392
1,January 1992
INSULATION THERMAL LIFE CONSIDERATIONS
FOR TRANSFORMER LOADING GUIDES
W. J. McNutt, Fellow, IEEE
Berkshire Transformer Consultants, Inc.
Pittsfield. MA
ABSTRACT - Revision of industry loading
guides for transformers is currently in pro-
gress, with the objective of improving the
realism of assessment of life consumption as
a result of loading beyond nameplate rating.
The purpose of this paper is to offer recom-
mendations for a new treatment of insulation
thermal life which recognizes the effects of
more significant parameters and would enable
users to make more realistic judgements about
the impact of loading on functional life.
Background tutorial material from the pub-
lished literature is presented as an aid to
understanding the basis for the change.
INTRODUCTION
A subject of major concern to the utili-
ty industry is projected equipment life, a
quantity which by any measurement is not pre-
cisely definable. For transformers, utili-
ties apply industry loading guides ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) to
assist them in establishing loading practices
which will not unduly jeopardize life. These
guides provide equations to enable estimation
of insulation hottest spot temperature as a
function of load, and a temperature/time
relationship to compute consumption of life.
It is this latter factor, the life relation-
ship, which will be dealt with in this paper.
It must be noted that transformer loading
guides define the life of material in the
insulation system as i t is influenced by
temperature, not the functional life of the
transformer, which may also be affected by
mechanical and dielectric stresses that i t
experiences. Just dealing with the thermal
life definition, there are two aspects in-
volved, the first being the aging rate, or
rate of deterioration of physical properties
with time, and the second being the defini-
tion of the end point when life has been to-
tally consumed. Each will be discussed in
this paper, first from the perspective of the
historical background information available
in the literature and then with a view toward
more realistic coverage in the industry
loading guides. Revision of loading guides
is currently underway within the IEEE Trans-
formers Committee. This paper will provide
information to promote understanding of the
need for change and suggest appropriate
directions for the change.
91 SM 320-2 PWRD A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Transformers Committee of the IEEE
Power Engineering Society for presentation at the
IEEE/PES 1991 Summer Meeting, San Diego, California,
July 28 - August 1, 1991. Manuscript submitted
January 18, 1991; made available for printi.ng
April 16, 1991.
0885-8977/91/$3.0001992
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 7 No.
BACKGROUND
Since the invention of the power trans-
former, the conventional conductor insulation
has been some form of paper or cloth. The
main constituent of these fibrous materials
is cellulose, an organic compound whose mol-
ecule is made up of a long chain of glucose
rings or monomers, typically numbering in the
range from 1000-1400. (5,6,7,8) Degree of
molecular polymerization is the average num-
ber of glucose rings in the molecule. The
chemical structure of a portion of a cellu-
lose molecule is shown in Figure 1.
OH
I
H-C-H
I
O \ r
H-C-H
I
H
i OH
I
OH
Figure 1: Cellulose Molecule Structure.
A single cellulose fiber is made up of
many of these long chains of glucose rings.
Since the mechanical strength of the cellu-
lose materials depends on the length and
condition of the fibers, the degree of pol-
ymerization gives a good measure of retained
functionality as transformer insulation ages
in service.
Three mechanisms contribute to cellulose
degradation in an operating transformer, and
each can be related to an agent principally
responsible.(6,7)
Hydrolysis (Water)
The oxygen bridge between glucose rings is
affected by water, causing a rupture of the
chain and the formation of two -OH groups,
each attached to its monomer. The result is
a reduction of DP and shortening and weaken-
ing of the fiber.
Oxidation (Oxyaen)
Oxygen attacks the carbon atoms in the
cellulose molecule to form aldehydes and
acids, releasing water, carbon monoxide, and
carbon dioxide. The bonds between rings are
weakened, leading to lower DP. Water released
by this mechanism can also contribute to the
hydrolysis effect previously mentioned.
IEEE
 393
Pyrolysis (Heat) (1)
Heat in the extreme will result in char- A and B are empirical constants, and T is
ring of the fibers, but at lesser levels i t temperature in degrees Kelvin. This form of
contributes to the breakdown of individual relationship is frequently referred to as an
monomers in the cellulose chain. A solid Arrhenius reaction rate equation. It indi-
residue is formed and gases are liberated, cates that the perunit change in a property
namely water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon is equal to the rate constant multiplied by
dioxide, and hydrogen. Again DP is reduced. the time interval over which the change takes
place. Dakin demonstrated that his own aging
There is an obvious consequence of this data and other published aging data of that
discussion. Since the agents which accel- time, including Montsinger's data, would f i t
erate cellulose degradation have been iden- this relationship.
tified, their levels should be minimized in
operating transformers to extend useful life. Montsinger resisted Dakin's proposal, but
That is the purpose of modern oil preserva- the general technical community in the U.S.
tion systems which seek to prevent entry of accepted i t , and continuing work within AIEE
oxygen and water. This is accomplished by committees referenced i t and applied it. In
sealing the tank with an inert gas blanket a 1953 paper (13). Sumner et al. showed that
over the oil to accomodate oil expansion or the aging rate curves for different residual
by utilizing a membrane in a conservator oil strength end points had the same slope. Much
expansion tank. Heat is the remaining accel- later, Head et a1.(14) found in their inves-
erating agent which must be left to the tigations of oil-immersed cable paper that
control of operating personnel. the rate slopes (the B constant) were essen-
tially the same not only for the degradation
INSULATION AGING RATE of the various mechanical characteristics
(tensile strength, burst strength, elongation
For at least 75 years i t has been recog- at rupture), but also for change in degree of
nized that thermal aging of cellulose trans- polymerization and gas evolution. Other
former insulation deteriorates its mechanical modern investigators (16.17) have found sim-
properties. In a 1930 paper (9), V. M. Mont- ilarly close agreement between rates of gas
singer published aging data taken in 1916 on evolution and changes in mechanical proper-
yellow varnished cambric, the insulation used ties and DP.
in transformers in that era. The data showed
a gradual reduction of tensile strength over Since there appears to be general agree-
time at temperature, with an accelerating ment that Dakin's (or Arrhenius's) chemical
rate of reduction as temperature increased. reaction rate equation is appropriate for
F. M. Clark published similar data for linen measuring thermal degradation of transformer
paper in 1935 (10) which showed the same insulation, whether by change in mechanical
gradual loss of tensile strength, and also properties, change in DP, or gas evolution,
showed that other mechanical properties i t is reasonable to search for a single rate
(stretch, burst, and tear) deteriorated in a slope which might be applicable for all forms
like fashion, but tensile strength was most
sensitive to aging effects if a 50% retention
o f characteristic was used as an end point
criterion. Thermal aging test results for
modern transformer insulation papers yield
similar patterns of strength reduction with
time at temperature. (See Figure 2.)
Montsinger (9) made an observation about
the aging rate of cellulose versus tempera-
ture which has found wide favor. He proposed
a simple rule-of-thumb that the rate of de-
terioration of mechanical properties doubles
for each 5-10" C increase in temperature. He
recognized that this doubling factor was not
constant at all aging temperatures, but
people tend to remember i t as a constant
factor. In the vicinity of 100-110" C , he
found the aging rate to double for each 6" C
increase in temperature, but at 120" C and
higher a temperature increase of 8" C was
required to double the aging rate. The
simple 6" C doubling rule is still used in
IEC loading guides today.(4)
A more significant advance in defining
aging rates was made by Dakin in 1948.(12)
He observed that the changes taking place in
cellulose insulation as i t thermally ages are
0 10 20 30 40 50 €4 70 80
the result of chemical react ions, and,
Days at 160 "C
therefor, the rate of change of any measured
physical property might be expressed in the
form of a reaction rate constant, KO. Figure 2: Tensile Strength Reduction as a
a Result of Aging at 160°C.
393
of cellulose. Table I represents the results
of such a search in published literature.
Table I
Aaina Rate Constant - B
Source Basis __ B
Dakin (12) 20% Tensile 18,000
Sumner (13) 20% Tensile 18,000
Head (14) Mech/DP/Gas 15,250
Lawson ( 15) 10% Tensile 15,500
Lawson (15) 10% DP 11,350
Shroff ( 6 1 250 DP 14,580
Lampe (18) 200 DP 11,720
Goto (16) Gas 14,300
ASA-C57.92-1948 50% Tensile *14,830
ANSI-C57.92-1981 50% Tensile 16,054
ANSI-C57.91-1981 DT Life Tests 14,594
* 120"-150" C temperature range
Dakin's and Sumner's data seem to be the
same, and apparently were shared data being
considered by an AIEE committee. Daki'n also
includes data from F. M. Clark, which he felt
was in agreement with the AIEE data. Head's
findings are most interesting in that he
concluded that the B constants for mechanical
properties, DP, and gas evolution were the
same within a range of plus or minus 440 from
the given average in the table. Most of the
published data are for non-thermally upgraded
insulation, but Lampe evaluated both non-
thermally upgraded and thermally upgraded
paper. His constant in the table (11,720)
for non-thermally upgraded paper is the
lowest found, but his constant for thermally
upgraded paper in an oxygen-free environment
is even lower (9820). One explanation could
be that his aging data for that part of his
work covers the 1 imi ted temperature range of
135" C to 155" C. The ANSI loading guide B
constants are included at two points in time,
but i t should be called to mind that the 1948
ANSI curve was not an Arrhenius curve, hence
i t did not have a single value for the B
constant.
After all of these data are viewed, it
might be concluded that there is no single
"right" value of B , which may be the fact.
Certainly all data is subject to experimental
error and the materials and test conditions
for the various investigators were not iden-
tical. If the industry wishes to use the
Arrhenius reaction rate concept, i t is
necessary to arrive at a consensus value for
B, and I would suggest the value of 15,000.
In making that selection, I am most influ-
enced by the Head, Shroff. and Goto data,
which are the most modern.
INSULATION LIFE END POINT
If an end point for insulation life is to
be objectively defined, i t must be done in
terms of a measurable physical characteristic
of the material. This could be a mechanical
property, such as tensile strength, burst
strength, elongation to break, or abrasion
resistance; i t could be an electrical pro-
perty, such as dielectric strength: or i t
could be a chemical property, such as degree
of polymerization. The end point could be an
absolute value of the property or it could be
a percentage deterioration. In any event,
for reproducibility, the physical condition
of the insulation system during thermal aging
must also be defined. In the past. all of
these conditions have been met most commonly
by an end-of-life definition calling for 50%
deterioration of tensile strength of the
insulation paper after aging in a sealed
vessel under oil, usually in the presence of
copper or aluminum conductor and core steel,
but always with a low moisture and oxygen
content in the system.
It must be obvious that the physical
characteristic of insulation which relates
most closely to functionality in a trans-
former winding is dielectric strength. That
was not chosen as the measurable character-
istic because it has been found that dielec-
tric strength of conductor insulation paper
deteriorates extremely slowly if the insula-
tion is not mechanically disturbed. Thus a
mechanical property was chosen, and tensile
strength proved to be the most sensitive one.
It seems that an absolute level of retained
tensile strength would have been most appro-
priate, if that level could have been related
to functionality, but 50% retention (or de-
terioration) was chosen instead. This seems
to be a flaw in the present definition, since
50% retention of strength for an initially
weak paper could be a lesser absolute
strength than 25% retention for an initially
strong paper.
An alternative end-of-life defintion has
been suggested by some investigators, namely
an absolute level of retained degree of pol-
ymerization. (See Table I.) This approach
seems to have merit from the point of view of
ease of measurement and reproducibility of
results. It has already been mentioned that
deterioration of DP correlates with deterio-
ration of all of the mechanical properties.
The correlation between tensile strength and
DP can be seen by comparison of Figures 2 and
3. There only remains to relate the end point
level to end of functionality. This has been
approached as a level where "useful mechani-
cal properties" are lost. Different inves-
tigators tend to choose different end point
DP levels. Bozzini (19) suggested 100-150,
Lampe ( 1 8 ) used 200, Fabre and Pichon (5)
proposed 100-200, whi le Shroff ( 6) chose 250.
It is a fact that many in-service transform-
ers have continued to operate with insulation
DP levels below 100. One insulation sample
from a service-aged transformer which I re-
cently examined had a DP of 124, but i t re-
mained intact on the conductor. However, i t
was quite brittle and i t required very little
force to rupture it. My own choice for an
end point DP would be 200. From Figure 3 i t
is evident that this criterion yields a much
longer "life" than the 50% retained tensile
strength of ANSI/IEEE C57.92.
TRANSFORMER FUNCTIONAL LIFE
It should be recognized that transformer
functional life is most frequently terminated
by mechanical or dielectric stresses, while
the insulation life defined in loading guides
is related to the cumulative effect of ther-
mal stress. The concept of a "thermal life"
is a useful one, however, because i t can set
a standard level of physical condition below
 395

will also differ. On the negative side, the

average moisture content of insulation in an
operating transformer can range from 0.5% for
a good oil preservation system to 3%-5% for
free-breathing transformers. But on the
positive side, the moisture in an operating
transformer will partition, with the cooler
insulation having higher than average water
content and the critical hotter insulation
having lower than average water content.
These facts give incentive to utilities to
maintain insulation in a dry condition. In
the U.S., the general practice is to monitor
insulation power factor over time. Increas-
ing power factor indicates increasing mois-
ture. If the moisture level gets excessive,
the insulation system can be redried with
heat and vacuum in the field.
The effect of oxygen on the aging rate

E
has been examined by several investigators,
including Fabre (5) and Lampe (18). The
usual experiment is to compare aging rates
for a sealed system and for a system with
free access to oxygen. Through such experi-
ments Fabre found an aging acceleration fac-
tor of 2.5, while Lampe found a factor of 1 0 .
In any case, i t is clear that the presence of
o io m 30 40 yl 60 70 BO 9 0 1 0 0 oxygen has a very negative effect. Again,
Days at 160 "C these facts give utilities good incentive to
emplby an oil preservation system which
Figure 3 : Degree of Polymerization Reduction maintains a low oxygen content in the opera-
as a Result of Aging at 160OC. ting transformer.
which the transformer insulation integrity Some experience with in-service aging of
can be prejudiced by normally experienced transformer insulation is available in the
levels of mechanical and dielectric stresses. published literature in terms of residual DP
Since the critical physical condition can not after many Years of operation. A summary of
be precisely defined in terms of a specific that information is given in Table 11. It is
DP level at present, i t could prove useful to my understanding that all of the insulation
Zstablish a profile of DP versus age in the materials were non-thermally upgraded and in
general operating transformer population by no case was the degraded insulation a cause
testing insulation samples from transformers of failure.
whose service life is terminated for any
reason. Some data of this type is already Table I1
available in the published literature, as Degree of Polymerization Data
will be discussed later. From Service-Aaed Transformers
When the loading guide insulation life In Service
measurement is applied to estimate the effect MVA Service Years Dp
of certain loading conditions on the func-
tional life of operating transformers, i t 3.3 1922 31 189
must be remembered that the end point life 6.1 1923 36 150
was established with controlled levels of 6 1925 34 218
moisture and oxygen in the insulation system 6 1928 31 179
under test. Those levels may not be main- 6 1928 31 192
*tained in operating transformers throughout 0.9 1929 30 116
their lifetime. For that reason, a relative 1.5 1932 21 139
life consumption calculation would be more 8 1935 24 300
appropriate than an absolute life consumption 38 1935 24 110
calculation, as will be proposed later. At 64 1945 14 877
the same time, i t is important to be aware of 15 1938 23 125
the effect of the two controllable variables, 16 -- 14 190
water and oxygen, on thermal deterioration of 3.8 -- 10 460
cellulose. 3 1942 41 53
2 1958 31 105
Fabre and Pichon ( 5 ) stated a very sim- 2 1949 40 iao
ple rule for the effect of water, namely that 5 1964 25 304
the rate of thermal deterioration of paper is
directly proportional to its water content. Note: Where information on date of samp1 e
Data given by Shroff and Stannet (6) support measurement was not available i t was assumed
that rule. To the extent that the moisture that the sample was taken the year before the
content of the insulation in the hottest spot paper was written.
area of an operating transformer differs
from the controlled moisture condition of the Although the type of oil preservation was
insulation in a sealed aging cell, typically usually not identified for most of the above
0,2%-0.3% water by weight, the aging rate transformers, their age and the fact that
396
they are European and South American would
imply that the oil preservation was open
conservator. It is known thst the last four
units had open conservators and high moisture
contents, in the order of 5%. As a conse-
quence, all of the DP values are low compared
to what might be expected from relatively
oxygen free transformers in the U.S.
I can give two examples of as yet unpub-
lished U . S . data, both of which came from
transformers with inert gas cushion oil
preservation. The first transformer in
service for 6 1 years on the New England
Electric system had a residual DP of 1 2 4 .
Inner wraps of paper close to the conductor
were brittle, but were held in place by a
varnish dip which impregnated the outer wraps
of paper. Insulation from the second trans-
former had a residual DP of 3 1 4 after 55
years of service on the Rochester Gas &
Electric system. At this level of DP the
paper was not extremely brittle and still
appeared usable. In my opinion, the better
DP levels versus age for these two trans-
formers are the result of lower levels of
oxygen and moisture within the insulation
s yst em.
In a separate effort to evaluate func-
tional life of transformer insulation, EPRI
sponsored programs by General Electric and
Westinghouse in the 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 2 time period,
the results of which can be found in refer-
ences 2 1 , 2 2 , and 2 3 . Both programs involved
thermal aging of model disk windings while
periodically subjecting them to short-circuit
and dielectric end point tests. In the
General Electric program ( 2 2 , 2 3 1 models were
cyclically aged at 180" C for 6 2 0 hours
without failure. This represents 6 . 2 times
the reference ANSI life. After this degree
of aging the models were dielectrically
tested to breakdown and it was found that the
mean breakdown strength was only reduced by
1 0 % compared to models with new insulation.
The insulation wraps next to the conductor
were noticeably darkened and embrittled, but
the less affected outer wraps provided mech-
anical support to keep them intact.
Winding models in the Westinghouse pro-
gram ( 2 1 ) were aged at 1 8 0 " C and 2 0 0 " C.
Four 1 8 0 " C models survived end point tests
at 8 6 4 hours ( 8 . 6 4 times the reference ANSI
life), but failed tests after 1 7 2 8 hours.
Two models aged at 2 0 0 " C survived end point
tests after 3 4 2 hours and one survived for
2 6 9 hours. These times represent 15.3 and
1 2 . 0 times the reference ANSI life. Paper at
the top of the winding was very dark in color
and had been mechanically ruptured by short-
circuit stresses in some cases. The conclu-
sion from the two programs was that 5 0 % ten-
sile strength is a very conservative criter-
ion for end of functional life.
PROPOSALS FOR LOADING GUIDE REVISION
The material presented to this point
reveals some opportunities for improving the
realism of insulation life treatment in the
existing loading guides, leading me to make
the following proposals:
1. New "Transformer Insulation Life" Curve
Introduce a "Transformer Insulation Life"
curve which relates per unit life to conduc-
tor hot spot temperature as shown in Figure
4. This curve has the form:
Per U n i t L i f e = 9.80 >: 10-18 e15clCQ/T (2)
The reference life of 1.0 per unit occurs for
operation at llO°C, the hottest-spot basis of
rating temperature for a 65°C average winding
rise insulation system. 1 . 0 per unit life
for a 55°C average winding rise insulation
system would occur for operation at a refer-
ence temperature of 95°C. Aging is acceler-
ated at temperatures higher than the refer-
ence and is decelerated at temperatures lower
than the reference in accordance with equa-
tion ( 2 ) . Since the same cellulose insula-
tion materials are applied in power and dis-
tribution transformers, the same relative
life equation should be used.
This approach is similar to that taken in
the IEC loading guide ( 4 ) . It isolates tem-
perature as the principal variable which
influences thermal life and eliminates the
effects of other variables affecting absolute
life which may vary from one transformer to
another or one application to another. Those
secondary variables, including moisture con-
tent of the cellulose, oxygen content of the
oil, life end-point criterion, etc., would
influence the choice of a projected value of
absolute life.
2. Life ConsumDtion Calculation
The procedure for calculating life con-
sumption during operation under varying load
conditions should be described in a loading
guide modified as described above. Such a
calculation can be made by accumlat ing rela-
tive life consumed over a 2 4 hour period
an aging acceleration factor, "A",
I
10
1.o
0.1
0.01
180 :
Hottest Spot Temperature - "C
Figure 4 : "Transformer Insulation Life" VS
Temperature.
 391
derived from equation (2). This factor can Table I11
be written in terms of a natural logarithm: "Insulation Life" __
__ Definitions
In A = 15,000/383 - 15,00O/T (3) Insul. Oxygen Life
Bas i s
-~ Water* Leve 1 Hours
"A" has a value greater than 1.0 for any time
increment when T is greater than 383°K 50% Tensile 0.5% Low 65,020
(110°C) and has a value less than 1.0 for any 1.0% Low 32,510
time increment when T is less than 383°K. 2.0% Low 16,255
Thus, for normal loading at nameplate rating 0.5% High 26,000
with a 0.5 load factor and a 20°C ambient 1.0% High 13,000
temperature, the hottest-spot temperature is 2.0% High 6,500
always less than 110°C and life consumed per 20% Tensile 0.5% Low 152,000
day may be only 30%-40% of a reference day's 1.0% Low 76,000
life. This corresponds to .011%-.015% loss 2.0% Low 38,000
of life per day by the present ANSI/IEEE 0.5% High 60,800
C57.92 life definition. On the other hand, 1.0% High 30,400
for a short-time emergency, with operation up 2.0% High 15,200
to 180°C conductor hottest-spot temperature 200 D.P. 0.5% Low 158,000
for a fraction of an hour, the aging accel- 1.0% Low 79,000
eration would be very great and life consumed 2.0% Low 39,500
in one day might be 8 reference day's life. 0.5% High 63,200
For rare occurrences, such an accelerated 1.0% High 31,600
life consumption could be found acceptable. 2.0% High 15,800

3. Alternatives For Absolute Insulation Life * Average water content by weight.

. The present ANSI/IEEE C57.92 offers one
choice for absolute insulation life at llO"C,
namely 65,020 hours for 50% retained tensile
strength of the cellulose. This is based on
extremely low oxygen and moisture conditions
typical for sealed tube aging insulation life
evaluations. Other alternative choices under
the same test conditions could be 20% re-
tained tensile strength or 200 DP. In addi-
tion, alternatives should be available for
transformers having higher moisture content
or oxygen content. As an example, for 0.5%
estimated average moisture content of the
cellulose, the typical moisture content of
the hottest-spot cellulose would be about
0.25%, as a result of moisture partitioning
by temperature. This would qualify for the
same life as the sealed tube aging evalua-
tion. However, for 1.0% average moisture
content in the cellulose, life would be one
half of 65,020 hours, since the aging rate is
approximately doubled.
An example of absolute "Insulation Life"
selection choices which could be made avail-
able in a loading guide are given in Tablf,
111. The life values shown illustrate the
effect of the significant variables, but
final values used in a guide should be based
on the consensus of aging data available in
the industry.
The end-point criteria in Table I11 are
suggested for power transformers. It is
probable that lower mechanical strength
characteristics would be acceptable for a
life end point for distribution transformers,
because their mechanical stress levels in
service are lower. Since functional life
test data are available for distribution
transformers, that could form the basis for
their life end-point criterion.
4. Insulation Material Life Oualification
The present insulation life curve in
ANSI/IEEE C57.92 has served in the past as a
criterion for qualifying materials as ther-
mally upgraded and, therefore, suitable for
use in a 65°C rise insulation system. I criterion, it is recommended that the in-
Note: Low oxygen content means sealed from
oxygen entry. High oxygen content
means free breathing.
propose that the present insulation life
curve be retained for that purpose. Test
conditions should be defined in terms of type
of sealed aging cell, contents of the cell,
material preparation, aging regime, etc.
There is ample experience with this procedure
using a life end-point criterion of 50% re-
tained tensile strength and I see no reason
to change any of this past practice.
S U M h R Y AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Transformer functional life is influenced
by thermal, mechanical, and dielectric
stresses. It is most frequently termin-
ated by one of the latter two stresses.
The concept of insulation "thermal life"
is still a useful one in that i t can set
a standard level of physical condition
below which insulation integrity may be
prejudiced by mechanical or dielectric
stresses normally experienced in service.
Three mechanisms contribute to cellulose
degradation in an operating transformer,
namely hydrolysis, oxidation, and pyrol-
ysis. Therefore, i t is recommended that
all of the agents contributing to these
mechanisms be considered in the defini-
tion of insulation aging rates.
Insulation aging data from published l i t -
erature has formed the basis for a recom-
mendation for a new method of treatment
of insulation life in loading guides. A
single aging rate constant would be used
for all distribution and power transform-
ers to calculate life consumption during
any given loading condition relative to
continuous operation at a reference tem-
perature. The definition of absolute
"insulation life" would be influenced by
the moisture and oxygen content of the
insulation system and the life end-point
criterion selected.
Since there is presently no sound basis
for establishing a functional end-of-life
398
dustry collect Degree of Polymerization
data for insulation samples from aged
transformers as opportunity presents, so
that a profile of condltlon versus age
can be established for the U . S . trans-
former population. Such a data base
should make i t possible to sot a realis-
tic life end-point.
REFERENCES
1. ANSI/IEEE C57.91-1981, "IEEE Quide for
Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Overhead
and Pad-Mounted Distribution Transform-
ers Rated 500 kVA and Less with 65.C or
55°C Average Winding Rise."
2. ANSI/IEEE C57.92-1981, "IEEE Guide for
Loading Mineral - Oil - Immersed Power
Transformers Up to and Including 100 MVA
with 55°C or 65°C Average Winding Rise."
3. IEEE Std. 756, 1984, "IEEE Trial - Use
Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Imnersed
Power Transformers Rated in Excess of
100 MVA".
4. IEC Publication 354, "Loading Guide for
Oil-Immersed Power Transformers", Circu-
lated under 6 months rule as 14 (Central
Office) 75/76-1990, to be published in
1991.
5. J. Fabre, A. Pichon, "Deteriorating Pro-
cesses and Products of Paper in Oil. Ap-
plication to Transformers", CIGRE Paper
137, 1960.
6. D. H. Shroff, A. W. stannet, "A Review
of Paper Aging in Power Transformers",
TEE Proceedinas Vol. 132, Pt. C, No. 6,
November 1985, pp 312-319.
7. W. Lampe, E. Spicar, "The Oxygen-Free
Transformer, Reduced Aging by Continuous
Degassing", CIGRE Paper 12-05, 1976.
8. U. P. Beavers, E. L. Rabb, J. C. Leslie,
"Permalex, A New Insulation System",
fEEE Transactions on PAS, April 1960, pp
64-73.
9. V. U. Montsinger, "Loading Transformers
by Temperature", AIEE Transactions, Vol.
49, 1930, pp 776-792.
10. F. H. Clark, "Pyrochemical Behavior of
Cellulose Insulation", Electrical Fnai-
neerinq, October 1935, pp 1088-1094.
11. "Transformer Engineering", L. F. Blume,
et al., John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1951, pp 275-281.
12. T. W. Dakin, "Electrical Insulation De-
terioration Treated as a Chemical Reac-
tion Rate Phenomenon", AIEE Transactions
Vol. 66. 1947, pp 113-122.
13. ;. A. Sumner, 0. U. Stein, A. M. Lockie,
Life Expectancy ff Oil-Immersed Insu-
lation Structures , AIEE Transactions,
Vol. 72, 1953. pp 924-930.
14. J. 0 . Head, P. S. Gale, W. 0. Lawson,
"Effects of High Temperature and Elec-
tric Stress on the Degradation of Oil-
Filled Cable Insulation", Presented at
the 3rd International Conference on Df-
electric Materials, Measurements and Ap-
plications, September 1979, Birmingham,
Eng 1 and.
15. W. 0 . Lawson, U. A. Simnons, P. S . Gale,
"Thermal Aging of Cellulose Paper Insu-
lation". IEEE Transactions on Electrical
Insulation. Vol. EI-12, No. 1, February,
1977.
7
16. K. Goto, H.Tsukioka, E. Mori, "Measure-
ment of Winding Temperature of Power
Transformers and Diagnosis of Ageing De-
terioration by Detection of Cot and CO",
CIGRE Paper 12-102, 1990.
17. H. Yoshida, et al., "Degradation of Iff-
sulating Materials of Transformers ,
IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insula-
w, Vol. EI-22, No. 6, Dec. 1987, pp,
795-800.
18. W. Lampe, E. Spicar, K. Carrander, "Con-
tinuous Purification and Supervision of
Transformer Insulation Systems in Ser-
vice", IEEE paper A 78 111-7, Presented
at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, Jan./
Feb. 1978.
19. C. A. Bozzini, "Transformer Aging Diag-'
nosis by Means of Measurements of the
Degree of Polymerization. Results of New
Experiments", CIGRE Paper 12-08, 1968.
20. A . Bassetto, J. Mak, "Analysis of the
Degree of Polymerization of Paper S a y
ples from Service-Aged Transformers ,
Minutes of the 1990 Doble Client Confer-
-, Doble Engineering Co., Watertown,
MA.
21. "Basic Research on Transformer Life
Characteristics", EPRI Report EL-2622,
September 1982. Published by the Elec-
tric Power Research Institute, Palo
Alto, CA.
22 * "Basic Transformer Life Characteristics"
EPRI Report EL-2443, Vol. 1. June 1982,
Published by the Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
23. W. J. McNutt, G. H. Kaufman, "Evaluation
of a Functional Life Model for Power
Transformers", IEEE Transactions, Vol.
PAS-102, May 1983, pp 1151-1152.
William J . McNutt (M'53-SM'62-F176) was born
in Philadelphia, PA in 1927. He received a
BSEE degree from Tufts College, Medford. MA
in 1950 and an MSEE degree from Illinois
In-stitute of Technology, Chicago, IL in
1952.
For 35 years he was employed in the
Power Transformer Department of the General
Electric Company in various design and
development engineering positions, the last
20 years as Manager of Advance Development
Engineering. Since January 1987 he has been
President of Berkshire Transformer Consul-
tants, Inc.
Mr. McNutt has been active in the IEEE
Transformers Committee for many years 'and is
a past Chairman. He was the U.S.
Representa-tive to CIGRE SC-12 for 1 1 years.
He is a Registered Professional Engineer in
Massa-chusetts, and is a member of Tau Beta
Pi, Eta Kappa Nu, and S i q a Xi.

DISCUSSION
MALCOLM V. THADEN
Potomac Electric Power Company
1900 Pennsylvania Ave. N. w.
Washington, D. C. 20068
Percent loss of life ( M F ) per day has
been a useful parameter in establishing one
of the limits to the calculations for
determining loading beyond nameplate. The
concept, however, of percent M F per day can
be confusing to the typical user, since one
must understand the meaning of a day as used
in this context, and the significance of the
percent value is not as meaningful as an
absolute or per unit value.
For example, to understand the impact of
a MF/day value, such as .0369%, one must
recognize that under the current loading
guides a 65OC transformer continuously
operated at a llO°C hot spot has a calculated
life of 65,013 hours or 2709 days. .0369% of
2709 days is one day of this life. As
proposed by this paper, this day of life
would be one per unit. Utility engineers are
comfortable with per unit systems and
quantifying life in terms of this reference
day should be readily understood. Cumulating
loss of life should also be simplified by
summing the multiples of the per unit day
over time.
per unit system would also provide the
A
user with the flexibility to make changes in
the definition of absolute insulation life,
which may change as industry data is gathered
and analyzed.
Adoption of a per unit system and a new
life curve that more accurately reflects the
observed life of power transformers should be
a significant step toward the goal of being
able to evaluate remaining transformer life.
M a n u s c r i p t r e c e i v e d August 26, 1991.
S. H. Osborn, Jr. and P. J. Griffin (Doble Engineering Co.Watertown,
MA). The information and ideas presented in Mr. McNutt’s extremely
timely paper allow a better understanding and appreciation of that nebu-
lous phrase that we casually use - transformer insulation life. While the
impetus for this paper was directly related to the present Transformer
Loading Guides promulgated by ANSI/IEEE, Mr. McNutt’s tutorial mate-
rial on the origin of the present formulas and rules relating to transformer
insulation aging rates is must reading for everyone concerned with deter-
mining the remaining life of aging transformers. The guidelines established
for estimating insulation life affect manufacturers’ designs, utility loading
practices, and expectations for replacement. Accurate estimation of insu-
lation integrity may affect practical considerations, such as whether an old-
er transformer can be moved while retaining its electrical and mechanical
properties in a reliable condition.
In his paper, the author presents some data on the degree of polymeriza-
tion (DP) of paper samples from service-aged transformers from different
sources. The results of these DP tests emphasize that besides thermal
stress, two other critical factors in reducing transformer insulation life are
moisture and oxygen. When there is an excess of either (or both) the DP
results will be reduced. Correlating DP with thermal stress and reliable
measurements of water and oxygen content, could prove helpful in teach-
399
ing us how to better assess the condition of the cellulose insulation system
when actual sampling of the paper is not possible. Mr. McNutt indicated
that transformer aging is not a uniform process. Changes in equipment and
system conditions, along with variations in thermal, moisture, and oxygen
gradients within a transformer will all cause changes in the rate of insula-
tion aging. Doble is now involved in a study of the DP of in-service trans-
formers that includes collecting as much historical data as can be obtained.
Our instructions to those who might supply us with samples for testing are
to obtain paper from the top, middle, and bottom of both the high- and
low- voltage windings, as well as from one of the leads for each winding
when they are of the paper-wrapped type. There are at least two important
reasons for taking samples from the winding bushing leads. The first is to
see if some correlation exists between the data obtained for the leads and
that obtained for the windings of the same transformer. The second reason
is that it is easier (and less damaging) to obtain both outer wrap and inner
wrap samples of the leads. This allows for comparison of the paper most
exposed to the oil (outer wrap) and therefore higher oxygen and water
content, with that which is subject to greater thermal stress (inner wrap).
The only test of this nature performed to date revealed that the outer wrap
was the most aged with a DP value of 597 versus 696 for the inner wrap.
Such differences may give us clues to the relative importance of the factors
influencing the aging process. DP Measurements were made in accordance
with IEC Publication 450.
An example of differences between transformers can be seen by the DP
distribution given in Figure 1 which shows considerable variation in the
paper aging.
Sample Location Transf. A Transf. B
Low-Voltage Winding Top 206: 318: 232 1015
Middle 975
Bottom 895
Interwinding Insulation 875
High-Voltage Winding Top 910: 924 9 60
Middle 1025
Bottom 1040
Lead (Low Voltage) 635
Lead (High Voltage) 854
FIGURE 1
Average Degree Of Polymerization Of Paper Samples
It should be noted that the types of paper for the high- and low-voltage
winding in Transformer A were different. Upon further investigation into
the history of Transformer A the following was revealed:
1) The transformer was manufactured in 1951 and failed in 1978.
2) The high-voltage winding and interwinding insulation was re-
placed in 1979.
3) The low-voltage winding recently failed.
Although there is no information as to insulation tests performed on the
low voltage winding in the late 1970’s when the HV winding was replaced,
present data and operating history suggests that both windings should have
been replaced in 1979. Further, if only the lead samples were used to as-
sess the condition of the overall insulation in Transformer A or B, the
evaluation would be misleading. Transformer B was a 1982 RTE unit which
also failed in service in the past year. Clearly the more information that can
be obtained about the transformer history, the better the analysis and un-
derstanding of aging of the cellulose insulation.
In just the last few months there has been considerably more interest in
performing the DP tests on in-service and failed transformers. Samples
from over ten transformers have been tested and many more are expected
this year. It is hoped that this experience will aid in our understanding of
transformer insulation life, and provide important empirical information
400
for the deliberations currently under way on revisions to the transformer Table A
loading guides. Camparlaon Between Service and
Calculated Life of Tranoformere
Manuscript received August 2 3 , 1991.
UNlT DP SERVICE WATER CALCULATED LIFE IN
NQ * YEARS CONT. YEARS IF OPERATING
OF AT THE FOLLOWING

ARMAND0 BASSETTO, CPFL, BRAZIL

PAPER
(%)** --- 6aC ---
HOTTEST-SPOT TEMP.:

DISCUSSION OF PAPER 9lSM320-2PWRD 60 65 70 75

1 182 39 2 130.8 77.3 40.4 21.7

McNutt is to be commended for this
Wr.
2 198 24 4 65.4 33.6 17.6 9.4
excellent paper in whlch he puts forward a
new and more realistic approach to the
assessment of transformer insulation life. 3 228 41 4 --
56.9 29.2 15.3 8.2

Since I have been personally involved in 4 245 14 4 51.0 26.2 13.7 7.3
obtaining paper samples from power 5 12.7
transformers and voltage regulators for the 282 14 2 87.6 45.0 23.5
past five years to assess their solid
insulation aging, I had the opportunity to 6 304 23 2 81.1 41.7 21.8 11.7
analyze how the criteria proposed by Mr. 7 35.3 10.1 9.5 5.1
WcNutt correlated with such an information. 33 8 41 4

The transformers on CPFL’s system have 8 444 9 3 30.5 15.7 8.2 4.4
a 55% average winding rise insulation 9.4
system and are free-breathing. For this 9 448 9 5 18.3 4.9 2.6
type of insulation system, equation (2)
becomes : 10 500 22 2 39.2 20.2 10.5 5.7

x lo-.*’
Per Unit Life = 1.985 e*s*e*/l (1)
* DP of paper samples collected from the
PU Life = 1.00 for T = 368 K (95%) w 1 nd i ngs.

Though CPFL’s transformers are *3( Estimated average values

contaminated with excess of water, they are
not severely loaded. During the life of these
units, their hotteet-spot temperatures are, based on Flgure 3 of the paper. According to
on average, in the range 60-75.-C. The average Figure 3 , it take6 77 days for paper to reach
water content of the solid insulation was a DP of 2 0 0 , and 27 days for a DP of 4 5 0 . By
estimated based on the average water content dlvlding 27 by 7 7 , the multiplying factor is
of the oil. Table A shows a comparison approximately 0 . 3 5 . Then, the life in hours
between service and calculated life of was divided by 24 and 365 to be presented in
transformers. To facilitate the understanding years:
of how the transformer lives on Table A were
calculated a complete example will be given. 60% --> 4 5 8 , 4 5 3 x 0 . 3 5 / 2 4 x 365 r 1 8 . 3 Years
Unit no. 9 (Table A) had a DP of 448 and the 65-C --> 2 3 5 , 4 8 3 x 0 . 3 5 1 2 4 x 365 = 9 . 4 Years
estimated water content of its so id 70-C --> 1 2 3 , 3 0 3 x 0 . 3 5 / 2 4 x 365 = 4 . 9 Years
insulation was 5X. In accord with equat on 75-C --> 6 5 , 7 9 1 x 0 . 3 5 1 2 4 x 365 = 2 . 6 Years
( I ) , the PU Life for operation at 60-75.C 6:
All other examples mentioned in Table A
60-C --> 72.54 x PU Life at 95=C were calculated in the same way. The
65-C --> 37.26 x PU Life at 95°C calculated values which are closer to the
70eC --> 19.51 x PU Life at 95°C service years are underlined. When the
75-C --> 10.41 x PU Life at 95°C service years were between two calculated
values, the two limiting results were
The PU Life at 95-C for a unit to re ch underlined. The results obtained were very
200 DP, having 2X of water content in he interesting. They encourage the collection of
solid insulation and a hlqh oxygen level, is more data for a better assessment of the
1 5 , 8 0 0 hours (Table I 1 1 6f the-paper). This criteria proposed in the paper.
value was then multiplied by the above
temperature factors. As the estimated water Since these transformers were installed
content of the solid insulation was 5X, and at substations, it would be useful t o obtain
the rate of the thermal deterioration 1s data from transformers which have operated at
directly proportional to its water content, a more steady basis in terms of load and
the life was multiplied by 0 . 4 (2% divided by temperature. Data from generator transformers
5X) : installed at hydroelectric power plants would
be interesting.
60-C --> 72.54 x 15,800 x 0.4 = 450.453 hours
65pC --> 37.26 x 15,800 x 0 . 4 = 235,483 hours The assessment of thermally upgraded
70-C --> 19.51 x 15,800 x 0 . 4 = 123,303 hours paper would also be of great interest to
75-C --> 10.41 x 15,800 x 0 . 4 = 65,791 hours confirm whether, in practice, water and
oxygen would have the same effect on this
Finally, the life obtained was multiplied type of paper as they do on regular Kraft
by a factor for DP values different from 2 0 0 , paper.

Therefore, like Mr. McNutt, I also
encourage the collection of paper samples for
running DP tests. The exchange of information
among transformer operators worldwide would
be of great assistance.
Discussion
0. Compton, (Virginia Power, Richmond, VA): This is an excellent
tutorial on the subject and the author is to be congratulated for his concise,
readable presentation. I have deep respect for his knowledge and ability.
Is an attempt to develop another loss-of-life curve based on the operat-
ing temperature for transformer insulation desirable? I think not. Previous
attempts were found to be faulty. The problem is our ignorance of the
transformer’s life span. I know of no other item of electrical equipment
where engineers try to operate equipment based on a loss-of-insulation life
criterion.
Many of those making the early attempts had a limited knowledge of
transformer field operation. In the utility area, a transformer’s load (and
hence its temperature) is controlled not by the operator; but, by the
customer’s load connected to the transformer. Usually the operator’s only
choice is turning the transformer on or off. If it is turned on, revenue is
received; if it is turned off, no revenue is received. The choice is pretty
clear cut, especially when the operator realizes that even the most expert
engineers do not know how long a transformer will live under any given
load or temperature condition. It would appear that we should plan to
operate transformers to limit their hottest spot temperatures and forget
purported loss-of-life curves until we determine the real end-of-life crite-
rion for the transformer.
For several years, I have sought worldwide for data on power trans-
formers failing from overloading. No such information has been forthcom-
ing. This is probably due to users following previous transformer loading
guides and thereby operating transformers well below their capability.
This may be considered laudable only if we ignore the fact that the loading
guides make no attempt to get the maximum economic value from the
transformer, The ultimate result is that the user usually imprudently
replaces the transformer too early and/or retires a completely usable unit.
The author’s “Life Consumption Calculation” will probably result in a
“feel good” equation for engineers who may not realize that while it is
based on currently available information, it is not based on the ultimate
life of any transformer. We do not know, nor can we accurately estimate
the life of the transformer. We just don’t have the information to select the
constants for an effective transformer life equation.
It is my considered opinion that the proposed loading guide should
concentrate on tutorial material, good thermal transfer equations, and
practical advice on limiting temperatures. The guide’s purpose is to
provide the transformer operator sufficient guidance to allow him to
properly operate his transformers in a prudent, economic manner.
We should stay away from the loss-of-life equations of any sort until we
can accurately determine the end-of-life for transformers. If the present
insulation life curve has value for qualifying future materials, it should be
retained in thermal evaluation publications; not in the proposed loading
guide.
Manuscript received August 12, 1991.
WILLIAM J. McNUTT: I appreciate the interest
which the discussers have shown in the paper
and I thank them for the added value each has
contributed to my subject.
Mr. Bassetto’s discussion adds some very wel-
come quantitative data regarding life con-
sumption for in-service transformers. His
approach to using the proposed life consump-
tion measurement criteria is very clever and In closing, I would like to again thank the
produces interesting results. I interpret discussers for their contributions and the
his Table A to indicate that application of valuable different perspectives they bring to
the relationships given in the paper .yields this subject.
results which would justify the measured DP
values for operation in the 60-75OC tempera- Manuscript received October 17, 1991.
401
ture range which he believes to have existed.
Given the wide range of variables which can
occur in a transformer lifetime, I would not
expect to find perfect correlation with any
life measurement criteria, but even this gen-
eral correlation is encouraging. Mr. Basset-
to and I are of one mind with regard to the
value of accumulating more life consumption
data from service-aged transformers.
The Osborn and Griffen discussion provides
more data on the degree of degradation in
service-aged transformers which give added
insight into the aging process. The fact
that, in some cases, presumably cooler in-
sulation shows greater aging than hotter
insulation suggests that moisture can be an
equally significant variable as heat. Their
historical information on Transformer A in
parallel with the DP data is a unique contri-
bution, showing that DP is an excellent aging
yardstick. Had i t been applied at the time
the HV windings were replaced, there would
have been a clear indication of need to re-
place the LV windings as well.
It is if more than passing interest to note
that the original LV winding insulation in
Transformer A has reached a DP of 200 after
approximately 39 years of service aging. Re-
lating this to the prediction of Table I11
for well dried insulation (0.5% moisture),
namely 158,000 hours or 1 8 years, shows that
i t has enjoyed 2 . 1 7 per unit life. Then ap-
plying Mr. Bassetto’s modified per unit life
equation for non-thermally upgraded insula-
tion to obtain the aging temperature required
to achieve this life, we find it to be 88°C.
This could be a very realistic average opera-
ting temperature for a generator transformer,
which I understand this to be.
I note with satisfaction the aged insulation
data collection and analysis program indica-
ted in the Osborn/Griffen discussion. I com-
mend them for their initiative and hope that
readers of this publication will note and re-
spond to the insulation sampling directives
given, because the results of such a program
can yield improved understanding of trans-
former insulation aging and life.
It is interesting to compare the viewpoints
expressed in the Thaden and Compton discus-
sions. While one sees value in the per unit
life assessment for load planning purposes,
the other sees no need for any life consump-
tion calculation nor any meaning for the re-
sult. This latter viewpoint may be the con-
sequence of prolonged use of an unrealistic
life definition based on 50% retained tensile
strength. When that “end point” was reached,
the transformer was still fully functional
and continued in operation. I agree with Mr.
Compton that we cannot accurately estimate
the life of a transformer, but I believe we
can assess when the insulation in the trans-
former has lost its useful mechanical proper-
ties and is vulnerable to failure. I further
believe that that time is well past the 50%
retained tensile age.