People and Organisations

Topic 5: Motivation

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Motivation is an important theoretical field for the project manager to understand. Meeting
project objectives requires that the motivational models used by project managers are fully
understood and effective

Theoretical understanding underpins best practice in terms of practical application. Scenarios

and exercises are used to reinforce understanding of theoretical concepts and develop a
practical application of these theoretical principles.

Motivation theory is critically and comparatively reviewed.

5.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To gain knowledge and understanding of the basic concepts of motivation.

To understand the basic principles in applying motivation theory in the project
environment.
To gain an insight into the fundamental principles underpinning motivation.
To experience the application of the principles of motivation from your own work
experience.

5.3 MOTIVATION

5.3.1 Definition of Motivation

Motivation is to do with needs, motives, drives, arousal, goals and incentives (McKenna,
2006). Kirchner & Dunnette (1965) produced a simple process model of motivation (Figure
1) that assists its definition. The model is cyclical and shows that human behaviour is
motivated by needs, desires and expectations. Behaviours and actions are made to bring
about the goal or outcome expected from that action or behaviour. An incentive is an

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expected outcome following specific behaviour or action. The outcome following the
behaviour or action satisfies the inner state of need, desire and or expectation. However, if
the need, desire or expectation is not satisfied then further behaviour and action will occur
until it is satisfied. Behaviour can be inaction or silence. Behaviour does not necessarily need
to be an active thing. Behaviour covers a very wide range of things such as talking, physical
movement, complete inaction and so on.

Motivation comes from the Latin word movere meaning to move. There is no one right
theory of motivation. According to Handy (1999) each individual has a “motivation calculus
mechanism” which is used for precedent setting decisions. This “motivation calculus” is
primarily concerned with energising behaviour, direction of behaviour and sustaining
behaviour. Handy argues that the motivation to act is based on the salience or strength of a
need or needs and that this expectancy “E” will lead to an appropriate result and the
instrumentality of E in reducing the need(s) where:

E = Effort, Energy, Enthusiasm and Expenditure of Time, Resources and Passion.

Inner state of
disequilibrium Behaviour
or
NEED Action
DESIRE
EXPECTANCY

Accompanied by
anticipation

Modification of inner state Incentive or Goal

Figure 1: Model of Basic Motivation Process

(After Kirchner and Dunnette (1965) in Porter & Steers (1975))

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5.3.2 Exercise 1

(a) Write down a list of the things in your current position that motivate you.
(b) Write down a list of things in your current position that reduce your motivation.
(c) Write down half a page in response to (1) and (2) below on how you would ensure, as
a project manger:

(1) The motivators you identified in (a) above are maintained for the project team
members,
(2) The de-motivators you identified in (b) above are prevented.

5.4 CONTENT THEORIES

Figure 2 Interrelatedness of Content Motivation Theories (Verma 1996, p. 69)

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Content theories of motivation focus on the specific factors in individuals or their
environments that determine behaviour.

Four content theories of motivation are briefly presented here.

(a) Maslow
(b) ERG
(c) Dual Factor
(d) Achievement/ Motivation

Figure 2 illustrates the inter-relatedness of some of the content theories – the recurrent
themes and keywords.

a) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s need theory of motivation is characterised by a simple five layer pyramid of needs
in a hierarchy. Physiological needs are at the lowest level and self actualisation is the highest
level (Figure 3).

Self
Actualisation

Self Esteem

Esteem by Others

Security

Physiological

Figure 3: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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According to this theory all lower level need must be satisfied prior to the next level of needs
being satisfied. For example it would not be possible for a person to have unsatisfied
physiological or safety needs but satisfied or seeking satisfaction of social needs (sometimes
called affiliation, esteem by others or belonging needs). Once a person has achieved a certain
level of need satisfaction, say esteem or self actualization, they are more easily re-satisfied if
lost compared to their initial satisfaction. In practical terms a project team member joining a
project team will need to satisfy social needs. If he or she feels insecure for any reason there
is no possibility for that member to satisfy social needs whilst safety or security needs go
unsatisfied.

Physiological needs are those of physical wellbeing including food and shelter. Safety needs
include security in a physical and emotional sense. Social needs are those of esteem by
others and being one of a group. Esteem is really self-esteem and confidence. Self
actualisation is the highest level of satisfaction. People who have great feelings of worth
through their work, or other situations are self actualised. It is the prime goal to aim for team
members to be self actualised through their work.

b) ERG Needs Theory

This is a theory based on three basic human needs according to Alderfer:

E = Existence
R = Relatedness
G = Growth

Existence: This is similar to Maslow’s lowest level physiological and safety needs.

Relatedness: This is similar to Maslow’s social needs.

Growth: This is similar to Maslow’s highest level needs or motivators in the Dual Theory
perspective.

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c) Dual Factor Theory

Herzberg’s Dual Factor or what some call Motivation – Hygiene Theory is a need theory
involving Motivators and Hygiene Factors. Hygiene Factors are similar to the lower three
needs in Maslow’s theory and the Motivators are similar to the two higher level needs in
Maslow’s hierarchy (Figure 73. McKenna (2006) in Table 4.1, p.99 lists characteristics of
the two factors. Essentially a personal can be very satisfied on Hygiene Factors but
unsatisfied on Motivators and vice versa. Good pay and conditions in a project do not
counterbalance the nature of the project itself or the need for a team member or project
manager to gain person growth. In other words it is not possible to substitute Motivators
with Hygiene Factors. This is important for project managers to realise when they are
developing a motivational calculus for their team members.

d) Achievement/Motivation Theory

McClelland’s theory focuses on the need people have to achieve. The desire to achieve is a
motivator. The need to compete and win is a motivator. This should inform a team leader or
project manager on the importance of opportunities to achieve for team members.

This need to achieve is a learned need/behaviour. It is not innate but activated by the external
environment. Childhood experiences play an important part in the formation of this need in a
person. Experience and age contribute to the strength of this need. It is not necessarily
predominant in all people.

5.5 PROCESS THEORIES

Process theories of motivation concentrate on understanding of the processes by which

behaviour is energised and sustained. Also, the individual’s perception of the situation rather
than objective reality is considered.

Set out below are five process theories. These are not meant to be comprehensive but do give
a good coverage of the theoretical perspective.

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Theory X & Y
Theory Z
Goal Setting Theory
Expectancy Theory
Equity theory

5.5.1 Theory X & Y

McGregor’s theory divides perceptions by managers into two categories: X and Y. Figure 4
illustrates the stereotypic perspectives collected under the two categories. In this theory
managers who view human nature to be roughly in line with the perspectives set out under
Theory X tend towards an autocratic authoritarian style of motivation and leadership. Those
managers who believe human nature to be more accurately reflected by perception shown
under Theory Y are likely to adopt participative management approaches. Motivation is
through an open style of management which allows people to satisfy higher level needs.

THEORY X THEORY Y

Work is inherently distasteful to most people Work is as natural as play if the conditions are
favourable

Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for Self-control is often indispensable in achieving
responsibility and prefer to be directed organisational goals

Most people have little capacity for The capacity for creativity in solving organisational
creativity in solving organisational problems problems is widely distributed in the population

Motivation only occurs at the physiological and Motivation occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self-
security levels actualisation levels as well as the physiological and
security levels

Most people must be closely controlled and coerced to People can be self-directed at work if properly
achieve organisational objectives motivated

Figure 4: McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

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5.5.2 Theory Z

Theory Z was a response by Ouchi to the McGregor’s Theory X and Y. It is not an extension
but a development of the concepts raised by Theory X and Y based on the consideration of
Japanese industry and the motivation of Japanese workers. The cultural difference between
Western (particularly American motivational context) and Japanese is important to consider
here. In Japan, although changing now with the rapid pace of globalisation, the concept of
life-long employment is very strong indeed. The egalitarian relationship between workers
and management is also very strong. One expert on both Japanese and Soviet industry told
the author that the Japanese make communism work. By this he meant that the Japanese
society and industrial organisations are highly collective. Therefore, the motivation of
Japanese worker occurs in a different context to that of Western workers. Nevertheless
Ouchi identified that if organisations and project teams in the West, type A (A for
American), could incorporate some of the egalitarian approaches of Japanese (type J)
organisations the result would be a type Z organisation. In type Z organisations higher
productivity was a function of two Japanese principles: the egalitarian relationships between
all members of an organisation and the fact that team members worked harder with increased
commitment because their managers worker very hard with very high commitment. Of
course the nature of project teams is that they are temporary and life-long employment is
difficult to envisage. However, elements of the Theory Z approach can inform the approach
taken by project managers.

5.5.3 Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting theory is based on the idea that clear goals are in themselves motivating to
project team members. This occurs when the goals are developed in a collective and
participative way. The whole team owns the goals and then works hard to achieve them.
However, achieving goals is a motivator.

5.5.4 Expectancy Theory

This theory is based on the linkages between effort and performance, good performance and
reward and the importance (or valence) of the reward (its attractiveness). The strength of an

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expectancy that there is a link between effort and performance and the strength of the
expectancy that there is a link between performance and reward, together with the valence of
the reward are integrated.

5.5.5 Equity Theory

This theory is simply based on the concept of equality as the name suggests. If rewards are
fair in a project team or organisation this will be motivating. A team member works
(provides inputs) and receives benefits (outcomes). Unfair reward systems will lower
motivation. Over rewarding may cause problems if the recipients are unable to achieve what
they believe to be fair inputs to balance outcomes.

5.6 INTEGRATION OF MOTIVATION THEORIES IN THE

PROJECT ENVIRONMENT

McKenna (2006) suggests a model incorporating theories of motivation to assist us in a

general approach to the theoretical understanding of the relationships involved. Verma
(1996) also suggests some principles for project managers to adopt. He argues that goals
should be developed through participation and be achievable. He thinks that work should be
fulfilling and that good communication be a feature. He sees the importance of valuing all
team members and a reward system reflecting contribution.

5.7 SUMMARY

Leadership, motivation and organisational culture are closely linked. Leadership and
motivation were defined and power authority and responsibility discussed. A case study
illustrating the importance of expert power was presented. Principles of Leadership and
theoretical concepts of leadership were outlined. The importance of the project situation and
situational factors was stressed. The project life cycle indicates different leadership
requirements and needs. This means that different project leaders may need to be involved at
the various project phases in order that leadership is effective and appropriate.

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Different theoretical perspectives were addressed. Behavioural leadership theories are based
on the actions of a leader – what leaders do and how they achieve it. Contingency
approaches are concerned with four situational factors. Attribution theories focus on the
causes and effects of behaviours. Charismatic theory is a development of attribution theory.
The leader tries to promote a common vision and encourages and inspires team members to
control their own behaviours in seeking and discovering opportunities. Leadership and
motivation are inextricably linked.

Motivation was covered under two headings: content theories and process theories. Content
theories of motivation focus on the specific factors in individuals or their environments that
determine behaviours. Process theories of motivation concentrate on an understanding of the
processes by which behaviour is energised and sustained. Also, the individual’s perception
of the situation rather than objective reality is considered.

5.8 EXERCISE 2: SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST

Now answer the following questions. Refer back to the text of Topic and the set textbook
(McKenna 2006) to make sure you have the right ideas.

What factors are important for motivating a project team?

What is the difference between content and process theories of motivation?

List as many different factors as you can affecting motivation in the project context, as you
can.

Remember to re-read the text to check your answers and read through the directed
reading to reinforce the points raised in this topic.

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5.9 EXERCISE 3: WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT FROM THIS

TOPIC?

Write half a page on the key points you have learnt from this Topic (including the directed
reading).

Write a couple of sentences on how you think working through this Topic has met the
following learning objectives:

To gain knowledge and understanding of the basic concepts of motivation.

To understand the basic principles in applying leadership and motivation theory in the
project environment.
To gain an insight into the fundamental principles underpinning motivation.
To experience the application of the principles of motivation from your own work
experience.

5.10 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

REFERENCES
* Recommended further reading

Guirdham, M. (1996) Interpersonal Skills at Work, Prentice Hall.

*Handy, C. (1993) Understanding Organisations, Penguin.

McKenna, E. (2006) Business Psychology and Organisational Behaviour: A Student

Handbook, Psychology Press.

Porter, L.W & Steers, R.M. (1975) Motivation and work behaviour, McGraw-Hill.

*Verma, V.K. (1996) Human Resources Skills for Project Managers, The Human Aspects of
Project Management Volume 2, Project Management Institute.

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Directed Reading

The set textbook for this Module is:

McKenna, E. (2006) Business Psychology and Organisational Behaviour: A Student

Handbook, Psychology Press.

For this Topic it is essential that you read:

Chapter 4 Motivation and Job Design, pp 89-132.

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