again you subtracted to determine the velocity. As the
introduce significant errors. These fundamental tube diameter is also known, the flow rate of
problems were identified many years ago the fuel can be easily calculated.
during potential technology assessments and ‘One problem with ultrasonic flow
this is why the core technology at the heart of measurement is its fundamental principle is
our fuel flow meter is solid-state.’ volumetric, this means to calculate mass flow
Solid state essentially means no moving accurately a density measurement is required.
parts and, in principle, the most suitable non- Very accurate density measurement is typically

Low flow technology could
be particularly useful in
a sportscar series that
Sentronics is an industry leader in
requires refuelling
the development and manufacture of
solid state ultrasonic fuel flow meters
and mass flow rate is calculated, which is the

final figure all the engineers are after.
But what is the optimum strategy for
sending the ultrasound pulses to achieve the
highest accuracy? How often and how quickly
should the signals be sent? And is it better to
send the signals together or one at a time?
‘The biggest complexity comes when you
performed using a Coriolis or tuning fork have to measure the flow rate faster than 200
densitometer, which just don’t work when times a second, which is generally the industry
subjected to vehicle NVH (Noise, Vibration standard for ultrasonic flow meters,’ Meech says.
and Harshness). Hopefully this will change ‘Acoustic energy takes time to decay away, less
as densitometer technology advances but time between measurements means you need
the best option at present is to calculate techniques and algorithms to deal with any
density using a very accurate temperature unwanted ultrasonic signals that have not had
measurement, and calculate density based time to fully decay. Our patented technology
on fuel samples which have had the density allows us to achieve highly accurate time
properties very accurately measured under of flight measurements even with all these
laboratory conditions,’ explains Meech. ‘If you interfering signals being present.
were 3degC out on temperature you could end ‘It was established early on in development
up with a 0.5 per cent error within the sensor.’ that the industry standard measurement rates
Once the temperature of the fuel has been were just not going to give accurate readings
identified, the necessary look-up is performed for on-vehicle applications, we needed to

‘We needed to increase increase the measurement rate to sample the sensor is made purely from a single metallic
flow rate in excess of 2200 times a second material, avoiding the need for any plastic parts.
the measurement rate,

to ensure that any vehicle or engine borne All materials used also have to be
vibration exerted into the fluid column is compatible with all the different variants of fuel
measured correctly and not aliased.’ including ethanols, methanols and additives.
to sample the flow A further consideration is the type of This is particularly important for any rubber
materials used. As ever, it’s crucial to minimise seals because when rubber is impregnated with
rate in excess of 2200 weight, but, for once, composite components fuel it can increase in stiffness, which can effect
may not be the answer. By using a range of the ability to transmit the ultrasound pulses.
times a second’ materials, the different rates of expansion
with temperature can become geometrically
Another challenge is repeatability. ‘It’s
difficult enough to make one perfect sensor
complex and result in introducing a further which achieves the required high levels of
source of error and potential leak paths. precision, but the bigger challenge is making
Therefore, to ensure consistent device-to-device that repeatable, when you have to make 100,
repeatability it is more effective to construct 500, or more,’ Meech says.
the sensor out of one type of material, rather ‘Ultimately, our aim has been to create a
than using the algorithms or calibration to technology where the sensors native response
compensate for different material expansion to a flow rate stimulus is consistent from
rates. In the case of Sentronics, the fuel flow meter to meter. This has been our biggest
achievement over our four year development
and we look forward to the devices becoming
commonplace in motorsport.’
Calibration methods
Any sensor supplier may state impressive
accuracy, but how do they know the
measurement readings are actually true? This
is where calibration comes in. Calibration is
defined as a series of interrelated measurements
and operations which compare the reading of
a device to a traceable standard. In this way, a
relationship is established between the quantity
measured by the device and the measurement
of the same quantity by the reference.
For regulatory use, each sensor is measured
against a known stimulus and, once adjusted,
the combined measurement uncertainty
cannot exceed +/-0.25 per cent of flow rate
Toyota practices changing the FFM, located behind driver’s door on LMP1 cars. Flow meters measure average flow in WEC across a range of flow conditions that will
All the GT and prototype cars in IMSA carry a fuel flow meter this season because, according to the series, the teams’ fuel consumption reporting has been ‘questionable at best’

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To ensure consistent device-to-device repeatability it’s more effective to

construct the sensor out of one type of material
Top left: Sentronics has won the

tender to supply the Formula 1 grid
with its fuel flow meter for 2018
Above: The front half of the fuel flow

meter contains the tube where the
ultrasound pulses are transmitted and
the rear half houses the electronics
Left: The modular design of

Sentronics’ FFM has allowed it to
adapt the technology to both low
flow and high flow applications
A brief history of FFM
W
hile Sentronics was not the While the FIA required an accuracy to be the tool by which the FIA diesel engine, where flow and return
original supplier of the fuel of +/-0.25 per cent of reading, and measured the rate of flow. sensors were required. With its high
flow meter (FFM) back in this was largely achieved, some teams The aliasing issue remained a diesel return temperatures the Audi
2014, it is worth noting here that the identified a problem with aliasing, problem for some teams, despite R18s suffered with accuracy. The FIA
introduction of the technology into where information was being lost due numerous upgrades from the original subsequently homologated a high-
Formula 1 and the World Endurance to under-sampling of the flow rate. At supplier, but now will finally be temperature sensor to particularly
Championship was controversial. the Australian Grand Prix in 2014, eradicated with the introduction of help the diesel engines, which was
The original plan was to use the Red Bull Racing attempted to prove the Sentronics 2018 FFM. developed and supplied by Sentronics.
restriction of fuel to balance cars, that its measurements were more In the WEC, meanwhile, an Unfortunately, these sensors never
rather than an air restrictor which had accurate than that of the FFM, but accuracy problem was identified saw action, as Audi quit the WEC
been common for many years. it lost its case as the FFM was judged and unfortunately amplified in the before they were used.
Cash flow
Today, the sensors are infinitely more
accurate than in 2014, but having
improved the accuracy, the challenge
now is to reduce the costs to make
the technology more accessible (and
useful) to other race series throughout
the world. With this in mind Sentronics
says it has been able to reduce the
price of the sensor itself, due to an
increase in demand, and is now
actively offering the benefits of the
When it was in the WEC Audi’s R18 suffered with fuel flow meter accuracy problems caused by the high diesel return temperatures technology to lower formula series.

be experienced on the vehicle. This is a very
thorough process and tests conformity across a Going with the flow
range of temperatures and flow-rates.
Low flow
The concept behind Sentronics’ fuel flow
technology has proven so successful that
both low flow and high flow variants have
been developed. ‘Low flow is a very difficult
parameter to measure accurately due to your
zero flow error becoming the overriding
source of inaccuracies,’ explains Meech. ‘For
example, if you have one per cent error in your
measurement and you are measuring flow
rates of five litres/min then there is plenty of
difference in ultrasonic pulse timings to allow
for small errors. However, if the flow rate is four
ml/min, which is less than a teaspoon of fuel
per minute, one per cent error is +/-0.04ml/min,
which equates to timing differences of sub pico
second levels. This is an incredibly difficult task.’
For reference, since 2014 the new F1 power
units are using approximately 2.2 litres/min Josef Newgarden won the IndyCar title for Penske driving with a fuel flow meter, which helped the team with its strategy
maximum fuel flow (100kg/hr), compared to the
2013 V8s which were 3.3l/min (150kg/hr).
Low flow measuring devices have become
essential for both OEMs and automotive
testing companies because WLTP (Worldwide
Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure) and
RDE (Real Driving Emissions) tests are now
mandatory in the EU for new vehicles. This
focus on emissions testing requires companies
to publish figures such as fuel consumption,
so being able to very accurately monitor the
amount of fuel going into the engine has now
become even more of a necessity.
Strategic measures
In motorsport terms, low flow technology
could be particularly useful in series such as
IMSA, and other sportscars series that require
refuelling. With the ability to measure low flow
conditions with +/- 0.25 per cent accuracy, Corvette used FFMs in 2017 season. They help the team to monitor the fuel consumption during the full course cautions
when off throttle or mid-corner, the engineers
R
can get a much better understanding of the estricting fuel flow is just back to the pits, teams are competitors, but by being able to
overall fuel consumption figures which can in one application for the completely aware of when they stretch the fuel to its limit it can
turn help them to strategise their pit stops more fuel flow meter – as used need to stop for fuel, rather than deliver the results.
effectively. ‘I think we’re going to see a mind- by the FIA which regulates either relying on ECU injector data IMSA mandated Fuel Flow
set change with this technology,’ Meech says. maximum flow (in Formula 1) or alone, and that has led to some Meters in 2018 for its prototype
‘The feedback from those who have tested average flow (WEC) – but there are interesting decisions from teams and its GT cars as it targets race
with this sensor is extremely positive because other uses, as Corvette and Penske that are using these meters. capability rather than one-lap
they can change their thinking of the fuel load have discovered in US racing. speed. ‘Stint lengths [in 2017]
they need to carry, when they carry it, and Fuel consumption is relatively Economy drive continued to be a challenge
when is the best time to refuel.’ well-known under normal Corvette used the fuel flow for IMSA as the team fuel
One of the secrets behind the development conditions, but behind the safety meter in the second half of the consumption reporting was
of the low flow variant is the modular car it’s more of a challenge, 2017 season, and has been able questionable at best,’ says
design of the original Sentronics fuel flow and teams are left to calculate to stretch its fuel to the limit Geoff Carter, senior director
meter. The sensor itself is built in two halves; consumption at reduced speed. to make up for what the team technical regulations and
the front half houses the tube and the Over the past 20 years, more than says is a disparity in on track compliance, IMSA. ‘For 2018,
piezoelectric transducers, with the other a quarter of the laps at the Indy performance with the other GT IMSA will require a spec fuel flow
electronic components situated in the back 500 have been run under caution, cars. The team says that it has not meter in the IMSA-mandated data-
half. Therefore, the tube for the low flow leaving teams relatively blind to got a performance advantage logger. The erroneous reporting
version could be redesigned and then bolted their actual consumption figures. on track through the Balance of led to incorrect refuelling
on, without Sentroncis having to modify or But with the fuel flow meter Performance, or in the pits where restrictors/refuelling times and
interfere with the electronics housing. transmitting live information its refilling time is longer than its incorrect capacities.’

FORMULA 1 – FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
Tank
battle
A largely unreported, yet hugely
I
t was all change for F1 fuel suppliers at
the start of the 2017 season. ExxonMobil,
a former partner to McLaren, switched to
supplying the Renault-powered Red Bull
Racing and Toro Rosso teams with its Esso and
Mobil 1 products. Meanwhile, BP-Castrol opted
to supply McLaren and the Renault works team,
significant, fuel and lubricant while Total quit F1 in favour of the WEC for 2018.
This supplier reshuffle came at very short
development war was waged notice for the teams, the oil companies and
the power unit manufacturers, especially
in Formula 1 last season – considering that the Renault power unit,
Racecar spoke to those on the which had been designed around products
from Total, would suddenly now be running
front line to find out more both Mobil 1 and BP-Castrol, while Honda,
which had developed its V6 with ExxonMobil,
By SAM COLLINS would now also be using BP products.
This switch came so late in the day, in fact,
that there were rumours that both Renault
and McLaren were unable to use their official

Red Bull estimates that fuel and lubricant development can help to find around a quarter of a second
in lap time by the close of a season, with the majority of that improvement coming from the lubrication
partners’ products at the first test in Barcelona understood about a current F1 engine already, by F1 teams and that available at the pump is
and had to rely on those from ExxonMobil. and once we understood how the Renault substantial. But they are still fuels, and the track
David Tsurusaki, Global Motorsports engines ran we made our adjustments from is a useful development arena for the road.
Technology manager at ExxonMobil, says: ‘It there. The chemistry is different, and while I ‘Our R&D department’s workload is split
was a ridiculously short amount of time, that can’t really go into details, I can say that of the equally between road fuels and race fuels,
was the biggest challenge. Even though we had things we look at with fuel one is obviously so techniques and solutions learnt in racing
an F1 product the timeline was way too short, getting the power and reducing the knock. We can be transferred to the road fuels,’ says Mike
because we really need the previous year to want to try and minimise the knock as much as Frost, ExxonMobil technical adviser. ‘That is
work on the next year. From the fuel standpoint, we can with adjustments in the chemistry. the biggest reason for a company like this to
we started out with a baseline and we quickly ‘But it has to change as the year goes on sponsor a racing team. It allows the team to
adjusted it after the first couple of tests and and as the compression ratio changes,’ Tsurusaki improve performance on track while we can
then, by the time of Barcelona testing, we had it adds. ‘As Renault do different things to the improve our commercial product.
well dialled in by the second week.’ engine, we have to modify our product. The ‘If you looked at a road fuel, it is far more
unique thing with Formula 1 fuels is that it is complex,’ Frost adds. ‘There are a lot more
Pump action so experimental, you’re using in some cases components and it is a lot more uncontrolled.
According to Tsurusaki, that initial baseline was chemicals and concentrations of chemicals that It comes off a refinery stream, the key four or
not just 2016’s Honda fuel, but was something are not typical in an everyday fuel.’ five components will get you the RON or MON
new, due to the differing demands of the two Indeed, while Formula 1’s fuel specification number and that will be good enough for a
V6 engines. ‘It’s not the same product at all,’ he is broadly based on EU fuel regulations the road car. Every time you fill up, if you tested the
says. ‘We started with a baseline from what we actual difference between the product used fuel, then the trace you would see on the gas

Mike Frost (left) and David Tsurusaki from

ExxonMobil. Its Esso brand continues to be
aligned with the Red Bull team in 2018
we’re doing analysis at all the tyre tests too. You

can get small incremental steps, and that’s what
we’re trying to do. It all adds up.’
But the gains in performance do not just
come from the engine oil, Tsurusaki says. Many
other fluids and greases play a role all over the
car. ‘One of the first changes we made with this
partnership was the lubricant on the wheel
bearings. We actually use a commercial product
there, and going to the synthetic grease over
what the team had used previously resulted
in the temperature of the bearings going
down. That means that there was a friction
reduction which, in turn, should mean improved
performance. It’s hard to measure the effect of
ExxonMobil had limited time to get to grips with 2017 Renault PU (above) pre-season; 2016 unit was developed with Total small things like that, but they do all add up.’
For all PU suppliers in F1 the lubricants
chromatograph would probably be completely point to the lubricants instead. ‘At an engine used in the V6 engines also play a key role in
different, that is the biggest thing. But the race sensitive circuit the improvement was about a preventative maintenance, through that same
fuel is always the same; it is far more precise, tenth of a second from the fuel; the oil brings process of studying the oil itself, with samples
and it has fewer components.’ more,’ says Paul Monaghan, chief engineer at being analysed in the garages after every run.
The reason for this precision is that the fuel Red Bull Racing. ‘I think, all things considered, ‘We have a spectrographic analyser in the
used is tested for compliance not only with the the Mobil 1 [and Esso] products will have Red Bull garage,’ Frost says. ‘It has two electrodes,
technical regulations but also for the specific improved our pace by a quarter of a second at rather like an arcing welder. The oil sample is
specification used, as teams are limited on the season’s end, and that is a big improvement.’ passed through the electrodes and in about
number of different fuels they can use each 30 seconds you get a result. It excites all the
season. ‘The fuel is designed in conjunction with Science friction molecules in the oil and that produces light,
Renault,’ Frost says. ‘Once they are happy with Much of that performance development with each component in the oil has its own signature
the performance it is sent to the FIA, they then lubricants comes from simple track running. in light, and that includes the metals. From that
check it conforms to the regulations and if it The more running the power units get in we can see what metals are found in the oil.’
does then we are clear to use it at the track. The the cars the more the suppliers learn about
FIA also has a gas chromatograph and will check them. ‘You can get some performance gains Monitoring wear
our fuels against the trace.’ if you minimise wear. So if you can minimise The oil samples post-run can give a clear
While fuel specifications are limited, some friction where you can get a rateable measured indication of what is going on inside a
teams have gone as far as saying that it is one of horsepower improvement, if you’re doing the Formula 1 power unit, which is otherwise
the biggest areas of performance development combination of that and wear protection, you sealed by regulation. ‘From working with
through the year, though others disagree and can reduce wear metals which is something Renault you know what components are made
we’re monitoring closely right now,’ Tsurusaki of what materials, and that can give you a very
‘We want to minimise says. ‘We’re looking at small amounts of wear

metals; we’re testing for parts per million of
clear indication of the wear of components in
the engine,’ Frost says. ‘Sodium is something we
the knock as much as various materials. If we can reduce those wear

metal amounts, that means we’re protecting the
look at a lot. That is a marker of an additive in the
coolant, so if there is a water leak in the race, the
we can with adjustments

engine better, it means it’s going to last longer, it water will boil off, then you start to see elevated
means there’s less friction, so more horsepower. levels of sodium in the oil. So if you have sodium
in the chemistry’
We track it by engine; by every start, every showing in this result then you can make the
practice session, every qualifying and race; assumption that there is water in the oil.

‘Lead and Indium we look for as they are
the bearing materials, aluminium is the pistons,
iron is the bores, gears, crankshaft so all of those
act as a tell-tale of what is going on inside the
engine,’ Frost adds. ‘You know what the engine’s
appetite for oil is and you keep an eye out for
potential problems. You tend to see the issues in
the practice sessions when the older engines are
used, and over the years, before the car has even
left the garage, I have identified issues which I
knew would cause the car to stop on track, and
as a result I have condemned engines. It can be
the only way to see inside the engine.’
Oil cooler
Unlike most production car engines the
lubricant in some F1 V6s also has to act as a
coolant for some components within the power
unit. ‘Copper is the material for the squash plates
for the bearings, and some of the cages for
things like the bearings in the MGU-K,’ Frost says. Red Bull garage lab has spectrographic analyser that picks up light signals from oil components and from metals in the oil
‘The problems people have had with the MGU
are well known, that is an electric motor cooled
by oil, and so you can start seeing high levels of
copper in the oil when there are issues.’
But perhaps Frost will not be looking out for
copper as much as he used to in the lubricants
used in the current Renault V6, due to a change
in the design of the power unit. ‘At one point
this season we had the MGU-K being cooled
by the engine oil, so our oil had to be able to
not only lubricate the engine but also act as a
coolant,’ Tsurusaki says. ‘So, we started out with
one product and we ended up with a different
product because of that. [But] now it’s separate.’
Hot oil
The properties of the lubricants used by teams
can also play a significant role in the overall car
design, especially in terms of the cooling system,
so teams work very closely with partners to get Analysing the fuel and lubricants can give a vital insight into what is actually happening inside the sealed F1 power units
the products exactly right. ‘You have to consider
ambient temperatures,’ Monaghan says. ‘We
race in Singapore and Malaysia where it is very
‘If we can
hot; we also race in China and Silverstone where
it is not, so we need the oil to be able to deal reduce those
with that variation. We want an oil that weighs
nothing, has zero pumping losses, needs no wear metal
radiator and pushes us up 50bhp!’ he jokes.
‘The heat rejection of the engine is to some amounts it
means there’s
extent influenced by the efficiency of the
lubrication system,’ Monaghan adds. ‘So the
less friction,
more friction there is the more heat you have to
take out. The question is then how do you take
it out; by the water system, the oil system or just
general radiant heat to the surroundings? Once so more
you have established a heat rejection into the oil
system the temperature delta becomes about
the specific heat capacity of the oil. In other
horsepower’
words, how much energy does it take to warm
up 1kg of oil by 1degC; from that you know how
much oil you should need, its flow rate, and the
area required for the cooler.’
But the individual properties of the oil, The oil tank is located at the front of the V6 block on Renault PU. The lubrication
such as its cooling requirements, cannot be system plays a largely unsung role in the cooling of a modern Formula 1 racecar

‘The cam follower is actually running on an incredibly thin layer of oil’
A 2017 in-season change to the MGU-K on the Renault PU meant Oil companies are more than just F1 sponsors and ExxonMobil, which promoted its Esso and Mobil 1 brands
that ExxonMobil had to develop a new engine oil for Red Bull on the Red Bull RB13, says its involvement in Formula 1 will lead to better fuels for the road in the future
considered in isolation, its performance has different, with oil fed bearings, and that changes elements or static pushes,’ Monaghan says. ‘You
to be considered in the context of its use in a the demands on the oil too. have to gather all of that into one pipe to get it
complete oil system. ‘It is one of those things ‘Then you look at the cylinder pressures we through a cooler, get it back into the tank and
that might seem simple; you drive some oil are running and the forces in the crankshaft, then provide multiple pressure supplies into a
around the engine, cool it and stick it back in they are enormous; you look how quickly power unit with no bubbles in it, and you have
the tank,’ Monaghan says. ‘But it is amazingly you want to open and close the valves and to keep it at the right temperature.
complicated. You need to work out the pressure the stresses the camshaft sees as the valves ‘So you have to consider that you have to
drop for the oil system, so it doesn’t come back approach their maximum and minimum de-aeriate it as well as cool it somewhere too,’
with zero flow. The way you get an oil to adhere acceleration, it is immense,’ Monaghan says. Monaghan adds. ‘You are churning it round
to a metallic surface is quite impressive. It sticks Even with components such as silicon in the inside an engine and on the way it picks up air
to a surface on a molecular level so in a rubbing lubricant, preventing the oil from foaming too bubbles and you have to get those out, which is
contact such as a camshaft and a follower the much is a major challenge. ‘You take all of those something that can be done pre- or post-cooler.’
oil has adhered to the camshaft so the follower forces and demands then you blow oil around
isn’t actually running on the cam; it is actually all the other little bits we want to lubricate Development threat
running on an incredibly thin layer of oil. But at such as the gears at the front of the engine and The freedom of development of both lubricants
the bottom end of the engine the demands are various bearings dotted around with rolling and fuels is something which has attracted
major oil companies to Formula 1. But as F1
Burning issue looks to the future and a new power unit
rulebook in 2021, there are suggestions that a
single specification fuel could be adopted, as it
J
ust before the start of the the current formula you have a drugs are banned, but then telling already has been in the WEC. This is something
2017 season Paul Monaghan limit of 100kg/h of fuel into the them the maximum amount of that Tsurusaki is very much against,
of Red Bull Racing asked the engine, but a compressor which EPO they can take. ‘We feel very strongly that fuel still needs
FIA to clarify if it was permissible to will squeeze in as much air as Others echo that sentiment. ‘I to be part of the open regulations, so that we
use lubricants as fuel. The resulting you want. Once you have an air told the FIA that they should not can have the ability to modify and tweak it to
technical directive was extremely fuel mixture target that your just set an arbitrary limit.’ David optimise the engine.’ Tsurusaki says. ‘That’s an
clear: it was strictly forbidden to engine can run at then your main Tsurusaki says. ‘Because it suggests important part of our relationship, because
do so, echoing a similar technical performance limitation is that fuel that you can go up to that limit we’re doing fuel and lubricants with the race
directive issued in 2013. Yet limit, so if you can supplement without penalty, if it is clear that teams to build on technology so that this
throughout the 2017 season there your fuel supply then you remove lubes can’t be used as fuel then technology gets to road cars. Testing and
were rumours and thinly veiled or reduce that limitation.’ there really isn’t a discussion.’ looking at next generation technologies for fuel
allegations directed at two teams The situation has arisen and lubricants is attractive to us as a company.
in particular claiming that they Oil rigged because the current 1.6-litre V6 If you don’t have fuel development as part of F1
were indeed using engine oil as a In response to the allegations engines vent excess lubricant you take away half of why we are involved with
supplement to the fuel. the FIA issued a new technical directly into the combustion the sport. It is the only racing area left where
‘The potential benefits of directive halfway through the 2017 chamber. The adoption of catch you can do this. We have had some technology
doing it are clear to us, but I season limiting the maximum level tanks, as used in many other series, breakthroughs over the past year or so based
can’t be exact on how big those of oil consumption allowed to 0.9 would seem an obvious way of on F1 that we think could be used in the next
benefits are because we have not litres per 100km (roughly 2.7 litres removing the possibility of using generation of mass production fuel.’
pursued it,’ Monaghan says. ‘If you over a race distance), but this was oil as fuel. However, sources within For now, though, the quiet development
are not in breach of the regulations not welcomed by all. One engineer at least two PU development war will continue to rumble on, while also,
then the technical directives in the paddock suggests it is like teams indicate that this alone according to some in the industry, improving
should make no difference. In telling Tour de France cyclists that would not fully resolve the issue. the performance of your road car.

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