Direct Current Theory

If we take a light bulb and connect it to a

battery, the bulb will light up. The lamp lights
up because current flows through it.

The current leaves the battery at the negative

terminal, flows through the bulb, and returns to
the positive terminal of the battery. The
electrons flow in one direction. This is known in
electronics as DIRECT CURRENT flow because
the electrons flow only in one direction.

The arrows in the figure show the direction that

the current would flow in this circuit. As long as
we can follow the current from the negative terminal of the battery throughout
the entire circuit, and back to the positive terminal, we have a COMPLETE
CIRCUIT PATH . It is very important to remember that current will ONLY
flow if the circuit path is complete. If we were to remove the light bulb from the
circuit, the circuit path would not be complete, and while voltage would still exist
on the battery, no current would flow through the circuit.

In order to have any complete circuit, you are required to have at least 3 parts:
(1) The SOURCE or SUPPLY of Voltage.
(2) The LOAD which uses the source Voltage.
(3) A complete path of connecting wires.

Schematic Symbols

Sometime over the years, some bright soul determined that it would be difficult
to draw a picture of every component that you decided to put into a circuit.
However, they needed a way to tell their colleagues about discoveries and
accomplishments. So a system was developed that was a sort of "electrical
shorthand". They call it a SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM and the individual
component representations are called SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS .

Throughout the course, I will be introducing you to the various SCHEMATIC

SYMBOLS one by one. This lesson will take you through the first two symbols,
and describe how they are used in a circuit.

The first three SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS you will be introduced to are the lamp,
battery and resistor.

Remember that a
resistor is any device
which causes
electrical friction. In
electronics, the
resistor can be
substituted for any
current load. The
schematic symbol
for a battery can likewise be substituted for any direct current supply voltage.
So, in essence, we could theoretically use our battery and resistor to represent
our light bulb circuit.
You will notice that the picture on the left is the same one we just looked at. The
one on the right actually has two schematic diagrams. The schematic on the left
is an exact representation of the picture on the left. The schematic on the right
we say is an ELECTRICAL EQUIVILANT circuit for the one on the left. Any
circuit, no matter how complex, can be broken down to being a source and a
load. The resistor represents the light bulb, which is the load of the circuit.
Anytime you are having a problem figuring out how a circuit works, it can be
helpful to break it down to an ELECTRICAL EQUIVILANT circuit.

The SCHEMATIC SYMBOL for the light bulb is pretty self explanatory. The
Schematic for the resistor looks like a series of sharp turns. Just remember that
on a road, you have to slow down at sharp turns, and electrical flow (current) has
to slow down at a resistor. The battery needs a little explanation. The lines
represent the electrodes of a battery. Note that the SHORT line is always the
NEGATIVE terminal, and the longer line is always the POSITIVE terminal.

Also along the way, I will try to give you an idea

of what certain types of electronic components
look like, although there are so many shapes
out there, I can not possibly cover them all.

I am fairly certain you already know what a

battery and a light bulb look like, but you may
never have seen a resistor. There are many
types of resistors, but some of the most common
types are shown in the picture to the left.
The top one is a ceramic coated " wirewound ", which, as its name implies,
consists of a winding of wire, cut to a certain length to create a certain amount of
resistance. The second is a carbon composite, and the third is a metal film or
metal oxide, which has very tight resistance tolerances.

Note that on wirewound resistors, the values are printed on the side, whereas the
carbon and metal types have their values painted on as color coded bands
around the resistor.

EXTRA CREDIT

Not a required part of the course, but if you wish to pursue electronics, you
should probably memorize the resistor color code. It will be used throughout
your career.
THE RESISTOR COLOR CODE

Many resistors that are produced are very small. In addition, resistors can get
extremely hot with use. So hot, in fact, that they will often burn off any small
lettering that may be printed on them. For this reason, resistors have been made
with colored bands painted onto them. These bands conform to a universal color
code, which identifies the value and tolerance of the resistor. Each of the colors
below, correspond to a particular number.

For the purpose of memorization, I was taught a MNEMONIC to remember the

colors and their related numbers. However, for reasons of political correctness, I
can not teach you the same mnemonic. The mnemonic procedure, though, is still
valid, so I will present you with a new - more politically correct one. If you
memorize this phrase, you will never forget the resistor color code:

Black Bunnies Run Over Your Greens But People Get Wise - Ripe Golden
Squash Now

If you remember this mnemonic, you will not only know the values of resistors on
sight, but also their tolerances. Here's how it works:

Using the above phrase, it will indicate the following numbers:

BLAC BROW ORANG YELLO GREE BLU PURPL GRE

RED WHITE
K N E W N E E Y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Resistors may have anywhere from 3 to 6 colored bands on them. As a rule, the
first two bands are the "value bands", so the color directly corresponds to the
value. In the example, we are using a 27,000 Ohm ( or 27K Ohm ) resistor. The
first two colors are RED and PURPLE, indicating the numbers 2 and 7. This is
where things get tricky. On the 3 an 4 band resistors, the third band, called the
"MULTIPLIER" - in this case being Orange, indicates that the 27 is followed by
THREE zeros ( 000 ). So in this case, we have 27 followed by 000 or a 27,000
Ohm resistor.

If there are only 3 bands, then we are done. 2 Questions arise though:
1. Why did we memorize the "Ripe Golden Squash Now" portion of the
mnemonic? We already have all 10 numbers!
2. What about the 4th band?

Very good questions. They are both answered at the same time. The "Ripe
Golden Squash Now" portion of the mnemonic refers to the 4th band,
which is known as the "TOLERANCE" band. It has a very important job.
(Note that the LAST band is ALWAYS the Tolerance Band. It usually has
a wider separation than the other bands have from each other ( it is
farther away ).

We as people, are not perfect. Because of this, we make imperfect

products. No resister is perfect. They are, however, all close to the value
listed on them, plus or minus a certain amount. The amount of difference
 between their actual value, and the value listed on them should always fall
within a certain tolerance. That tolerance is listed on the resistor, and is
also designated by a colored band. Ripe Golden Squash Now (RGSN)
corresponds with Red, Gold, Silver, None - the order of resistor tolerances
in ascending order. Red = 2%, Gold=5%, Silver=10%, and No Band
(None) = 20%.

Let's assume that you have a 1000 Ohm resistor. If it has a 10% tolerance,
it can be off by 100 Ohms, and still be good (1000Ω +/- 100Ω). So it will be
allowed to be anywhere from 1100 to 900 Ohms, and still be considered
good. If a 1000 Ohm resistor has a SILVER tolerance band, and is only
920 Ohms, it is considered to be within tolerance, and is a good resistor.
However, if a 1000 Ohm resistor has a GOLD or RED tolerance band, and
is only 920 Ohms, it is OUT of acceptable tolerance, and is considered to be
a bad resistor.

Now in the second example, we also have a 27,000 Ohm resistor, but the
color code scheme is a little different. We still have a RED and a PURPLE
as our first two colors, indicating the number 27, but the third band,
instead of being orange, is BLACK, indicating Zero. The FOURTH band
is the multiplier, and being RED indicates 2 zeros. Here is how this resistor
is read: 27 0 00, or 27,000.

The Relay Races

Knowing that magnetism and electronics are related is a very important lesson.
Just how important will become evident in the next few lessons, as we will be
discussing the interaction of electricity and magnetism in greater detail. Let's
review some of the things we have learned:

We know that when two magnets

are brought close enough to each
other, they will have one of two
reactions. If their poles are the
same polarity, they repel, or push
away from each other. If, on the
other hand, their poles are
opposite, they attract, or pull
 toward each other. This is called the LAW OF POLES and it applies (to an
extent) to electronics as well as with magnetics.

Note that the electrons from the negative side of a battery will attract
toward the positive side, if the two are brought electrically close enough to
be allowed to do so. This typically happens by connecting a wire, lamp, or
some other electrical device between the two electrical poles.
If we think of electronics from this standpoint, the questions soon arises:

Does electricity move from positive to negative, or from negative to positive?

This is a good time to discuss the fact that because we can not truly see the
electrons in motion, but can only study their effects, there are 3 differing schools
of thought on this subject, all of which have some merit.
1).According to the CONVENTIONAL THEORY of electron flow, also
known as the FRANKLIN THEORY, or the POSITIVE CURRENT
FLOW theory, electricity flows FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.
2).According to the EDISON THEORY , or the NEGATIVE CURRENT
FLOW theory, electricity flows FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE
3). According to the ELECTROMAGNETIC CURRENT FLOW theory,
electricity, like magnetic lines of force, are free floating in space, and
PUSH OR PULL WITH EQUAL FORCE IN BOTH DIRECTIONS . This
theory, depending on the amounts of negative and positive energy, and the
electrical proximity of the components between them, gives merit to either
of the two above theories.
Which of the 3 theories you choose to believe is totally up to you, but it would
behoove you to remember the fact that there are 3 differing theories. Some
writers write books based upon positive flow. Most modern authors choose to
assume negative. But there are times when it is convenient to switch sides of the
fence, in order to figure out exactly what is going on inside a circuit. The third
theory is rare to find in books, however it does have its merits as well. The
important point here is to make sure you know which theory your author is
using, and try not to get too utterly confused.

Another fact we know is that we can control the polarity of an

electromagnet, by controlling the polarity of the voltage being
fed into it. The North pole of the electromagnet is ALWAYS
on the positive side of the battery.
 With this thought in mind,
we can control the physical
movement of a permanent
magnet, by controlling the
voltage going through a
given electromagnet. If we
attach a battery to an
electromagnet in such a way
that it has the opposite
polarity of a nearby
permanent magnet, it will pull the permanent magnet closer to it. If we then
swap the wires going to the battery, the electromagnet will change its polarity,
and the permanent magnet will be pushed away from it.

If we physically attach the permanent magnet to a plunger, we can control the

movement of the plunger in and out using electrical current. In this way, we use
electric current to push a button, pull a lever, open
or close a valve, or any number of other tasks.

Because magnets attract ferrite based metals, we

can also use electricity to control the physical
movement of iron. In the examples given to the
right, we are using electric current to move a type
of reed switch. These are handy for allowing us to use a small amount of current
to, for example, turn on a motor which needs a very large amount of current.
In the case of the break contact relay, the reed switch inside the relay is
constantly CLOSED (meaning connected), allowing current to flow
through it. The motor is on all the time. When we connect the battery to
our circuit via the switch, it will cause the magnet to pull at the iron reed,
opening the switch, and turning the motor off.
In the case of the make contact relay, the
reed switch inside the relay is constantly
OPEN (meaning disconnected), so no
current is allowed to flow through it. The
motor is normally turned off. When we
connect the battery to our circuit via the
switch, it will cause the magnet to push at
the iron reed, closing the switch, and turning the motor on.

Now would be a good time to show a

 schematic diagram and picture of a relay. The diagram to the left is an
exact duplicate of the make contact relay circuit represented by the above
picture. The break contact relay schematic symbol would be similar,
except the contacts would be connected. Keep in mind, that not all
schematic symbols are standard. You may see variations of schematic
symbols over the years, but they will all be understandable and descriptive
of the function of the component.

Below is a picture of a relay

A C Theory
Earlier we discussed that there are various ways to
produce electricity. We can produce electricity
chemically with a battery. We just learned that
electricity can be produced mechanically by a
generator. What we did not discuss in detail,
though, was the difference between electricity
produced by a battery, and electricity produced by
a generator.

In the case of a battery, electricity flows in one

direction, from positive to negative. Everything is
straightforward. In the case of a generator,
however, things get a bit more complicated. It is
possible to generate electricity by spinning a coil within a magnetic field. The coil is
in constant motion within the magnetic field, and thus is transformed into electricity
via the magnets. The electricity exits by way of the brushes and slip rings, but it is not
exactly like the electricity which is produced by a battery.

If we look at the current leaving the battery, it is constantly moving in the same
direction. We call this DIRECT CURRENT . But if we attach a generator instead of a
battery in the same circuit, we notice a major change. The meter would swing back
and forth from negative to positive. This seems strange until we examine what is
going on inside the generator.
As the wire coil rotates, it first passes
the north pole of the magnet,
producing an electric current flowing
in a given direction. As the coil
continues in its circular path, it passes
the north pole, moving toward the
south. As it approaches the south
pole, the electric current begins to flow in the OPPOSITE direction from which
it was originally moving. It continues to move in this direction until, once
again, it approaches the north pole. We say, then that the electrical current is
ALTERNATING between positive and negative. We call this type of current
ALTERNATING CURRENT .

If we were to plot this swing from positive to negative on a graph, and compare it to
the time it takes the motor to turn, we would come up with something like the chart to
the left. Notice, that if we begin with the coil positioned directly in the center,
between the permanent magnets, the current output is 0.

However as the coil begins to turn, one side

of the coil moves toward the north pole. This
end of the wire would become positive. At
the same time, the other side of the coil
moves toward the south pole. This side of
the coil becomes negative. At this time,
current begins to flow from the positive to
the negative. Current continues to flow in
this direction and reaches a peak in its cycle. This Maximum amount of current flow
is reached when the coil is pointing exactly north and south. We call this the 90 o
point, and say that the signal has reached its positive peak. After it passes this point,
the voltage begins to drop, but doesn't reach 0 until once again the coil is positioned
directly between the permanent magnets. This is the 180 o point.
Now comes the switch up. As the coil continues to turn, the end that was positive now
moves toward the south pole of the magnet. Because it is passing by the south pole,
this end of the coil swings negative. At the same time, the side of the coil that was
negative, is now swinging positive. Thus, the direction of current flow within the wire
is switched. The current flow continues in this direction until it again reaches a (this
time negative) peak at 270 o . Finally, as the coil approaches its original position, it
swings positive until current flow again reaches 0.

By graphing the current vs. time, we end up with a pattern known as a SINUSOIDAL
WAVE , or SINE WAVE for short. We say that the sine wave has positive and
negative peeks at 90 o and 270 o respectively.

Capacitor - a new component

So far, we have studied the effects of electricity flowing through wires, and have
discussed resistors, coils, and metering devices. Both resistors and coils, as we have
found, have a restricting effect on the flow of current. We also discussed how a coil
has more resistance to AC than it does to DC. You will learn later just how important
these effects are, but first we must discuss a few more electrical components. Another
component which has a restricting effect on current flow, but in a different way. This
component is called the CAPACITOR.

Once again, we will resort to

our water examples to describe
the function of a capacitor, as it
is easier to see fluid in motion,
when it is water, than when it is
electricity. Examine the
example on the left. Here we
have 2 tanks of water, equally
full. The two tanks are
connected in the middle by a pipe or piece of tubing. Let us say now that we
have, in the middle of the tubing, a thin rubber membrane. The membrane
would keep the liquid in the two tanks from ever coming into contact with each
other. We could further illustrate this by adding food coloring to one of the
tanks of water.
 If we now take a plunger, and
apply pressure to the tank on the
left, it will push the water
downward, and try to push it out
the tube and into the other tank.
However, the membrane will
not allow the water to actually
exit the tank, and enter the
second tank. While the two
systems are sealed off from one another, the rubber membrane would flex, and
allow the EFFECT of movement, in that it would push the water level of the
second tank higher, in direct proportion to the movement in the first tank. For
instance, assuming both tanks are of equal diameter, if the first tank went down
2 inches, the second tank would rise 2 inches.

Now, if we should reverse the

action, and push the plunger
down in the second tank, it
would move the membrane in
the opposite direction, also
moving the water within the
tanks in the opposite direction,
but AT NO TIME would the
water flow from one tank into
the other tank. It would have the effect of movement from one tank to the other,
without actually having done so.

This is basically the same operating principle behind another of electronics most
important components - the capacitor. The capacitor appears to have the effect of
passing alternating current, while actually not passing anything. At the same time, it
blocks the flow of direct current. Just as in the water circuit, the water flow in either
given direction is blocked by the membrane, if we should push the water pressure, and
hence the membrane back and forth, it would appear as if the membrane weren't there
at all, except that the food coloring would not pass from one container to the other.

In its most basic form, a capacitor is

made up of 2 plates of conducting
material (for instance copper,
aluminium, iron), divided by a piece of
 insulative material (for instance mica, air, or plastic). When we apply an
electric potential to the two plates, electricity will want to attract and flow from
one plate to the other, but the insulator will act as the membrane, and block the
flow of electricity. For this reason, a capacitor blocks the flow of DC. As power
is applied, a certain number of electrons on one plate will be attracted to the
positive side of the battery. These electrons, leaving the plate will leave it with
a deficiency of electrons, and the plate will be positively charged.
At the same time, electrons from the
negative side of the battery will see the
positive charge on the plate, and want to
move toward it. As these electrons leave
the negative side of the battery, they will
pass through our light bulb, and light it.
We will notice, however that it only
lights for a moment.... just a split
second! Why? Because between the two
plates of the capacitor is an insulator,
and while the electrons on the negative
side may be attracted to the plate on the positive side, the electric current can't
pass through the insulator. So our light flashes for just a second, and then goes
out.

Now if we reverse the polarity of the battery,

we see that the same thing happens again, only
in reverse. As power is applied, the electrons
on the now negativly charged plate of the
capacitor will be attracted to the positive side
of the battery. As these electrons now leave the
plate, it will leave a deficiency of electrons,
and the formerly negative plate will become

positively charged. At the same time,

the electrons from the negative side of the
battery will move toward the positively
charged plate until the positive plate swings
negative.

Note that in the examples, the schematic

symbol for the capacitor is very similar to that
of the battery. There is good reason for this. In a battery, we have 2 (or more)
conductive plates divided by some kind of dialectric material (usually an acid). In a
capacitor, we have 2 (or more) plates divided by some kind of dialectric material - an
insulator. A battery has the ability to generate electricity chemically, and can store
energy for long periods of time. While a capacitor does not "generate" electricity, it
does have some amazing "storage" capabilities, as we will discuss now.

Recall that when we applied power to the capacitor/lamp circuit, electric current
flowed for an instant from one side of the battery and lit the lamp for a moment, but
then the light went out? What took place, was while the electric current was flowing, a
potential was being built up on the surface of the plates of the capacitor. As long as
the potential kept building, current continued to flow, and the light remained lit. At
some point, however, the capacitor reaches its maximum CAPACITY to hold an
electric potential. In other words, it reaches its peak voltage limit, and we say the
capacitor is fully charged. If at this time, we were to remove the battery from the
circuit, the capacitor, in theory, would remain
at full charge indefinately.
If at this time, we shorted the wires
between the capacitor and lamp, such
that it formed a complete circuit, the
lamp would light for just a second.....
WITHOUT THE BATTERY. Where
does the energy come from to light the
lamp if the battery is not connected? The
answer lies in one of the magical
properties of the capacitor....it can
STORE energy! When energy is stored in a capacitor, we say it is charged.
When a capacitor releases its energy, we say it is discharging.

Passive vs. Active Components

As you have figured out by now, there are many different types of electronic
components, and you must be familiar with all of these. They all act differently with
reference to voltage, current, temperature, pressure, and other outside influences. In
order to make learning electronic components easier, they have been divided into two
categories:

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
and
ACTIVE COMPONENTS.
While possibly not the best definition, the key difference between active and passive
components, is that active components have the ability to produce gain, or amplify a
signal, and passive components do not. Some would argue that a component's ability
to switch a signal makes it an active component, but I don't see a toggle switch as
being active. I may modify this definition later, but for now, this one is enough for
you to grasp the concept.

So far, all the components we have discussed are resistors, capacitors, and coils.
These are passive components. Now we are going to begin learning about active
components.

Some examples of Active components include Vacuum Tubes, Transistors, Integrated

Circuits, etc. We will first study Vacuum tubes, as they are a fundamental building
block in the understanding of other active components.

Many "modern" schools today are skipping right over tubes. I plan on
EMPHASIZING them, as I see them as still a very viable and cutting edge
technology. There are new tubes being developed and used every day, because up 'till
now, we simply haven't found a device which is more capable of linear amplification
at high power and high frequency levels. Some examples would be the klystron,
magnetron, Inductive Output Tube (IOT), Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) et al. There
have also been leaps and bounds in nanotube technology, and lasers still use tubes as
well.

I'll be willing to bet that you have at LEAST 1 vacuum tube devices that you use on a
regular basis in your home right now! You probably cook meals in a Microwave
Oven, which uses a magnetron. In some cases, your TV or possibly your computer
monitor may also have a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). And should we, someday, find a
way to replicate food or transport people as in "Star Trek", I believe it will be first
developed using technology similar in nature to vacuum tubes.

Now some might say that these are the exception, not the rule - that the majority of
 electronics jobs will never require tube knowledge. I concur, but submit that if you
want to make the big bucks - you have to be a specialist, and specialists deal in cutting
edge technology - many of which require tube knowledge. Satellites going into orbit
still typically use Traveling Wave Tubes, not transistors for their main power
amplifier stages.

Lesson 44 - Circuits Circuits Everywhere!

In the last section, we saw how a very simple transmitter worked. It was made up of several different types
of electronic components, including capacitors, transistors, resistors, etc. When we assemble several types
of electronic components in a configuration that serves some purpose, we call it a CIRCUIT.

Some common electronic components are:

Wire
Resistors
Capacitors
Coils
Transformers
Tubes
Transistors
Diodes

All circuits are combinations of individual electronic components assembled to perform a function. The
"type" of circuit it is, depends on the function of the circuit. We have already discussed some simple
circuits, called "filters", and have also gone through "power supplies". Now we have introduced you to
"amplifiers".

Here is a list of some of the major types of circuits we will discuss and explain how they operate:
Power Supplies
Filters
Amplifiers
Oscillators
Mixers
Logic Circuits
Almost any device or type of electrical equipment is made up of a COMBINATION of these circuits.
Our transmitter, for instance, is an Audio Amplifier, which drives an RF Mixer, which has a second input
from the RF Oscillator (High Frequency Generator). The Mixer combines the inputs from the Audio Amp
and the Oscillator to create a radio signal that is modulated by the audio signal, which then goes out to the
antenna.

Of course this is an over simplification of what really has to happen, but the point is, that it is ALL done by
basic circuits, and that if you learn and understand the simple circuits, you can look at VERY complex
devices, and understand how they work!

We need to discuss each of the basic types of circuits in greater detail until you fully comprehend the
theory behind how they work. Then you will have a firm grasp on electronics, and can begin combining
them to create useful circuits.

First, let's cover the two electronic components we haven't covered yet:
Transistors and Diodes.

Lesson 47 - Transistors
 Recall that in a semiconductor diode, we have 2 regions of
DOPED semiconductive material. One region is doped positive,
and the other region is doped negative. There is also a junction,
where the two regions are joined.

When a diode is forward biased, it conducts electricity easily,

like a ball rolling down a hill. When it is reverse biased, it is
extremely resistive to current flow, as the ball is rolling uphill,
and is much harder to get over the hump.

Remember also, that we had diode tubes, which operated in a

similar manner. They would conduct electricity in one direction
easily, but would not conduct in the opposite direction.

When we added another element to a tube, we created a triode, which would not only allow electricity to
flow, but could also amplify the signal. Reason tells us that if we add another element to a semiconductor
diode, that a similar effect should take place. In
December of 1947, Scientists at Bell Laboratories
would prove this theory correct.

With the addition of a 3rd semiconductive layer,

joined at a second P-N junction, W. H. Brattain
made the world famous comment, " We've Got
Gain! " implying that this 3 layer device could
amplify!

With proper bias applied, there is a small hill to

overcome at the first P-N junction
(approximately 0.7 Volts for Silicon, 0.3 Volts Germanium), which is the normal characteristic for any
semiconductor diode.
But then the electrons reach the peak of the hill at the second P-N junction, and have a fast run
downward. There is an increase in flow downhill, and the electrons act like a waterfall, pouring into the
collector. It may seem at first, that a transistor is like 2 diodes placed back to back, and in resistance
checks will even resemble this. Actually though, 2 diodes back to back will not operate like a transistor
in circuit.

A diode only has 2 semiconductive regions, and therefore has 2 leads. A transistor, on the other hand, has
3 regions, and must have 3 leads. To the left is a photo of a small signal transistor. Just as you must know
which end is which on a diode, a transistor has markings which identify which lead is which. The three
leads are called the Emitter, Base, and Collector. The Emitter is the lead that current enters into. It can be
compared to the Cathode of a tube. The Collector is the lead that current exits from. It can be compared
to the Plate of a tube. Finally, the Base is the controlling lead, and is comparable to the Control Grid of a
tube. It might help to remember that electrons are emitted at the Emitter, collected at the Collector, and
controlled by the Base.

Transistors come in many different packages, and while they are NOT always
marked so that you will know which lead is which, they are by no means
standard either! One transistor may have the emitter on the left, another may
have it in the middle. Transistors often do, however have identifying marks, and
can be referenced to find out which lead is which. In any case - it is ALWAYS
best to check the specification sheet for any given transistor before using it.
Doing so will save you a load of heartache.

Of the many kinds of transistors there are, probably the most commonly used is the Small Signal, Bipolar
transistor, as pictured above.

Bipolar transistors come in two flavors: PNP and NPN. This is because the semiconductive material can
be laid out in ( basically ) two different ways.

If we look closely at how a bipolar

transistor is made, we can understand
more easily how this can be. The
illustration to the left is a cutaway of a
semiconductor transistor. Try to
visualize this as being circular ( button
shaped ) from the top view, with 3
layers, one upon another.

Transistors are built in layers by very

precise machines. Each layer is added to
the layer below it. We begin with a
single layer ( or substrate ), and add layers on top of it. If we begin with a layer of N type semiconductor
( on the bottom ), the second layer would be P type, followed by another N type. We say that transistors,
and other semiconductive devices, are "grown" in this manner. The second layer ( in this case a P type ),
is very thin, along the order of 800 micrometers ( μM ) or less.

As shown by the blue line, electric current enters via the N type emitter substrate layer, passes through
the ( red ) P type base substrate layer, until it reaches the N type collector substrate layer. The gold
colored lines represent the leads that connect the transistor to outside circuitry.
If we were to reverse the N and P layers, we would have a PNP transistor, with the base being N type,
and the emitter and collector being P type material.

The schematic diagram symbol for a bipolar

transistor is shown to the right. Notice that the
only difference between an NPN and PNP type
transistor, is the direction of the arrow. To
remember which is which, just keep in mind
that the NPN is Not Pointing to the base.
( NP = Not Pointing ) Otherwise, the two
symbols are identical. The EMITTER is
ALWAYS the ARROW, the base is always
the line ( think baseline ), and the collector is
the one left over.

Rules for Bias Connections

This is important! Pay Attention!!

The Emitter - Base connection is always FORWARD biased. This means more Positive voltage goes to P
type & more Negative to N type. Also, for a Silicon transistor, there must be at least a 0.7 Volt DC bias
across the emitter-base junction in order for the transistor to be active. Many times, when without a
schematic, I have been able to repair a circuit simply by looking for 0.7 VDC across the E-B of every
transistor in the circuit. If it doesn't have at least 0.7 V across it, it isn't turned on! Of course, the bias is
0.3 Volts DC for Germanium Transistors, so you must also know a little about the transistor itself. When
in doubt - look up the number on the transistor, and read its specification sheet.

The Collector - Base connection is always REVERSE biased. This means more Positive goes to N type
& more Negative goes to P type. You must be wondering now, how the Collector-Base junction can be
reverse biased while the Emitter - Base junction is forward biased?

The answer lies in the words "More Positive" and "More Negative". You see, electronics is more of a
relative science than an exact science. Is 5 Volts D.C. positive or negative? Well, it's more positive than
2 Volts D.C., but less positive than 9 Volts D.C. Did I lose you yet?

It's simple.

Let's try plotting it out on a number line:

Assuming a Silicon NPN transistor:

We know that the the Emitter-Base junction must be
FORWARD biased (Positive to P type doping &
Negative to N type doping). So the Emitter must be
more Negative and the Base must be more Positive.
We know then, that the Base must be 0.7 Volts
( minimum ) Higher than the emitter.

So if, say, the Emitter is at 3 Volts, ( I just picked

that number at random). We plot 3 Volts on the
number line.

If the Base has to be 0.7 volts Higher than the Emitter, then the base has to be at least 3.7 Volts.
( 3 + .7 = 3.7 ) So we plot that on the number line.
 So far so good! Now comes the tricky part. In
a NPN transistor, the Base is P type doping,
while the collector is N type. But we want it to
be REVERSE biased ( Positive to N &
Negative to P ), so we want the N doped
collector to be MORE POSITIVE than the P
doped Base, which is at 3.7 Volts. So any
voltage above 3.7 would work. Let's say, 5
Volts. ( We plot that on the number line ).
So in order to turn on this NPN transistor, we would need the following voltages:
Emitter = 3.0 Volts
Base = 3.7 Volts
Collector = 5.0 Volts.

This is why, in the picture above, I have a minus sign ( - ) next to the base, a plus sign ( + ) next to the
base, and TWO plus signs ( ++ ) next to the collector. It demonstrates the relative polarity of each
terminal.

We have a pattern then, that while it is an NPN transistor, it is biased N-P-PP, with the COLLECTOR
being the MOST POSITIVE point.

If we go through the same logic for the PNP transistor, we would find that it needs to be biased P-N-NN,
with the COLLECTOR being the MOST NEGATIVE point.

Lesson 47 - Transistors

Recall that in a semiconductor diode, we have 2

regions of DOPED semiconductive material. One
region is doped positive, and the other region is
doped negative. There is also a junction, where the
two regions are joined.

When a diode is forward biased, it conducts

electricity easily, like a ball rolling down a hill.
When it is reverse biased, it is extremely resistive
to current flow, as the ball is rolling uphill, and is
much harder to get over the hump.

Remember also, that we had diode tubes, which

operated in a similar manner. They would conduct electricity in one direction easily,
but would not conduct in the opposite direction.

When we added another element to a tube, we created a triode, which would not
only allow electricity to flow, but could also amplify the signal. Reason tells us that
if we add another element to a semiconductor diode, that a similar effect should
take place. In December of 1947, Scientists at Bell Laboratories would prove this
theory correct.

With the addition of a 3rd semiconductive

layer, joined at a second P-N junction, W.
H. Brattain made the world famous
comment, " We've Got Gain! " implying
that this 3 layer device could amplify!

With proper bias applied, there is a small

hill to overcome at the first P-N junction
(approximately 0.7 Volts for Silicon, 0.3
Volts Germanium), which is the normal
characteristic for any semiconductor
diode.

But then the electrons reach the peak of the hill at the second P-N junction, and
have a fast run downward. There is an increase in flow downhill, and the electrons
act like a waterfall, pouring into the collector. It may seem at first, that a transistor
is like 2 diodes placed back to back, and in resistance checks will even resemble
this. Actually though, 2 diodes back to back will not operate like a transistor in
circuit.

A diode only has 2 semiconductive regions, and therefore has 2 leads. A

transistor, on the other hand, has 3 regions, and must have 3 leads. To the left
is a photo of a small signal transistor. Just as you must know which end is which on
a diode, a transistor has markings which identify which lead is which. The three
leads are called the Emitter, Base, and Collector. The Emitter is the lead that
current enters into. It can be compared to the Cathode of a tube. The Collector is
the lead that current exits from. It can be compared to the Plate of a tube. Finally,
the Base is the controlling lead, and is comparable to the Control Grid of a tube. It
might help to remember that electrons are emitted at the Emitter, collected at the
Collector, and controlled by the Base.
Transistors come in many different packages, and while they
are NOT always marked so that you will know which lead is
which, they are by no means standard either! One transistor
may have the emitter on the left, another may have it in the
middle. Transistors often do, however have identifying marks,
and can be referenced to find out which lead is which. In any
case - it is ALWAYS best to check the specification sheet for any
given transistor before using it. Doing so will save you a load of
heartache.

Of the many kinds of transistors there are, probably the most commonly used is the
Small Signal, Bipolar transistor, as pictured above.

Bipolar transistors come in two flavors: PNP and NPN. This is because the
semiconductive material can be laid out in ( basically ) two different ways.

If we look closely at how a

bipolar transistor is made, we
can understand more easily how
this can be. The illustration to
the left is a cutaway of a
semiconductor transistor. Try to
visualize this as being circular
( button shaped ) from the top
view, with 3 layers, one upon
another.

Transistors are built in layers by

very precise machines. Each layer is added to the layer below it. We begin with a
single layer ( or substrate ), and add layers on top of it. If we begin with a layer of N
type semiconductor ( on the bottom ), the second layer would be P type, followed
by another N type. We say that transistors, and other semiconductive devices, are
"grown" in this manner. The second layer ( in this case a P type ), is very thin,
along the order of 800 micrometers ( μM ) or less.

As shown by the blue line, electric current enters via the N type emitter substrate
layer, passes through the ( red ) P type base substrate layer, until it reaches the N
type collector substrate layer. The gold colored lines represent the leads that
connect the transistor to outside circuitry.

If we were to reverse the N and P layers, we would have a PNP transistor, with the
base being N type, and the emitter and collector being P type material.

The schematic diagram symbol for a

bipolar transistor is shown to the
right. Notice that the only difference
between an NPN and PNP type
transistor, is the direction of the
arrow. To remember which is which,
just keep in mind that the NPN is Not
Pointing to the base.
( NP = Not Pointing ) Otherwise, the
two symbols are identical. The EMITTER is ALWAYS the ARROW, the base is always
the line ( think baseline ), and the collector is the one left over.

Rules for Bias Connections

This is important! Pay Attention!!

The Emitter - Base connection is always FORWARD biased. This means more
Positive voltage goes to P type & more Negative to N type. Also, for a Silicon
transistor, there must be at least a 0.7 Volt DC bias across the emitter-base
junction in order for the transistor to be active. Many times, when without a
schematic, I have been able to repair a circuit simply by looking for 0.7 VDC across
the E-B of every transistor in the circuit. If it doesn't have at least 0.7 V across it, it
isn't turned on! Of course, the bias is 0.3 Volts DC for Germanium Transistors, so
you must also know a little about the transistor itself. When in doubt - look up the
number on the transistor, and read its specification sheet.

The Collector - Base connection is always REVERSE biased. This means more
Positive goes to N type & more Negative goes to P type. You must be wondering
now, how the Collector-Base junction can be reverse biased while the Emitter -
Base junction is forward biased?

The answer lies in the words "More Positive" and "More Negative". You see,
electronics is more of a relative science than an exact science. Is 5 Volts D.C.
positive or negative? Well, it's more positive than 2 Volts D.C., but less positive
than 9 Volts D.C. Did I lose you yet?

It's simple.

Let's try plotting it out on a number line:

Assuming a Silicon NPN transistor:

We know that the the Emitter-Base
junction must be FORWARD biased
(Positive to P type doping & Negative to N
type doping). So the Emitter must be
more Negative and the Base must be
more Positive. We know then, that the
Base must be 0.7 Volts ( minimum )
Higher than the emitter.

So if, say, the Emitter is at 3 Volts, ( I just picked that number at random). We plot
3 Volts on the number line.

If the Base has to be 0.7 volts Higher than the Emitter, then the base has to be at
least 3.7 Volts.
( 3 + .7 = 3.7 ) So we plot that on the number line.

So far so good! Now comes the tricky

part. In a NPN transistor, the Base is
P type doping, while the collector is
N type. But we want it to be
REVERSE biased ( Positive to N &
Negative to P ), so we want the N
doped collector to be MORE POSITIVE
than the P doped Base, which is at
3.7 Volts. So any voltage above 3.7
would work. Let's say, 5 Volts. ( We plot that on the number line ).

So in order to turn on this NPN transistor, we would need the following voltages:
Emitter = 3.0 Volts
Base = 3.7 Volts
Collector = 5.0 Volts.

This is why, in the picture above, I have a minus sign ( - ) next to the base, a plus
sign ( + ) next to the base, and TWO plus signs ( ++ ) next to the collector. It
demonstrates the relative polarity of each terminal.

We have a pattern then, that while it is an NPN transistor, it is biased N-P-PP, with
the COLLECTOR being the MOST POSITIVE point.

If we go through the same logic for the PNP transistor, we would find that it needs
to be biased P-N-NN, with the COLLECTOR being the MOST NEGATIVE point.

Direct Current (DC)

Direct Current" is produced when Electrons flow constantly in one direction. It is abbreviated as
"DC." Since Direct Current flows in one direction only, its electrical pressure or voltage is
always oriented in one direction (or "polarity").
Static Electricity
"Static Electricity" is the electrical charge associated with Lightning; the "shock" you
experience when you touch the Doorknob; or when your clothes stick together when they have
just come out of the Dryer.

Static is caused by the buildup of electric charges when two objects trade some
of their Electrons from one to the other. The object with the greatest number of Static Shock
Electrons has a greater negative charge. Since this occurs without the flow of
current, it is called "static."

When the negative charge becomes high enough, any contact with a less negatively-or
positively-charged body will cause an extremely rapid, high-current electrical "discharge." This
is what happens when you cross the room in your socks and touch the Doorknob. Your body is
negatively-charged, and the Doorknob is positively-charged. The negative charge discharges
rapidly to the positive charge, bringing the two items back in to electrical balance.

Because static discharge can be damaging to sensitive electronics and disastrous around volatile
substances (i.e. industrial solvents and fuels) preventive devices are commonly used.
"Grounding Straps" on vehicles, aircraft, and Computer Operators' wrists -plus anti-static
flooring and carpeting- are all means of providing a continual path for current flow and
preventing the buildup of Static Electricity.
Direct Current Flow

Interestingly, the first commercial electrical systems set up by Thomas Edison and others were
direct current systems. But, for economic reasons, these were later changed to Alternating
Current or "AC" systems, and are described in the Alternating Current Section of this course.
Today, Batteries, Solar Panels, Fuel Cells and special "DC" Generators (i.e. Wind Turbines)
produce Direct Current.

Heat
A small amount of electricity can be generated from Heat by connecting two dissimilar metals
and heating the spot where they are joined. Metals such as Copper and Constantan (a
Copper/Nickel Alloy) or Iron and Nickel are typical pairs.
Each metal reacts to the Heat differently, causing a different movement of Electrons between
the two. This device is called a "Thermocouple" and the spot where the two metals are connected
is called the "Junction."

Iron-Nickel Thermocouple

In an Iron-nickel Thermocouple, applying Heat to the Junction force the Electrons to move from
the Iron to the Nickel, resulting in a small but measurable voltage. These voltages are typically
in the thousandths of a volt or "millivolts."

This thermoelectric process is frequently used in Furnaces to sense the presence of Heat, hold
the Gas Valve open as long as the Heat is present, and to allow it to close if the "flame" goes out.
It is a simple way to measure "temperature" but not a very efficient way to generate any
significant quantities of electricity.

Photovoltaic Cells
Photovoltaic or "solar cells" are made of Silicon and can turn sunlight directly into
DC electricity. Each Cell produces a small amount of current. By connecting many
Cells together and placing them on larger Panels, the electric current produced can
be significant. This can be used directly in a DC Appliance, stored in Batteries, or
converted to Alternating Current to operate AC Appliances using an "inverter."

While extremely simple, Photovoltaic Cells are expensive compared to other

generating sources. While the Cells themselves are fairly reliable, the Sun's rays
are not a very predictable resource in most areas. As a result, other equipment such
as battery storage systems and an "inverter" to convert the DC current to AC are
often needed. "Solar" or "PV Power" has consequently been used primarily for
specialized situations (i.e. Satellites, Portable Electronic Equipment, and Power) in
remote locations.

Piezoelectric Principle
Crystalline materials produce small amounts of electricity when a
force is applied that changes their shape in some way. These are
called "piezoelectric" materials. Quartz is an example of a
piezoelectric substance. When small amounts of pressure are applied
to a Quartz Crystal, a small voltage is produced from the changing
charge created by the moving Electrons. Phonographs using a Crystal
Cartridge utilize the Piezoelectric Principle to convert the movement
of the Needle to an electrical signal which is later amplified and
played through Speakers. Microphones and Barbecue Lighters also
use this Principle.

Quartz Crystal

Primary Cell Batteries

Combinations of certain metals (i.e. Copper and Zinc) will produce electrical activity when
placed in special solutions called "electrolytes." The two metals form the "electrodes." The
electrolyte creates a chemical action that causes the Zinc to form positive "ions" and the Copper
to form negative "ions." These ions are freely flowing in the electrolyte. No current flow can
occur until the "Electrode Terminals" are connected to a Circuit (i.e. a Light Bulb). The
Electrons then flow from the Zinc Electrode through the external Circuit to the Copper
Electrode. The chemical reaction between the Zinc and the electrolyte continues, and the Zinc is
eventually used up in the process.

Common Dry Cell Batteries work on a similar principle with a "paste-like" electrolyte and a
Carbon Electrode rather than Copper.

Storage Cell Batteries

"Storage Batteries" produce electricity from chemical action somewhat similar to the Primary
Cells. However, applying an external source of electricity in a charging process can also reverse
the process. This is normally done with a Battery Charger or with a Car or Truck's Alternator.
During "recharging," some-but not all-of the Electrons are moved back on to their original
Electrode. Each time the Battery is "recharged," fewer Electrons are moved back to their original
Electrode -and eventually- the Battery can no longer be "recharged."
There are several common types of Storage Batteries including:

• lead-acid batteries (used in Cars, Trucks, and Boats),

• alkaline batteries,
• nickel-cadmium batteries,
• lithium and
• others.

The Nickel-Cadmium Battery is commonly used in Tools where the "rechargeable" feature is
desired. There is also significant ongoing storage cell research to support Electric Vehicle
development, since battery performance is critical to these Vehicles.

Fuel Cells
A "Fuel Cell" consists of a container in which fuels react in the presence of an Electrolyte. In
this reaction, Electrons are made available at the Negative Electrode Terminal. Energy is
provided by the continuous supply of fuels. Two fuels must be used to provide the necessary
reaction. Oxygen and Hydrogen are two of the fuels that can be used. Fuel Cells are used as a
source of electricity in Space Vehicles.

DC Generator
A single "loop" of Wire in a Magnetic Field can be used as a DC Generator. When the "loop" is
stationery, it is not cutting any "magnetic lines of force," and the current and voltage are "zero."
As the "loop" of Wire is rotated through the Magnetic Field, it starts to break the "magnetic lines
of force"; and current and voltage are induced in the Wire Loop.
The "magnetic lines of force" induce current into the Wire Loop in the same direction of flow as
the "loop" moves in a circle, so the electricity produced is DC since current flow is always the
same direction

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current, or "AC" (as it is often called) is the kind of power with which we are all
familiar. We rely on this kind of power in our homes, businesses, and industries. That is because
AC power is much more economical to produce and use than DC power.

George Westinghouse set up the first commercial AC power in 1886. At that time, Edison was
still providing DC current to homes, but the range of power transmission was about one mile
from his Plant in New Jersey. Because AC power was found to be much cheaper to distribute, it
became the obvious preference.

The primary characteristic of AC power (that makes it so economical) is the ability to change the
voltage levels by using Transformers. The voltage can be "stepped up" (or "down") as the need
arises. This allows the power to be distributed as widely as needed.

Unlike DC voltage and current (which remain steady), AC voltage and current changes -or
cycles- 60 times per second in North America. AC power in Europe cycles 50 times per second.
This "cycling" has many advantages that we shall see in the next sections.

Sine Wave Characteristics

A "sinusoidal" or "sine wave form" represents AC power graphically -called sine wave for short.
As you look at this sine wave, remember that this apparently stable picture changes 60 times
every second. In doing so, we think in terms of averages of current, voltage and any changes in
Frequency. There are five characteristics of AC power: Amplitude, Cycles, Frequency, Peak-to-
Peak, and RMS.

A Sine Wave Form

Amplitude
The first characteristic of AC power is its "amplitude." Amplitude is the maximum
value of current or voltage. It is represented by either of the two "peaks" of the
sine wave. This voltage level is also referred to as the "Peak Voltage," and it can
be either positive or negative. Positive and negative refer only to the direction of
current flow. A negative number does not mean that the voltage or current flow
are less than "zero," only that the current flows in the opposite direction.

Cycles
A "cycle" is one complete repetition of the sine wave pattern. It is produced by one complete
revolution (360 degrees) of the AC Generator.

Since the sine wave begins at "zero," goes positive through the Positive Peak, then negative
through "zero," reaches the Negative Peak and to "zero," we say a full cycle has been completed.

Frequency
The number of times the Sine Wave Pattern Cycle occurs in a second is called the "frequency."
Frequency was originally measured in "cycles per second" (CPS). Today, the unit of
measurement for Frequency is called "Hertz," in honor of the German Scientist Heinrich Rudolf
Hertz (1857-1894

Peak-to-Peak Voltage
There are two values of voltage with which we must be familiar. The first is "peak-
to-peak" voltage. This is the voltage measured between the maximum Positive
and Negative Amplitudes on the sine wave. (It is twice the Amplitude.) This value is
the maximum voltage available, but it is not all useable in practical applications

Root Mean Square (RMS)

The second value of voltage is the actual useful voltage that is available and is called RMS. This
stands for "Root Mean Square," and it is the standard way of measuring and reporting effective
Alternating Current and voltage. It is not the "peak"; it is the "average".
 Useful Voltage

The RMS is found by multiplying the Peak Amplitude by the Square Root of 2 (approximately
0.707). This yields the actual, useable voltage. It is typically represented by a dotted line drawn
across each "peak" near the 70 percent point.

Root Mean Square (RMS)

The second value of voltage is the actual useful voltage that is available and is called RMS. This
stands for "Root Mean Square," and it is the standard way of measuring and reporting effective
Alternating Current and voltage. It is not the "peak"; it is the "average".

Useful Voltage

The RMS is found by multiplying the Peak Amplitude by the Square Root of 2 (approximately
0.707). This yields the actual, useable voltage. It is typically represented by a dotted line drawn
across each "peak" near the 70 percent point.

Root Mean Square (RMS)

The second value of voltage is the actual useful voltage that is available and is called RMS. This
stands for "Root Mean Square," and it is the standard way of measuring and reporting effective
Alternating Current and voltage. It is not the "peak"; it is the "average".
 Useful Voltage

The RMS is found by multiplying the Peak Amplitude by the Square Root of 2 (approximately
0.707). This yields the actual, useable voltage. It is typically represented by a dotted line drawn
across each "peak" near the 70 percent point.

AC Generator
One of the easiest ways to think about AC or electric power generation is to think
about it as the opposite of electric power use (like a Motor running backwards).
Motors convert electricity into power and motion. Generators convert motion and
power into electricity.

A typical Generator has a large Electromagnet spinning inside a "stationary coil" of Wire. As the
Magnetic Field produced by the ends of the Magnet moves across the turns of Wire in the
"stationary coil", an electric current is set up in the Wire. Increasing the number of turns of Wire
in a "ring" ("doughnut") configuration increases the additive current in the Wire.

There are two types of Alternating Current commonly in use today:

• Single-Phase
• Three-Phase
• Single-Phase AC
Single-phase Alternating Current" is most often used in homes, small businesses
and on farms. In large commercial buildings and industrial locations where larger
Motors are used, single-phase power is not usually adequate.

The production of Single-phase Alternating Current is best described by thinking of the

Generator as a simple Bar Magnet rotating inside a single coil-shaped loop of Wire. When the
Magnet rotates, the "magnetic lines of force" cut through the coiled Wires. The strength of the
field created depends on the number of these "lines" that are cut each second. At a constant
speed, more "coils" of Wire will be cut per second as the loop approaches the one-fourth
revolution point and the generated-voltage reaches a maximum at this point. As the north pole
moves from the one-fourth revolution point to the one-half revolution point, fewer Wire Coils
are being cut per second. The voltage decreases and goes to "zero" at the one-half revolution
point where the Magnetic Field is parallel to the "coils" of Wire.
As the Magnet continues to rotate, the south pole's Magnetic Field cuts the coiled Wires in the
opposite direction, producing an opposing voltage which again builds up to a maximum at the
three-fourths revolution point. As the north pole moves from the three-fourths turn to one full
revolution, the voltage then decreases to "zero."

One complete revolution of the Magnetic Field is called a "cycle." If there was only one "coil" of
Wire in the outer portion of the Generator, this would be a "single-phase" device. By adding two
additional "coils" of Wire to the Generator, we could then generate current in three individual
"coils" (phases) or three-phase power.

Three-Phase Power
"Three-phase Power" is designed especially for large electrical loads where the total electrical
load is divided among the three separate "phases." As a result, the Wire and Transformers will be
less expensive than if these large loads were carried on a single-phase system.

Three-phase Generators usually have three separate "windings," each producing their own
separate single-phase voltage. Since these "windings" are staggered around the Generator
circumference, each of the single-phase voltages is "out of phase" with one another.

That is, each of the three reaches the maximum and

minimum points in the AC cycle at different times.

Electricity is generated at Power Companies in these three

phases. But, if three-phase power is better than single-
Three-Phase Power phase, why not four-, five- or six-phase? Theoretically,
Sine Wave Pattern these would be even better, but equipment manufacturers
would have to build Motors to use it; and that just would
not be cost-effective (given the installed base of Three-phase Equipment that must continue to be
powered).

The word "phase" is often abbreviated using the Greek letter "phi" and is written as a "zero" with
a slash mark through it (φ ).